NWS

MATHEMATICAL MODELING AND SIMULATION

L. Praveen*, Venkatesh*, Rachna Mourya*, Deepthi Anand*,
R. Madhu Sudhan**, Gajalappa**, T. Srihari***
* Undergraduate
** Assistant Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engg. Jayaprakash
Narayan College of Engineering, Mahabubnagar – 509001, Andhra
Pradesh.
*** Professor and Head of the Production Department, Vasavi
College of Engineering, Ibrahimbagh, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh.

ABSTRACT :
Mathematical modeling and simulation are the recent advances in
technology and by implementing these techniques the quality of the product
can be increased to great extent. The advantage of factorial technique
depends upon the experiment. Suppose the purpose is to investigate the
effects of each factor over some preasigned range that is covered by the
levels of that factor, which are used in the experiment, inother words the
object is to obtain a broad picture of the effects of the factors than to find, say,
the combination of the levels of the factors that give a maximum response.

1.0 INTRODUCTION :
At present, we are in midest of an International revolution in quality
improvement. From design to production of the component, process need to be
continously improved. Recent development in statistical technique has provided a
vital tool to engineers for the quality improvement. It has been since then
developed to met the reliability needs of simple to highly complex products of
space-age technology. Everything dealing with the collection, processing,
analysis, and interpretation of numerical data belongs to the domain of statistics.
Engineering is such a field that includes such diversified tasks of evaluation based
on the vast data available. These statistical technique make it easier for
engineers to draw conclusions and predicts the risks possibility of obtaining
estimates that do not lie within permissible limits.
Mathematical modeling is one of the most effective technique implemented
for improve the quality of the weldment mathematical modeling consist of four
major techniques.
1. Factorial experiments.
2. Surface response methodology
3. Dimensional analysis
4. Fractional Factorial experiments

2.0 FACTORIAL TECHNIQUE

The effect of a number of different factors are investigated simultaneously
in a factorial technique experiments. The treatment consists of all combinations
that can be formed from the different factors. The advantage of factorial technique
depends upon the experiment. Suppose the purpose is to investigate the effects
of each factor over some preassigned range that is covered by the levels of that
factor, which are used in the experiment, in other words the object is to obtain a
broad picture of the effects of the factors than to find, say, the combination of the
levels of the factors that give a maximum response. One procedure is to conduct

Mathematical Modeling And Simulation

 NWS

separate experiments each of which deal with only a single factor. Another is to
include all factors simultaneously by means of a factorial experiment. If all factors
are independent in their effects, the factorial approach will result in a considerable
saving of the time and material devoted to the experiments.
The saving follows from two facts,
First, when factors are independent all the simple effects of a factor are
equal to its main effect, so that main effect are the only quantities needed to
describe fully the consequences of variation in the factor.
Secondly, ina factorial experiment, each main effect is estimated with the
same precision as if the whole experiment has been devoted to that factor alone.

3.0 RESPONE SURFACE METHODOLOGY

Response surface methodology (or) RSM is a collection of mathematical
and statistical techniques that are useful for modeling and analysis of problems in
which a response of interest in influenced by several varieties and the objective is
to optimize this response. For example suppose a chemical engineer wishes to
find the levels of temperatures x1 & x2 that maximize the yield (y) of a process.
The process yield function is a function of the level of x1 & x2
i.e. y – f (x1, x2) + ε
Where ε represents the noise (or) error observed in the response y. If we
denote the expected response by y = f(x1, x2) = η then, the surface represented by
η = f(x1, x2) = y, is called a “response surface”
This response surface is represented graphically where in n is plotted
versus the levels of x1 & x2. This response is represented as a solid surface in 3-D
space. In most RSM problems, the form of the relationship between the response
and the independent variables in unknown. Thus, the first step is to find a suitable
approximation of the true functional relationship between ‘y’ and the set of
independent variables is employed. If the response is well functioned, modeled
by a linear function of the independent variables, then the approximately function
is the first order model given by,
Y = b0 + b1x1 + ,b2x0 + . . . . + bixi + ε
Or similarly
Y = b0 + Σ bnxn + ε
If there is a curvature in the system, then the polynomial of higher degree
must to be used, such as 2nd order model
Y = b0 + Σbixi +Σbijxj2 + +Σbijxijxj + ε, I < j
The eventual objective of RSM is to find the optimum operating conditions for
the system or to determine a region of the factor space in which operating
specifications are satisfied.
Fitting and analyzing response surfaces greatly facilitated by proper choice of
an experimental design. When selecting a response surface design. Some of the
features of a desirable response design are:
1. Provides a reasonable distribution of data points throughout the region
of interest.
2. Ensure simplicity of calculation of model parameters
3. Does not require too many levels of runs
4. Allows expt’s to be performed in stocks.

Mathematical Modeling And Simulation

 NWS

Consider the following first order polynomial

Y = b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + ε
The coefficients b0, b1, . . .etc are found out suing the design matrix and the
values of process varieties obtained. If ‘n’ is no. of experiments that are coded
values with the corresponding process variate.
By substituting the coded values into the each equation, the values for
each each Variant can be calculated, and the n compared with those obtained by
experiment.

Considering the polynomial :

Y = b0 + b1x1 + b2x2 + b3x3 + ε
The value for coefficients in above e.g.: are as follows:

bn = 16
Σ xy / n
i=1
Where I = sign (or) value for the variable is that particular experiment i.e., (l = +1, -
1)
Y = Experimental response values such as P, W & R obtained,
N = number of experiments
Similarly; for interactive effects
bn = 16 16
Σ xy / n Σ iy/n
i=1 i=1
B12 = (Value of x1) (Value of X2) y exp
Where value of x1, x2 correspond to limits of x1, x2 (i.e) +1 or –1
After deterring the coefficients it is necessary to find out which of the
coefficients are significant for this purpose the standardized Fisher’s Test (or) F-
test is employed.

4.0 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS :

The principles of dimensional analysis are very useful in correlating
experimental data. Many early physicist used these principles, but it is only
recently that the practical advantage of the dimensional analysis in the study of
new problems have begun to be realized by the engineers.
The primary purpose of dimensional analysis is to correlate the various
measurable physical quantities, associated with given phenomenon into the
mathematical equation expressing the relationship among these quantities. It is
not a complete analysis in the sense that differential equations of motion of
mechanical system are complete, but on the other hand it is much more valid and
involves much less work than a detailed analysis by differential equations.
The results obtained by applying dimensional analysis, like any other
method of analysis, are limited by the completeness and correctness of original
assumptions. If all the variables involved in problem are recognized, then it is
possible by dimensional analysis to predict the relationship among the variables in
form of mathematical expressions, before resorting to experimentation. In this
respect, dimensional analysis is a very valuable tool, because it points out the

Mathematical Modeling And Simulation

 NWS

manner in which anyof the factors vary when the other quantities are verified and
therefore enables the experimenter to determine which factors will be varied and
which held constant in his experiments.
Usually it is desired to determine the dependence of one physical quantity
upon a number of other physical quantities that are supposed to enter into a
problem or experiment . It will be noted that dimensional analysis does not
answer the question. It does not tell on what quantities does the result depend but
it answers how does the result depend upon certain quantities which are known to
affect it.
The scope as well as the limitations of dimensional analysis have been
summarized by Langnaar who states, “Dimensional analysis is a method by which
we deduce information about a phenomenon from the single premise that the
phenomenon can be described by a dimensionally correct equation among certain
variables. The generality of the method is both its strength and its weakness.
With little effort, a partial solution to nearly any problem is obtained. On the other
hand, a complete solution is not obtained nor is the inner mechanism of a
phenomenon revealed by dimensional reasoning alone.

5.0 FRACTIONAL FACTORIAL EXPERIMENTS :

Investigators frequently have an extensive list of factors that may possibly
have an effect on he response. However, it is often not feasible to conduct a full 2k
factorial experiment when the number of factors k is large since this would require
experiments (runs) at all combinations of two levels of each of k factors. That is,
the number of runs increases rapidly with k; for example, a full factorial with seven
factors requires 27 = 128 runs. In this section we show that certain well chosen
parts of the 2k factorial design allow us to estimate the main relationships without
tooo much loss of information. If that part is only 1/2p of the full 2k factorial design,
it is called a 2k-p fractional factorial design, If p = 1, we talk about a half fraction as
we perform one-half of the original; if p = 2,a quarter fraction; and so on.
Let us consider an illustration with k = 3 factors. Instead of studying the
response at all eight factor-level combinations in the 23 factorial, we consider a
half fraction (p = 1). The question now becomes: Which four runs should be
selected in the 23-1 fractional factorial design? One possible, and in fact, very
good half fraction uses the factor-level combinations listed in Table. This
particular fraction supplies a complete factorial in each of the three pairs of factors
because any projection of the 23-1 design into a two-dimensional plane produces a
complete 22 factorial experiment. Such a design is therefore good in screening
situations in which it can reasonably be assumed that out of three factors, no
more than two are of importance.
Obviously, since there are only four runs, we cannot estimate three main
effects, three two-factor interactions, and the three-factor interaction separately. In
fact, we note from Table that the levels of the third factor in x3 are selected so that
x3 = x1x2. Thus the linear combination that correspondents to the third column,
denoted by L3 = (Y1 – Y2 – Y3 + Y4)/4. confounds the main effect (3) and the two-
factor interaction (12). Our notation in Table, L3—(3) + (12), expresses the fact
that L3 estimates the sum of (3) and (12).
The formal multiplication of one column by itself gives a column o f + sings,
which is denoted by I ; that is, I = x1x1 = x2x2 = x3x3 and Ix1 = x1,lx2 = x2, and lx3 =
x3. Thus x3 = x1x2 is equivalent to I = x1x2x3, as can be seen from the multiplication
with x3. Hence it is also true that x1 = x1x1x2x3 = x2x3. Accordingly, we find that L1

Mathematical Modeling And Simulation

 NWS

= (-Y1+Y2-Y3+Y4)/4 confounds (1) and (23). In addition, the fact that x2 = x2x1x2x3 =
x1x3 means L2 = (-Y1 – Y2 + Y3 + Y4)/4 confounds (2) and (13). Finally, since the
x1x2x3 product column is equal to a column of + signs, which we denote by 1, the
average L0 = (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4)/4 estimates the overall mean level µ plus the
three-factor interaction (123).
The relationship that generates the levels of the third factor, x3 = x1x2, is
equivalent to x3x3 = x1x2x3 and thus I = x1x2x3. This relationship is called the
generator of the 23-1 fractional factorial. As seen earlier, the confounding patters
can be obtained from the equation I = x1x2x3;
Lx1 = x1(x1x2x3) or x1 = x2x3, since x1x2 = I
Lx2 = x2(x1x2x3) or x2 = x1x3, since x2x2 = I
Lx3 = x3(x1x2x3) or x3 = x1x2, since x3x3 = I.
The factor-level combinations and the confounding patterns in the 23-1
fractional factorial are summarized in Table.
Since pairs of effects have been confounded, we cannot tell which member
of a pair might cause a significant measurement. Thus we say that one member of
such a pair is the alias of the other. In this illustration, we have alias pairs (1) and
(23), (2) and (13), and (3) and (12)

The 23-1 Fractional Factorial

with x3 = x1x2

Design

Run x1 x2 x3 y

1 - - + Y1
2 + - - Y2
3 - + - Y3
4 + + + Y4

L0 = (Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4) / 4 – µ + (123)

L1 = (-Y1 + Y2 - Y3 + Y4) / 4 –(1) + (23)
L2 = (-Y1 - Y2 + Y3 + Y4) / 4 –(2) + (13)
L3 = (Y1 - Y2 - Y3 + Y4) / 4 –(3) + (12)

6.0 CONCLUSION :
Subjectivity plays an important role in the choice among statistical methods
or formulas to be used in a given situation, in deciding on the size of a sample, in
specifying the probabilities with which we are willing to risk errors and so forth.

Mathematical Modeling And Simulation

 NWS

However, fractional factorial experiments are of considerable value in situations

where experiments are performed in sequence. Having performed one fraction,
the results can be reviewed; and if there is ambiguity, a further group of
experiments can be selected to resolve the uncertainty.

7.0 BIBILIOGRAPHY
1. Cochran. W.G and Cox. M, “Experimental Designs”. John Wiley &
Sons, Singapore.
2. Dave Smith, “Welding Skills and Technology”.
3. H. B. Carry, “Modern Welding Technology”.
4. ASM HAND BOOK, VOL. 6 “WELDING, BRAZING & SOLDERING”.
5. A.B. CORNU, Advanced Welding Technology”.

Mathematical Modeling And Simulation