Sample Thematic Presentation of Review of Related Literature

Literature Surveys

This part of the paper includes all encompassing discussion of related

literature and studies which could help, support, and justify the present study by

a review of pertinent literature, into the impact of laboratory facilities in the

development of competencies of criminology students and its bearing on

instructional process improvement efforts in teaching and learning criminalistics

subjects. The review of literature then focuses on the forensic laboratories, The

Role of Criminology Laboratories in Learning Forensics, Critical Issues in

Forensic Sciences and Practices for effective operations in Criminology

Laboratory. The proponent reviewed research evidence, analyzed available data,

and discussed findings relative to the study.

Forensic Laboratories: A closer look to its resources and instructional

processes

Laboratory learning constitutes an indispensable part of science

education. Laboratories can motivate students, provoke active learning, and

convey practice of science. In the study of Chia-Yu, et al (2014), school science

laboratories (SSLs) defined as “learning experiences in which students interact

with materials or with secondary sources of data to observe and understand the

natural world”. For decades, SSLs have played a unique role in science curricula,

providing opportunities for students to engage in investigation processes.

Through experiencing scientific investigations, students might develop the

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abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry as well as an understanding of scientific

inquiry.

The study of Horne & Rauhut, (2013) further drawn importance of science

laboratory and laboratory research. The 19th and 20th centuries produced

breakthroughs in physics, chemistry, and the biological sciences. Laboratory

research played an important role in the rapid advances made in these fields.

Laboratory research can also contribute progress in the social sciences and, in

particular, to law and criminology.

A Forensic Science laboratory is usually established in schools of

Criminology to create the best and suitable environment of propagating the

teaching-learning continuum of knowledge, skills and the values in the exercise

of forensic science among learners and teachers.

In the study of Hofstein & Lunetta (2004), the laboratory has been given a

central and distinctive role in science education, and science educators have

suggested that rich benefits in learning accrue from using laboratory activities are

living in an era of dramatic new technology resources and new standards in

science education in which learning by inquiry has been given renewed central

status. Methodologies for research and assessment that have developed in the

last 20 years can help researchers seeking to understand how science laboratory

resources are used, how students’ work in the laboratory is assessed, and how

science laboratory activities can be used by teachers to enhance intended

learning outcomes. In that context, we take another look at the school laboratory

in the light of contemporary practices and scholarship. This analysis examines

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scholarship that has emerged in the past 20 years in the context of earlier

scholarship, contemporary goals for science learning, current models of how

students construct knowledge, and information about how teachers and students

engage in science laboratory activities.

Criminologists are typically interested in testing causal theories. Causal

theories include two components—statements about causal relations and

statements about causal mechanisms. Laboratory experiments have unique

strengths, not just in assessing causality (as field experiments do) but also in

disentangling the mechanisms responsible for causal relations. Thus, they are

valuable for testing causal theories.

The study emphasized that laboratory experiments cannot tell us how

substantively important particular causal factors and mechanisms are for

predicting patterns in the field. They cannot tell us how much of the variance a

particular causal factor explains in a substantive setting outside the laboratory.

But they can help us to understand the mechanisms that link a causal factor to

an observed outcome.

As cited by Dike (2015), the study in a laboratory is an integral and

essential part of a biology course. Biology laboratory like any other forensic

laboratory activities are hands-on experiences which emphasis process skills

posited as motor skills that help the scientists to find answers to problems and

enhance the learning of science. Laboratory activities also encourage students to

construct knowledge by interaction with laboratory materials as they solve

problems. The study further opined that it is very necessary that students

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manipulate materials and equipped in learning of biology through equipment; this

will help them not only to acquire science process skills and new knowledge but

also scientific attitude such as honesty, open-mindedness and cooperation as

moralities of science and enhance understanding and retention of difficult

concepts and procedures. Laboratory facilities give students some basic insight

into scientific concepts and leave them with feeling of the reality of science which

in turn improves their academic performance in examinations.

As cited in the study of Houck (2007), managers of scientific laboratories

see themselves as scientists first and managers second; consequently, they tend

to devalue the managerial aspects of their jobs. Forensic laboratory managers

are no different but the stakes may be much higher given the importance of

quality science to the criminal justice system. The need for training and support in

forensic laboratory management has been recognized for many years but little

has been done to transition the tools of business to the forensic laboratory

environment. Foresight is a business-guided self-evaluation of forensic science

laboratories across North America. The participating laboratories represent local,

regional, state, and federal agencies. Faculty from the WVU College of Business

and Economics are providing assistance and guidance. The process involves

standardizing definitions for metrics to evaluate work processes, linking financial

information to work tasks and functions. Laboratory managers can then assess

resource allocations, efficiencies, and value of services-the mission is to

measure, preserve what works, and change what does not. A project of this

magnitude for forensic laboratories has not been carried out anywhere.

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In the study conducted by Lin & Tsai (2009), through series of ANOVA

analyses revealed that students who preferred a classroom setting tended to

conceptualize learning as "testing" and "calculating and practicing," whereas

students who preferred a laboratory setting expressed conceptions of learning as

"increasing one's knowledge," "applying," "understanding," and "seeing in a new

way." A further analysis of student essays suggested that learning environments

which are student-centered, peer-interactive, and teacher-facilitated help

students develop more fruitful conceptions of learning.

The data revealed by Wellard, et al. (2009) slightly different ways of

organizing teaching and experimenting with use of pedagogical methods to

facilitate learning of technical skills as well as encouraging students to activate

relevant theoretical knowledge. While there was a lively and striking enthusiasm

among staff about the way learning was managed within the laboratories, the

pedagogical underpinnings for their particular approaches were less certain

amongst participants. The paper concludes with the necessity to provide

evidence for the outcome of laboratories learning and investigate suitable

pedagogical methods for effective teaching and learning of practice skills. Hence,

a need for research on transfer of knowledge and skills between the different

sites (academy, clinical settings, and laboratories) is identified.

The paper of Furnham (2016), looks at the extent to which Hans

Eysenck's research influenced work psychology presently and in his lifetime.

Whilst he was interested in, and eager to apply his theory very widely from

criminology to politics, he seemed less interested in the world of work. Yet his

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influence can be seen in correlational work psychology, which looks at

personality and intelligence correlates of work beliefs and behaviours as well as

experimental work psychology, which uses classic experimental psychology to

test hypotheses. He “gave away” intellectually his measures and ideas to

entrepreneurs preferring to test his ideas in the laboratory, classroom or clinic.

The relationship between self-directed learning readiness and academic

performance has been evaluated in the study of Deyo (2011), in traditional

classroom settings and Web-based courses in medical and non-medical

education. However, to our knowledge, the relationship between self-directed

learning and academic performance has not been assessed in pharmacy

education. The objectives of this study were to assess the relationship between

readiness for self-directed learning and academic performance on course

assessments, and resources used to prepare and study for the laboratory

course. Several factors may have affected the association between readiness for

self-directed learning and academic performance in our study. Students

performed well in the course overall, which suggests that students are capable of

learning foundational knowledge regardless of their readiness for self-directed

learning. In addition, the point distribution concentrated heavily on non-self-

directed learning activities, professionalism, and participation. Readiness for

self-directed learning is associated with self-directed learning habits, but may not

be necessary for learning foundational knowledge, provided students are given

specific instructions on what to study. Whether high readiness for self-directed

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learning is necessary for more complex learning or for self-identification of

learning needs is unknown.

Dabney, et al (2006) introduced Volkan Topalli as a faculty member in the

Department of Criminal Justice at Georgia State University (GSU). He is also a

faculty associate with the GSU Partnership for Urban Health Research. His

current research interests include street crime, drug market violence, inter-

offender retaliatory behavior, and criminal decision making. He specializes in

conducting qualitative and experimental laboratory education with active, non-

institutionalized offender populations, and has written papers on carjacking, drug

robbery, offender victimization, and street retaliation.

While there is considerable literature concerning the general effectiveness

of freshman learning communities, the study cited that in an introductory criminal

justice course, students who participated in the Freshman learning communities

received significantly higher mid-term, final exam and final course grades than all

other students enrolled in the course. It is generally agreed that an effective

learning environment promotes the integration of students' various courses and

learning experiences. To this end, the study contends that "the challenge of

helping students 'make connections' between different disciplines by using peer

influences was the primary catalyst for the Criminal Justice [FLC] program."

There are some personalities and institutions that contributed to the

development of criminology laboratory. The authors of the article Jurka, et al

(2017), developed the scientific concept of implementation of European

criminology vision 2020 in Lithuania, analyzed and evaluated institutional

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efficiency and quality of performance of the criminological investigation system as

the main subject of creation of European criminological area, accreditation of the

institutions, the condition of criminological didactics, and adherence to the

minimum competence requirements for criminology personnel, carried out the

managerial, organizational and legal analysis of applying the minimum quality

standards in the crime scene as well as working with evidence from the crime

scene to the courtroom, identified possible areas of criminology harmonization,

and defined the directions and methods of the harmonization. The research

allowed submission of the proposals in regard of the European common

criminological area creation plan. The authors present the main survey findings

and provide insights on the national action plan measures to realize the idea of

creation of the common criminological area.

In the article of DeLine & Crosley (2010), "A Plan for the Reorganization of

Criminal Statistics in the United States," for instance, Louis N. Robinson criticized

the state-based method of collecting crime statistics as inefficient and incomplete

and recommended a supplementary federal system. Those early pages of the

Journal, like the National Conference itself, focused wholeheartedly on criminal

justice reform. Edward Lindsey likewise condemned a bill before Congress that

would have created a criminology laboratory within the Department of Justice.6

And a third article, "Technicalities in Procedure, Civil and Criminal," focused on

the need to simplify the federal and state court systems.

Accordingly, laboratory at Northwestern University in 1929 has been called

the first crime detection lab of national significance, Devroye (2010). By the time

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it was established, the quest for "anthropological" causes of crime had been

dropped from the list of reasons for a criminological laboratory. The lab was

established primarily to examine ballistics evidence but also performed lie

detector tests and handwriting identification. Updates on its activities were

published in the Journal of Police Science - another Institute publication. The

Laboratory was a highly publicized project and even presented an exhibit at the

Century of Progress Exposition demonstrating the operation of a polygraph. Its

inventor, Leonard Keeler, was a member of the Laboratory staff.

Another innovation was presented by Soodalter (2015, 08) in the name of

Pinkerton. After the war Pinkerton returned to Chicago to run Pinkerton's National

Detective Agency. Over the next several years he and his two sons, Robert and

William, developed the business from a case-by-case outfit to a criminology

laboratory. Pinkerton established the nation's first database of criminal activity,

sending photographic mug shots of offenders to police and detective agencies

even as his field agents continually added images and descriptions to the files. In

a very few years Pinkerton had the world's largest collection of criminal data.

Folders on lawbreakers would remain in the files until the offenders died-and

sometimes beyond. In some cases the detectives reportedly had bodies

exhumed and photographed for positive identification.

Additionally, Rosa (1999) introduced Francisco de Veyga. A forensic

doctor, became interested in criminology at the university when he created, in

1897, the First Complete Course of Criminal Anthropology and Criminal

Sociology in the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Buenos Aires

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(established only nine years later than in Italy). That year, in a prison called "The

Deposit of Male Offenders 24th of November," he also began the Police Service

of Observation and Recognition, where he taught his criminology classes, using

criminals who agreed to be examined in front of doctors and students. While he

was director of the Police Service, he nominated his pupil Jose Ingenieros as

clinical chief of the Police Service.

In 1946, hoping to solve the conflict between penal lawyers and forensic

doctors and to continue the inter-American conferences, the Cubans called the

next meeting in Havana. At the First Pan-American Congress of Forensic

Medicine, Forensic Odontology, and Criminology, the topics discussed included

police activities, such as the FBI laboratory in the criminology section.

In the study of Short Jr. (2006), Abbott begins Chaos of Disciplines with a

question: “How does social science change?” His answer, in greatly over-

simplified form, is that different, and typically oppositional ways of looking at

social phenomena produce different types and styles of knowledge, and such

oppositions influence one another in ways that foster adaptations by opposing

perspectives that, in turn, reveal similarities in what is discovered. Similarly, we

can observe oppositions and adaptations, triumphs and retreats between rational

v. situated choice, and in discussions of various quantitative and qualitative

approaches (positivist v. interpretative; variable analyses of behavior v. analyses

of behavior as situated and emergent; and field v. laboratory experimentation –

the latter another underutilized approach in criminology).

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The article of Johnston PhD., et al (2008) examines student perceptions of

learning related to anatomy and physiology in a bachelor of nursing program.

One strategy to teach the sciences is simulated learning, a technology that offers

exciting potential. Virtual environments for laboratory learning may offer

numerous benefits: teachers can convey information to a larger group of

students, reducing the need for small laboratory classes; less equipment is

required, thus containing ongoing costs; and students can learn in their own time

and place.

However, simulated learning may also diminish access to the teacher-

student relationship and the opportunity for guided practice and guided linking of

theory with practice. Without this hands-on experience, there is a risk that

students will not engage as effectively, and thus conceptual learning and the

development of critical thinking skills are diminished. However, student

perceptions of these learning experiences are largely unknown. Thus, the study

examined students' perceptions of anatomy and physiology laboratory

experiences and the importance they placed on hands-on experience in

laboratory settings.

The study further argued convincingly that simply focusing science

courses on technical procedures and processes does not best serve the needs of

nursing students primarily because students are best served by developing their

own critical thinking skills and drive to explore and inquire. To engage students

and deepen understanding, activities that stimulate inquiry and critical thinking

are required. In addition, we need to document the effectiveness of such

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processes to further our own understanding of what a good nurse educator does

and how. Recently, computer-assisted technology has been used in science

education as an alternative to the traditional laboratory learning experience.

With limited time and constrained opportunities to experience and practice

a range of nursing skills, simulated learning may allow clinical education to

maintain rigor and quality. There may also be economic benefits to using

simulated environments compared with establishing and maintaining expensive

laboratory equipment and personnel. Simulated technologies may add novelty

and variety to conventional teaching. They offer the potential for greater student

access because eventually, students may be able to access this technology in

their own homes according to their own schedules. Thu, there are increasing

calls for simulation use not only in the acquisition of clinical skills, but also in the

more fundamental learning experiences of anatomy and physiology.

Simulations in education are designed to mimic real-life situations, giving

students the opportunity to reason through a clinical problem or exercise and

make decisions without the potential of harming actual patients or animals. This

is according to the study of Johnston, PhD., et al (2008). Simulations also

provide the opportunity for repeated practice in a skill, where students can learn

and make mistakes in a safe and controlled environment. With limited time and

constrained opportunities to experience and practice a range of nursing skills,

simulated learning may allow clinical education to maintain rigor and quality.

There may also be economic benefits to using simulated environments compared

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with establishing and maintaining expensive laboratory equipment and

personnel.

Also, the program of research introduced by Wells, et al (2016) on police

eyewitness identification methods has generated evidence almost exclusively

from laboratory experiments. Laboratory studies offer several advantages,

including the ability to carefully control variables, control whether the actual

perpetrator is included in a photo spread, and definitively understand whether an

innocent person has been selected. Despite the unique advantages of laboratory

experiments to isolate the effects of system variables, a limitation of this line of

research is that it has not, with few exceptions, frequently examined field data on

eyewitness identification procedures. The researchers have not done a

systematic analysis, but think it is safe to say that many published papers on

eyewitness issues end with a recommendation to follow up on a lab-based

finding or a logic/statistics-based point with some complementary field research.

Unfortunately, as an area researcher have not delivered as much here as we

could

Additionally, the paradigm endorsed by reports and the model of the

‘traditional laboratory’ in the study of Ribaux, et al (2016), further separates, as a

side effect, forensic practices and research from potentially related criminological

or sociological areas. There are very few incentives for criminologists and

forensic scientists to meet.

The study argue that this framing of the disciplines is a missed opportunity

to more fully exploit information conveyed by forensic case data to the benefit of

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the study of crime, to overall security system and, ultimately, to society at large.

Observing forensic investigators in the laboratory or at the scene occasionally

would reveal an interesting picture leaning toward the argument: They recurrently

detect, collect, analyze and interpret the relics of criminal activities. They

reconstruct and explain what occurred in the past and detect patterns of

repetitive crime activities. They are privileged observers through their daily

confrontation to crime, and the consequent experience and expertise in

interpreting forensic case data they have gained over time. All the is done

through forensic laboratory experiments. Methods and techniques available for

detecting, observing, recording, measuring and analyzing traces constitute the

‘toolbox’ of forensic science. They search systematically for relevant traces, that

is, connected with the activity of interests and useful for its explanation (who,

where, when, what; with what, how, why).

Researchers in medical and pharmaceutical education are becoming

increasingly aware that using a variety of teaching methods may ultimately

improve retention of material, as well as enhance students' adaptability in

problem-solving situations, Novak & Shah (2006). In addition, current research

suggests that understanding a student's leaning style is helpful in providing a

successful learning experience, no matter what teaching method is utilized.

Also, Ma, et al (2008), researchers argue that teachers' beliefs are the

final barrier that prevents technology integration. To affect change in teacher

candidates' beliefs of technology integration, we created a pedagogical

laboratory as well as a field experience program that operates within the

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pedagogical laboratory. The article presents a qualitative study of teacher

candidates' field experience in the pedagogical laboratory. It describes the

challenges teacher candidates have encountered, the impact of the experience

on their learning and beliefs, the support and resources needed by the

candidates, as well as the factors that might have contributed to differing

experiences and perceptions in the pedagogical laboratory.

Moreover, researchers argue that teachers' beliefs are the final barrier that

prevents technology integration. To affect change in teacher candidates' beliefs

of technology integration, Ma, et al (2008), created a pedagogical laboratory as

well as a field experience program that operates within the pedagogical

laboratory. This article presents a qualitative study of teacher candidates' field

experience in the pedagogical laboratory. It describes the challenges teacher

candidates have encountered, the impact of the experience on their learning and

beliefs, the support and resources needed by the candidates, as well as the

factors that might have contributed to differing experiences and perceptions in

the pedagogical laboratory. Findings from this study may inform the design of

similar field experience programs.

The criminological laboratories ultimately remind us that the boundaries of

knowledge and practice are not natural and fixed but rather the products of

history, politics, culture, individual relationships, and other contingencies, Pinnow

(2017). In particular, they allow us to consider the collaborative style within the

framework of the growing move internationally to rethink specialization and

explore multi- or interdisciplinary responses to the challenges of modernity.

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Working and thinking together were deemed superior means for solving

problems. The pooling of resources according to a general plan meant access to

more subjects, the production of more information, and in their minds the

attainment of superior knowledge and results.

Students learn about the forensic investigative process works by

simulating and participating in a set-up mock crime scene where teams of

students take part in the collection of evidence, packaging and analysis. Later

these are used from where they rely on their knowledge of forensic science as

means to question, counter, contest and/or refute not only the presence but the

admissibility and validity of evidences in moot courts.

The Role of Criminology Laboratories in Learning Forensics

The laboratory is equipped with microscopes, anatomical models,

fingerprinting kits, weapons database, commonly used drugs and poisons, blood

pattern analysis set-up. This helps create a knowledge and varied forensic

database for students to learn from as well as to analyze forensic evidence

initially.

According to Hamza (2013), it is important to make a case for the potential

educative worth of distractions for learning science in the school laboratory.

Distractions are operationalized as experiences lying outside the main purpose of

the laboratory activity, thereby diverting students' attention from that purpose.

While Openness to experience as indicated in the study of Gatzka & Hell

(2018) has often been linked to academic achievement because it subsumes

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traits such as curiosity, open-mindedness, thoughtfulness, and intellectuality. It is

very necessary that students and learners should appropriately manipulate

materials and be equipped with learning through the various forensics

equipment; and that this will help students, not only the acquisition of science-

oriented processes of knowledge and skills but also the appurtenant scientific

attitude of honesty, open-mindedness, and team cooperation as among the new

modalities of science to enhance understanding and retention of difficult

concepts and procedures.

To date, forensic science has predominantly focused on generating

evidence for judicial proceedings. According to Morelato, et. al (2013), while

many recognize its broader and important contribution to the initial stages of the

forensic process, resources do not seem to be employed efficiently. It is often

discovered retrospectively that necessary information was previously available in

a database or within existing files. Such information could have been proactively

used in order to solve a particular case, a number of linked cases or better

understand the criminal activity as a whole.

There are a number of remarkable roles, forensic sciences such as

Forensic ballistics, forensic dactyloscopy, forensic chemistry, polygraphy and

questioned document examination contributes in the field of criminal justice.

One of the areas of forensic science is forensic ballistics. Forensic

Ballistics (Firearm Identification) is a scientific study of firearm identification by

means of fired bullets and shells; the use and operation of the bullet comparison

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microscope and camera; bullet recovery capsule; and another laboratory

equipment.

Along with Forensic Ballistics, since nineteenth century, the science of

forensic ballistics has travelled many decades and tool marks encountered in the

field of firearm identification has now well settled and accepted in the scientific

community, Suresh (2017). Fired cartridges are identified based on the presence

or absence of characteristic microscopic tool marks of the firearm left on the

cartridges, which are considered to be unique to that firearm. During firing

process, characteristic marks of firing pin, breech face, extractor, ejector,

chamber, etc. of a firearm are imprinted on the exterior surface of the cartridge

case.

The Firearms, the law, and forensic ballistics, 3d ed. (2012), reviews

international law on firearms, describes firearms manufacturing, details the

working mechanisms of firearms, and outlines forensic methods related to

firearms, such as bullet ballistics and detection of discharge residue. Firearms

and toolmark identification have a longer history than most any other forensic

science, according to Boyle (2009, Dec 14); it dates to the creation of the modern

crime laboratory. Forensic ballistics in court; interpretation and presentation of

firearms evidence. Knowing the underlying science and the facts at hand are

important, but most crucial is for the scientist to be able to make technical

matters comprehensible to people with no scientific or technical background.

Various studies regarding identification criteria, number of striations to

declare a match or non-match or inconclusive in the field of forensic ballistics are

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under discussion by many researchers and published in the literature. However,

it is to be decided by the firearm examiner to find the presence or absence of any

similarities or dissimilarities or otherwise after conducting a thorough

examination. Several methods are available for shooting range estimation based

on pellets pattern on the target that have a remarkable degree of accuracy, Plebe

& Compagnini (2012). The task is usually approached working under the

assumption that the entire distribution of pellets is available for examination.

The campaign by the Journal and Wigmore cited in the study of Devroye

(2010) for the formation of a forensics laboratory led, after the importance of

ballistics evidence was illustrated in the prosecution of the St. Valentine's Day

Massacre, to the establishment of the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory at

Northwestern University in 1929. It has been called the first crime detection lab of

national significance. By the time it was established, the quest for

"anthropological" causes of crime had been dropped from the list of reasons for a

criminological laboratory. The lab was established primarily to examine ballistics

evidence but also performed lie detector tests and handwriting identification.

Updates on its activities were published in the Journal of Police Science -

another Institute publication. The Laboratory was a highly publicized project and

even presented an exhibit at the Century of Progress Exposition demonstrating

the operation of a polygraph. Its inventor, Leonard Keeler, was a member of the

Laboratory staff.

On the other hand, Personal Identification (Dactyloscopy) is actual

application of knowledge on modern methods of personal identification with

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emphasis on dactyloscopy and palmistry, which embrace the identification and

comparison of fingerprint patterns and ridge characteristics; the scientific method

of collection, recognition, development and preservation of latent prints; the

recording and classifying of fingerprints that include the Henry System and the

FBI extension; and comparison of standard and evidence fingerprint including the

use of fingerprint kit and fingerprint comparator. Various colors of fingerprints

powders are used and chemicals, ninhydrin and iodine crystals, fingerprint kit

and other systems of retrieving latent fingerprints.

Along with a US patent issued to fujitsu "authentication apparatus and

authentication method" (2013, Aug 27). "The present invention relates to

authentication information using bio information such as fingerprints.

Identification accuracy whether a living body or a forgery (non-living body) is

improved to prevent an authentication error. The present invention particularly

relates to an authentication apparatus (a fingerprint authentication apparatus), an

authentication method, an authentication program and a recording medium. By

detecting characteristics not shown in a living body that a forgery (non-living

body) has, the characteristic such as uniform reducing feature by the passage of

time of a gummy finger (a false finger) made like a bio finger, whether a living

body or a forgery is determined, a determination error of a living body by a

forgery is prevented, and authentication accuracy of a living body is enhanced."

The diversity in fingerprints according to the study of Mala, et al (2017),

comprises the part of nonlinear geometry in human body. Other examples

include the fractal distribution of intestinal villa, dynamic organization of the

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immune system, and projection of the dendrites of multipolar neurons. The brain

anatomy, specifically the grooves, shows a pattern of self-similarity, comprising

an extensive area of cerebral cortex in this portion. No two fingerprints are

identical. Identity is established or denied by the minutia of smaller detail. The

ending ridges, bifurcations or forking of ridges, the islands or enclosures, the

short ridges and dots that make up the patterns, and the surrounding friction skin

area determine whether or not fingerprint as made by the same finger. It is not

only the appearance of these details in the fingerprint but their relative position to

each other is also a major factor in the identification procedural process.

Forensic Chemistry and Toxicology is used in the application of chemistry

in the identification of physical evidence. It includes collection, preservation,

examination and study of blood, semen and other body fluids for DNA,

gunpowder and explosives, hair and textile, fibers, chemical aspects of document

examinations; problems of glass fragments and glass fractures; moulage;

metallurgy; petrography as applied to crime investigation, study of nature,

physiological action, chemical and physical properties, dosage, treatment and

detection of poisons, including the use of different pieces of equipment and

apparatuses.

Chemistry is a core science subject. It deals with the composition,

structure and behaviour of the atoms and molecules that make up all forms of

matter. Chemistry serves as the interface to other sciences and to many other

areas of human endeavours such as home, agriculture, health and industry. For

example, products of Chemistry are part of the household materials. In

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Agriculture, Chemistry provides the fundamental basis upon which the

technology for the production, processing and preservation of foods is

established. Similarly, industrial and analytical Chemistry formed the basis of the

various operational processes for production in the manufacturing, engineering

and capital goods industries. Its central role in science is emphasized by the fact

that Chemistry merges with biological science (the field of biochemistry) at one

extreme and with physics (physical Chemistry and chemical Physics) at the other

end.

In the study of Neji (2014), investigating the relationship between

adequacy and academic performance in Chemistry, Akpan (2006) examined

adequacy of laboratory facilities using frequency counts and percentages. The

result revealed that 61.1% of the total respondents agreed that the laboratory

facilities for the teaching of Chemistry were adequate in secondary schools, while

38.9% of the respondents agreed that laboratory facilities were not significantly

adequate. At a workshop organized by the Cross River State Ministry of

Education for Science Teachers Vacation Course (TVC) in 2008, the science

teachers complained that laboratory facilities for teaching various science

subjects were not adequate in secondary schools for the teaching and learning of

the physical sciences. Secondary school laboratories should be furnished with

adequate laboratory facilities for effective teaching and learning of sciences.

The laboratory is an important means of instruction in Chemistry teaching

and learning. The Chemistry laboratory, which plays such an important role

provides the students with a vast amount of special equipment. Making use of all

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this equipment requires a high level of preparedness on the part of the students.

At this point, it is crucial that teachers should make efforts to employ the latest

instructional techniques that are capable of enhancing performance and

sustaining the interest of the students in the subject.

Forensic photography resulted from the modernization of criminal justice

systems and the power of photographic realism. This was based on the study of

Singh, et al (2012). Perhaps no aspect of crime scene documentation is more

important and more demonstrable than photography. Affirmatively, photography is

one of the most important applied protocols of forensic dentistry. The demands

on the photographer can be great, especially in situations where an injury is the

only evidence tying a suspect to the crime. While often frustrating and time

consuming, when done properly the results yield good evidence, bringing with it a

sense of accomplishment and satisfaction that the forensic dentist has made a

significant contribution to the case. This review has emphasisied the role of

dentist as a forensic expertise in bringing significant contribution towards the law

and justice.

Based on the study of Mancini, (2017), in Fundamentals of Forensic

Photography, there are practical techniques for common situations encountered

in forensic documentation. Topics include equipment selection, lighting

techniques, crime scene and evidence documentation, macro and micro

photography as well as aerial, high speed and computational photography.

Techniques for photographic documentation in both the laboratory and the field

are discussed.

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As cited in the study of Neji, (2015), examined the utilization of laboratory

facilities and students’ academic performance, and discovered that utilization of

laboratory facilities had a positive relationship with students’ academic

performance towards science teaching and promotes good academic

performance in the subject. An earlier work by Adeniyi (1983) drew attention to

the relationship between utilization of laboratory facilities and students’ academic

performance in Chemistry and found that the utilization of laboratory facilities was

not significantly related with students’ academic performance in the subject.

A study was carried out in the chemical teaching laboratory with new

graduate students while they were guided to develop pedagogical content

knowledge. This is a form of expertise that demonstrates a combined knowledge

of pedagogy and disciplinary subject matter. Here, chemistry is the discipline.

Laboratory teaching functions for student learning entail guidance of chemical

techniques, and abstract chemical concepts relevant to the laboratory

experiment, that is, chemical explanations using concepts conceived by chemists

rather than perceived, e.g., atoms and chemical bonds. Instruments were built

with constructivist content and attained construct validity and internal consistency

to measure teaching performance.

According to Galloway, Malakpa & Bretz (2016), meaningful learning

requires the integration of cognitive and affective learning with the psychomotor,

i.e., hands-on learning. The undergraduate chemistry laboratory is an ideal place

for meaningful learning to occur. However, accurately characterizing students'

affective experiences in the chemistry laboratory can be a very difficult task.

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While attitudinal surveys offer some insights, an inherent limitation of such fixed-

response surveys may prevent students from expressing how their laboratory

experiences shape their affective learning.

Conducting interviews, however, affords researchers the opportunity to

hear students describe learning in their own words. One challenge with

interviews is that students may not possess the vocabulary to precisely describe

their experiences. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to conduct interviews

that encouraged and enabled students to verbalize their feelings about learning

in the undergraduate chemistry laboratory. In particular, the students' descriptions

of their affective experiences in the laboratory were grounded in perceptions of

control of their learning and the responsibility they felt they had. The implications

of this research include identifying experiences that ought to be attended to

through changes in pedagogy and curriculum in order for students to experience

meaningful learning in their undergraduate chemistry laboratory courses.

The study of Olubu (2015), determined the effects of laboratory learning

environment on students' learning outcomes in secondary school Chemistry. The

study adopted the pre-test-post-test, quasi-experimental control group design.

Results showed that integration dimension of Chemistry laboratory learning

environment has the most significant effect on the learners' performance, closely

followed by Student Cohesiveness and Open-Endedness. Results also indicated

that student cohesiveness dimension of laboratory learning environment has the

most significant effect on the learners' attitude, closely followed by Rule clarity. It

is recommended among others that the five dimensions of the laboratory learning

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environment should be used to determine the actual situation of the Chemistry

laboratory learning environment.

According to Welsh, Braga, & Bruinsma (2013), experimental criminology

is a part of a larger and increasingly expanding scientific research and evidence-

based movement in social policy. The essays in this volume report on new and

innovative contributions that experimental criminology is making to basic

scientific knowledge and public policy. Contributors explore cutting-edge

experimental and quasi-experimental methods and their application to important

and topical issues in criminology and criminal justice, including neurological

predictors of violence, peer influence on delinquency, routine activities and

capable guardianship, early childhood prevention programs, hot spots policing,

and correctional treatment for juvenile and adult offenders. It is the first book to

examine the full scope of experimental criminology, from experimental tests – in

the field and in the laboratory – of criminological theories and concepts to

experimental and quasi-experimental evaluations of crime prevention and

criminal justice interventions.

Moreover, Valverde (2014) practical requirements for high-sensitivity

analysis and the need for a specialist laboratory setting create challenges for

routine analysis. Several existing analytical techniques, which offer flexible and

broad-based methods of analysis and in some cases detection, have been

discussed in this manuscript. Further currents trends, advantages and

disadvantages and future prospects of these methods have been discussed.

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Challenges in Forensic Sciences

Forensic science is a fractured and burdened discipline. The Article

authored by Gabel (2014) emphasizes that forensic flaws persist and that

deficiencies in forensic science have harrowing implications for criminal justice.

In the wake of numerous calls for forensic reform, the use existing models and

frameworks already in place should be proposed to improve the quality and cost

of the U.S. forensic science program, rather than creating an entirely new and

unaffordable system. At bottom, the Article calls for collaboration between crime

labs, universities and research centers, and the criminal justice system with the

goal of making forensic science more reliable.

The research study conducted by Rutherford-Hemming, (2012), examined

whether a transfer of learning (i.e., growth in clinical competency) occurred from

the simulation laboratory to the clinical bedside and if it did occur, how.

Researchers have reported that inadequate laboratory facilities, students' attitude

towards the subject which they perceived as difficult and ineffective methods of

teaching that are teacher rather than student-centered are responsible for this

poor performance. Research further traced the poor performance of students in

practical Chemistry to teachers' inability to take the candidates through practical

sessions in the laboratory.

Forensic science is justice's best friend, but it has to not only be used right

but done right." Despite the authority with which television and movie crime

dramas depict forensic science results, the practice sometimes falls short of that

"used and done right" standard. Popular culture, news outlets, and public

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perception guide the belief that forensic evidence is reliable and absolute proof of

an individual's guilt.

In 2009, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) published a revealing

report announcing that forensic science is broken. Depending on the audience,

reactions to the NAS Report ran the gamut, from calling it predictable to

groundbreaking to misleading. In many respects, although it could hardly be

characterized as new information, the NAS Report laid forensic science's

shortcomings to bare and brought to the surface the weaknesses that have

plagued forensic science for decades.

Sancho, et al (2006) further disclose some of the factors that hinder

students' learning skills. Ne is that, there is an increase in the complexity of the

discipline. Need for efficient use and deployment of costly resources. The current

trend in the identification of through using forensic instruments and state-of-the

art apparatuses, all of which are expensive. Another is the drawbacks in the

actual laboratory for immediate feedback. The high number of students per

instructor in laboratory practices makes very difficult the immediate feedback at

the optimal time when learners are primed for reinforcement and also reduces

control over the skills acquired by the students and prevents an exhaustive

assessment of forensic skills acquired from being made. In relation to this study,

the infrastructure and architecture of the adequacy of a new laboratory set up is

complementary to the adequacy of the forensics laboratory.

Yesodharan, et al ( 2018) Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine and

Toxicology. All rights reserved. Photography is a critical factor in solving out the

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mysteries behind the crimes by giving out critical information applicable to

criminal, legal investigation. It was initially based on manually operated camera

and film strips and later adopted digital technology for recording and storing the

visuals. Digital evidence can show the relative position of evidence at the scene,

establish the relative dimension of the evidence and also cross compliment other

evidence collection techniques. The inadequate and improper collection,

preservation and presentation of evidence can lead to crime scene errors and

fewer conviction rates. Training in forensic photography is vital, and a game

changer in the medico-legal investigations.

The lack of lab oversight and forensic standards leaves forensic science

distrusted and vulnerable to manipulation. Advancements in forensic science

technology progressed exponentially, yet the system continues to suffer from

fatal flaws and a low threshold of reliability.

Literature and researches on the extent of utilization of laboratory facilities

and academic performance in Chemistry seem to be relatively limited and scanty.

Utilization of laboratory facilities is the frequency with which the available

laboratory facilities are used during laboratory experiments. Laboratory facilities

can be available, adequate but not utilized during science teaching. The

experiences gathered so far indicate that there is still much research to be done

on the extent of utilization of laboratory facilities in secondary school science

teaching and learning. This is why it becomes expedient to find out if teachers

and students are actually utilizing laboratory facilities during Chemistry teaching.

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An effective trace evidence capability is defined in the study of Stoney, et

al (2015) as one that exploits all useful particle types, chooses appropriate

technologies to do so, and directly integrates the findings with case-specific

problems. Limitations of current approaches inhibit the attainment of an effective

capability and it has been strongly argued that a new approach to trace evidence

analysis is essential. The paper illustrates and analyzes how forensic particle

analysis, appropriately applied, can result in an effective trace evidence

capability. The limitations associated with current approaches have been detailed

in, with the summary findings that (1) there are complex and challenging

problems facing the effective utilization of trace evidence, and (2) these problems

are exacerbated, rather than addressed as new technologies are being

incorporated into forensic laboratories and as the profession responds to

pressures from the legal and broader scientific communities.

According to Koehler, (2017), there is a risk of error associated with all

forensic science conclusions. However, no proper studies have been conducted

in any of the forensic sciences to estimate the rate at which forensic science

conclusions are wrong. As a result, jurors and other consumers of forensic

science information are left to speculate about what those error rates might be.

Nobody knows the rate at which forensic science examiners produce false match

reports or otherwise reach the wrong conclusion. This is not to say that forensic

examiners are never tested. But the tests that examiners take are generally so

easy, unrealistic, and otherwise unlike casework, that even the test

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manufacturers have said that error rates on these "proficiency tests" should not

be used to estimate casework error rates.

Moreover, Horne & Rauhut (2013) states that laboratory experiments are

less useful for establishing the substantive importance of particular causal

mechanisms and relations in the field. In other words, they are good for testing

causal theories, but not for studying properties of natural settings. Laboratory

experiments cannot tell us how important a factor collective efficacy is for

controlling crime in Chicago (or Seattle or Phoenix or Los Angeles) relative to

other factors. But they can provide data showing that social support for

sanctioning efforts affect levels of control in a group. Laboratory experiments

cannot tell us how much guards abuse prisoners or why particular people at

Guantanamo behaved as they did. But they can show us how prison-like power

structures can lead normal people to behave in abusive ways.

The 2009 report Strengthening Forensic Science: A Path Forward, issued

by the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences in the

study of Epsteine (2014), made clear that many forensic disciplines - handwriting

analysis, latent print [fingerprint] comparison, ballistics matching, fire [arson]

causation and more - lacked a foundation in hard science and offered claims of

"individualization" [attributing the crime scene evidence to only one possible

source in the world] without a proper research foundation. The Report described

the judicial system as "utterly ineffective" in understanding the limits of these

disciplines and policing admissibility.

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The Article reviews the post-report years and assesses the causes of this

stasis - the lack of rigor in the Frye and Daubert admissibility regimes, the

scientific 'illiteracy' of many legal professionals, inadequate funding for expert

services, and a comfort with the status quo of evidence relied upon for decades.

The Article then surveys non-litigation mechanisms such as forensic science

commissions and finds them also wanting in their ability to respond to the

Report's criticisms.

On the other hand, along computer laboratories, difficulties were

observed, such as the adequacy of teachers’ training. This system is supposed to

aid students understand the scope and delimitations of forensic evidence and

analysis as well as the appropriate forensic systems and procedures that must

be observed. The intricate system demands the skills of criminology students.

The introduction of computer technology has touched off an actual revolution for

teaching and learning activities. In relation to this study, there is growing focus on

technology-based teaching-learning processes.

Luster-Teasley, et al (2017) Educators can insist that this traditional

laboratory format provides hands-on experience unlike a lecture; however, many

traditional laboratories only address the lower levels of Bloom's Taxonomy. To

reach the upper levels of Bloom's Taxonomy (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation)

a paradigm shift in laboratory instruction is necessary. Laboratory instruction can

evolve to include methods that present relevant and current societal issues that

can be applied for modern applications. It is possible to enhance laboratory

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instruction by teaching laboratory concepts and analytical principles through

stories, cases, and applications that highlight real world issues.

Practices for competence development and effective operations in

Criminology Laboratory

There are a number of practices adapted in the effective operations in

laboratory and criminology laboratory. Technological advances in the field of

forensic ballistics, computer forensics and other areas of forensic science are

discussed in the study of Hite, et al (2000). The development of two automated

computer-based systems, the BATF's Integrated Ballistics Identification System

and the FBI's Drug fire, magnified the value of ballistics and opened laboratory

doors across jurisdictional lines,

Technology is increasingly offering new means of human behavior

traceability. Based on the study of Ribaux, et al (2016), this situation is

challenging the standing, scope and role of forensic science in the criminal

Justice System. At the same time, criminology is developing methodologies that

encompass virtual worlds, and deal with the increasing quantity of accessible

digital data reflecting criminal behaviors.

The article proposes a progressive and systematic modeling activity along

five steps: (i) the expression of the investigative logic of forensic science; (ii) the

use of theories in environmental criminology; (iii) a more systematic search for

associations between traces and between crime situations; (iv) the search for

studies in diverse areas of criminology that actually or potentially rely on forensic

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case data and (v) the suggestion of models and methods for framing the

approach.

In the study of Stoney, et al (2015), particle traces should be a major

problem-solving tool. There should be readily available, straightforward methods

to enable their use. All available and potentially useful particle types should be

considered. Decisions to use them should be made in the context of each case,

guided by what they can contribute to the case and how efficiently they can do

so. Analyses should be conducted using appropriate technologies. Findings

should be timely and directly integrated with case-specific problems. New

technologies should be used to improve the overall effectiveness of the

capability.

It should go without saying that it is important to know what the error rates

are for forensic science methods and conclusions Koehler, (2017). Without error

rate information, judges cannot assess the reliability of proffered forensic

methods, and jurors cannot assess the probative value of the evidence produced

from those methods. Forensic science must be a science and, as such, must

embrace a rigorous empiricism pertaining to its own capabilities. Reliable error

rate data are absolutely crucial to our understanding of the value of forensic

science evidence.

To the extent our data indicate that people underestimate the risk of false

positive error in the forensic sciences, it suggests an affirmative role for the

courts, government, and scientific community. Specifically, courts should take

seriously the possibility that jurors will overweigh various types of forensic

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science evidence because they mistakenly believe that the risk of error is

infinitesimal. To mitigate this risk, courts should carefully monitor and restrict the

claims made by forensic scientists and attorneys at trial, and take steps to

provide jurors with information about what we do and do not know about forensic

science error rates based on rigorous scientific studies.

In the study of Ribaux, et al (2016), it is however inevitable that research

must become more collective and interdisciplinary to address contemporary

security and criminological problems. This is an exciting change that will,

hopefully, stimulate scientists to take distance from their technologies in order to

address contemporary problems. It will also attract the interest of criminologists

to integrate new technical data in their study of crime and criminal behavior.

Beyond individual efforts, research policies are eventually needed to provide

support to those kinds of collaborative attitudes.

Strategic changes in criminology, its expansion to the international level,

the role in ensuring security and inter-state relations stemming from creation of

the European criminological area evidence of significant and profound changes

in the science and practice of criminology; identification and scientific evaluation

of the changes is possible through consistent going deep into them as a research

object.

The author of the article Jurka, (2017), developed the scientific concept of

implementation of European criminology vision 2020 in Lithuania, analyzed and

evaluated institutional efficiency and quality of performance of the criminological

investigation system as the main subject of creation of European criminological

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area, accreditation of the institutions, the condition of criminological didactics,

and adherence to the minimum competence requirements for criminology

personnel, carried out the managerial, organizational and legal analysis of

applying the minimum quality standards in the crime scene as well as working

with evidence from the crime scene to the courtroom, identified possible areas of

criminology harmonization, and defined the directions and methods of the

harmonization. The research allowed submission of the proposals in regard of

the European common criminological area creation plan.

The European Council emphasizes the necessity to create the

criminological area, where the forensics are performed on the basis of equivalent

standards for forensic examinations and where the entities performing the

forensics work in accordance with a common approach to implementation of the

standards, which would stimulate closer cooperation between them and their

criminal justice systems.

The European Union Council adopted the following European criminology

vision 2020: 'In order to promote cooperation between the police and judicial

institutions across the European Union to create European criminological area by

2020, the Member States and the European Commission will work together for

the progress in the following areas to ensure a fair, consistent and effective

administration of justice and citizens' security: criminology institute and laboratory

accreditation; compliance to the minimum competence requirements for

criminology personnel; compilation of common best practice handbooks and use

of the handbooks in daily work of the criminological laboratories and institutes;

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proficiency checks / joint practical training of criminological activity at the

international level; application of minimum quality standards for crime scene

investigations and dealing with evidence from the crime scene to the courtroom;

recognition of equivalence of criminological activity to avoid duplication of efforts,

which occurs in the cases of failure to recognize evidence because of the

technical or qualitative differences and noticeable shortening of the period within

which the crimes cross-border in their nature are investigated; identification of the

best way to co-create, update and use databases of the forensics; increased

exploitation of achievements in criminology in the fight against terrorism,

organized crime and other criminal offenses; raising awareness on criminological

issues, first of all by employing the appropriate education and training of law

enforcement and justice community; development of research and technological

development projects to promote further development of the criminological

infrastructure'.

Pinnow, (2017). Challenges to the existing division of labor, moreover, did

not mean a call to eliminate disciplinary boundaries; rather, the goal was to make

them more porous and foster greater points of contact. To end this narrowness

the author called for an educational program based on "the sciences of the

individual and society." The proposal envisaged a prominent role for

criminological laboratories and institutes, since they promoted the "collective

work" of different specialists who were striving "to achieve the greatest contact in

their work together and the greatest mutual understanding of the methods

adopted by each one of them." Instead of rejecting the disciplines, the study

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encouraged enrichment through collaborative efforts that preserved both the

"unity and variety of research."

Looking at the criminological laboratories through the lens of

interdisciplinarity brings into relief a series of tensions that accompanied the

redrawing of boundaries. Most notably, the laboratories grappled with the

tensions inherent in modern knowledge. Their work highlights the challenges

posed by fragmentation and specialization, which added complexity, posed

problems of jurisdiction, and raised questions about the possibility of ever really

knowing and controlling crime through a single discipline.

Bushway & Flower (2002) revealed that an undergraduate statistic

courses in criminology and criminal justice programs tend to have high failure

rates relative to other courses in the curriculum. One solution to this problem is to

focus on helping the students "learn how to learn" difficult material. Drawing upon

learning theory and incorporating web-based technology, the authors conducted

an evaluation of several learning enhancement tools including Professors tend to

be concerned that the students are simply learning how to "plug and chug"

without any sense of when or why they would actually use these tools. Students

in these courses, on the other hand, tend to have poor math skills and are

plagued by math anxiety. This anxiety is exacerbated by the fact that statistics

classes tend to have a high failure rate relative to other social science courses

and are sometimes viewed as an obstacle to graduation.

One way out of this problem may be for professors to focus not only on

successfully communicating the content of the course, but also on teaching

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students the most effective ways to learn the material. This requires a basic

understanding of the learning process. According to learning theorists, students

develop expertise in a subject by integrating prior base knowledge with new

concepts. When this happens, new information is either organized within prior

knowledge or prior knowledge is reorganized around new concepts. This

reorganized knowledge is then placed into long-term memory. A successful

student integrates each new piece of information, slowly building laboratory

understanding that can then be applied to solve problems.

It is in the study of Luster-Teasley, et al (2017) that this educational

research seeks to develop novel laboratory modules by using the case studies in

the sciences teaching method in order to introduce sustainability and

environmental engineering laboratory concepts to 21st century learners. The goal

is to improve laboratory instruction and the transfer of laboratory concepts to

tangible real-world applications for students by utilizing student learning

preferences. Research methods were implemented in a junior level

environmental engineering laboratory course. The case modules focused on

providing (1) the contextual case-study or problem-based learning modules that

link criminology topics to real world sustainable criminal justice issues and (2)

hands-on experiences for students that are designed to address new areas in

sustainable forensic science. The case studies engaged students in a "short case

story" with real or fictional characters experiencing a real-world event.

Following the "short case story," students conducted independent

research related to the case and the laboratory exercise. The paper investigates

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the improvements to laboratory instruction as a result of the gains in student

learning, self-efficacy and engagement observed when the case studies in the

sciences teaching method is used. Student assessment data shows that students

felt the case study methods used in the course were more engaging, more

interesting, and made connections between laboratory exercises and real-world

applications clearer when compared to their traditional laboratory classes they

had taken during their education. Results also show that the case studies

teaching method should be paired with more traditional instructional methods

because students prefer learning facts, solving problems by well-established

methods, seeing pictures and demonstrations, and learn best when a linear

stepwise approach is used.

According to Johnston, PhD (2008), with limited time and constrained

opportunities to experience and practice a range of forensic science skills,

simulated learning may allow clinical education to maintain rigor and quality.

There may also be economic benefits to using simulated environments compared

with establishing and maintaining expensive laboratory equipment and

personnel. Simulated technologies may add novelty and variety to conventional

teaching. They offer the potential for greater student access because eventually,

students may be able to access this technology in their own homes according to

their own schedules.

In the study of Sancho, et al (2006), to create a virtual laboratory system

in which experimental science students could learn required skills and

competencies while overcoming such challenges as time limitations, high cost of

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resources, and lack of feedback often encountered in a traditional laboratory

setting. Virtual laboratory modules were used to acquire nonmanual skills such

as visual and mental skills for data reading, calculations, interpretation of the

results, deployment of an analytical protocol, and reporting results. Students

achieved similar grades in the modules whose initiation was in the virtual

laboratory to the grades they achieved with the modules whose complete or

partial initiation took place in the laboratory. The knowledge acquired was

satisfactory and the participants valued the experience. To create a virtual

laboratory system in which experimental science students could learn required

skills and competencies while overcoming such challenges as time limitations,

high cost of resources, and lack of feedback often encountered in a traditional

laboratory setting.

As cited by Chia-Yu, et al (2014), coded the length of intervention, levels

of students’ involvement in the technology-assisted laboratories, and the roles of

technology in supporting components of scientific investigations. The length of

intervention depicted the duration of the laboratory instruction in a study. The

level of student involvement varied from teacher-centered to student-centered. To

explore what learning outcomes were assessed, the study took the three major

domains of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of educational objectives including

cognitive process, attitude, and psychomotor. skills. Also, student learning in

laboratories often involves gaining or exhibiting a combination of knowledge and

skills such as problem-solving, scientific reasoning, or inquiry abilities. Therefore,

Chia-Yu, et al (2014) created the fourth domain, integrated skills.

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There are enumerated recommendations to improved learning experience

based upon the study of Mcgowen (2007) which include the following:

administrators and designers should consider factors such as interior

environment and academic learning space when planning schools to positively

impact student discipline; school design and construction should focus on

specialized learning spaces and other academic areas more than administrative

support spaces when striving to increase teacher satisfaction with physical

working conditions. As educators have become increasingly involved in the

design process, facilities and laboratories have become more flexible and suited

to innovative instructional approaches. The developmental level of students

housed on the campus must be considered when developing instructional space.

Educational researchers are frequently recommending that cognitive learning

specialists become actively involved in planning instructional space in efforts to

design interiors that maximize student performance across all learning

modalities.

A Forensic Science laboratory is usually established in schools of

Criminology to create the best and suitable environment of propagating the

teaching-learning continuum of knowledge, skills and the values in the exercise

of forensic science among learners and teachers. The CHED mandate in those

schools, is to establish and organize a number of creative and innovative training

sessions, included in the forensic science elective, to impress upon the students

the various kinds of analysis that fall under the purview of forensic science and

the procedural imperatives that must be followed to ensure a fair trial.

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As cited in the study of Flores (2015), academic institutions must provide

an updated curriculum; modern facilities and equipment; efficient student

services; responsive organization and administration; and educators must

possess effective teaching techniques and strategies to ensure and maximize the

learning of the students as a response to the needs of professional education,

society particularly in maritime and shipping industries (Laguador & Dotong,

2013; Orence & Laguador, 2013). Reyes (2013) emphasized that the aim of

education is to create teaching and learning environment that would bring about

desired changes in learners such as making them more knowledgeable, skillful or

acquired positive attitudes and values.

Environment really affects the attitude of the person. If a certain student

works and occupies an atmosphere which has excellent teachers, friendly

classmates, state-of-the-art facilities and which is free from bad influence and

peer-pressure, he is expected to perform very well in school and obtain high

grades as measures of having a first-class school environment. Student views

about their experience at any educational system, its programs, the component

units of the program, and the entire learning environment are essential aspects

for quality enhancement.

Ergül et al. (2011) as cited in the study of Doosti F. (2014) suggest that

the teacher first should find a suitable program for implementing scientific skills

and then thereafter adapt this program with science curriculum because science

follow steps and its knowledge and skills are organized based on a hierarchical

sequence. In school students are usually asked to directly implement the

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experiments though s/he does not have basic lab skills. Therefore, the process of

acquiring science skills should be followed step by step in order to avoid syllabus

overload and problem with time shortage.

The study aims to show the relevance of criminology laboratory facilities in

competence development of criminology students in criminalistics. This study

seeks to take a look if the laboratory area of selected higher educational

institution in Bicol Region is effectively operational to serves as the basis for the

development of proposed instructional process in teaching criminalistics subjects.

With this, criminology laboratory components would be improved and maintained

for quality education.

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