BiophilicApproachtoArchitectureCaseoftheAlhambraal Andalus PDF

Alexandria University
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Architectural Engineering
Biophilic Approach to Architecture:

Case of the Alhambra, al-Andalus
A Thesis
Submitted to the Architectural Engineering Department

Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
In
Architectural Engineering
Presented by
Ahmed Mohammed Mamdouh Abdul-Mohsen al-Rhodesly
B.Sc. in Architectural Engineering,

Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University
2019
In the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful
ABSTRACT
Humankind has historically expressed an interdependent connection with nature, with much
of human consciousness emanating from thoughtful study of the natural world around. The
last decades have witnessed an incessant growth in working to determine aspects of nature
that most influence people satisfaction with the built environment. As new proofs appear, the
rapports between nature, science and the built environment are becoming easier to understand
old wisdom and novel potentials. Thus, characteristic interdisciplinary approaches have been
systematically integrated, formulating the scientific basis for new areas of research into the
field of design as well as psychology and anthropology. However, these approaches are not
ordinarily applied to comprehend historic buildings from a wider architectural insight. Hence,
this thesis seeks to deepen the analysis of the Alhambra architecture in Granada, Spain (a
World Heritage site) using a novel concept which kept pace with contemporary
methodologies. This stems from the researcher’s observation that several analyses have
focused much attention on the Alhambra’s historical, stylistic or constructional aspects
without adequate studying of its relationship with present global needs in architecture.
Accordingly, the aim of the thesis is to demonstrate that the Alhambra architecture
manifests a successful biophilic design, which may allow for a positive impact on human
health and well-being. Therefore, this thesis attempts to correlate the architectural heritage
with the health sciences in context of biophilic design by exploring the biophilia hypothesis
and biophilic design; interpreting the dialogue between nature and the Alhambra’s cultural
and structural features; realizing the likely effects of the “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design”,
proposed by Terrapin Bright Green consulting firm, on human health and well-being; and
investigating the presence of these patterns in the Alhambra architecture in addition to five
examples of its analogues around the world.
The results of the thesis reveal that the Alhambra is an outstanding model for meeting the
14 patterns of biophilic design. This would explain how biophilic design can be applied
through an actual example that has impressive cultural and historical characteristics, as well
as highlight the probable effect of the Alhambra architecture on the health and well-being of
its visitors.
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I thank Allah Almighty, for helping me and giving me the opportunity,
knowledge, and strength to accomplish this thesis.
Also, I would like to express my gratitude to my academic supervisors: Prof. Dr. Tarek
Farghaly, Prof. Dr. Khalid al-Hagla and Prof. Dr. Mohamed el-Gamal for their constant
encouragement, valuable insights, and sincere guidance in completing the thesis.
In addition, I am thankful to the librarians at Department of Architecture, Faculty of

Engineering, Alexandria University and at Bibliotheca Alexandrina (Library of Alexandria)
for providing me with the appropriate atmosphere to carry out the research process.
Moreover, I am grateful to the administration of Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife

(Council of the Alhambra and Generalife) for facilitating my visit to the Alhambra.
Further, I genuinely appreciate everything my family have done for me. I am really
thankful for all kinds of support it provided to me.
ii
DEDICATION
To
My Parents M. Mamdouh & Eman,
My Grandmother Zainab,
My Sisters Dalia & Reem,
My Brother Yousef,
&
To
The Memory of my Friend
Mohammed al-Khalat
Ahmed al-Rhodesly
iii
EPIGRAPH
‫ و ر‬،‫بالتاث وحده‬
‫ يمكن لكل جيل جديد أن‬،‫باحتام عمل األجيال األقدم و البناء عليه‬ ‫ ذلك أنه ر‬،‫”إن رللتاث دور خالق يقوم به‬
‫ يمكننا أن نقول إن الدورة قد‬،‫ و عندما يحل رالتاث مشكلته و يتوقف عن النمو‬.‫إيجاب نحو حل المشكلة‬ ‫ي‬ ‫يصنع بعض تقدم‬
‫ر‬
‫ يكون هناك من الدورات ما ي‬،‫ كما يف النشاطات البشية األخرى و كما يف العمليات الطبيعية‬،‫ إال أنه يف العمارة‬.‫اكتملت‬
‫ه يف‬
‫ … و ما إن يتم إرساء و قبول تقليد بعينه‬،‫ و أخرى عند كل أطوار النمو فيما بي الطرفي‬،‫ و أخرى قد اكتملت‬،‫بدايتها فحسب‬
‫اإلضاف الذي‬ ‫الذاب و بصتته العزم‬‫يبق عىل تواصل هذا رالتاث عىل أن يعطيه من ابتكاره ر‬ ‫حت يكون من واجب الفنان أن ر‬ ‫ر‬
‫ي‬ ‫ي‬
“.‫ينته األمر به إىل التوقف‬
‫ي‬ ‫ينقذه من أن‬
)1989-1900( ‫فتح‬
‫ي‬ ‫―حسن‬
“Heritage has a creative role to play, for it is only by heritage, by respecting and building on
the work of earlier generations, each new generation may make some positive progress
toward the solution of the problem. When heritage has solved its problem and ceased
developing, we may say that a cycle has been completed. However, in architecture, as in
other human activities and in natural processes, there are cycles just beginning, others that
have been completed, and others at all stages of development in between, … Once a
particular tradition is established and accepted, the individual artist’s duty is to keep this
heritage going, with his own invention and insight to give it that additional momentum that
will save it from coming to a standstill.”
―Hassan Fathy (1900-1989)
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS BIOPHILIC APPROACH TO ARCHITECTURE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................... II
DEDICATION ........................................................................................................................III
EPIGRAPH ............................................................................................................................. IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ V
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. X
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... XI
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................... XV
GLOSSARY OF FOREIGN WORDS............................................................................... XVI
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1

1.1 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM ........................................................................................... 2
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................... 2
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PLAN OF WORK ..................................... 3
CHAPTER 2: BIOPHILIA AS A DESIGN DEMAND ........................................................ 7

2.1 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................... 7
2.2 DEFINING NATURE ................................................................................................. 7
2.3 THE BIOPHILIA HYPOTHESIS ............................................................................. 7
2.3.1 Erich Fromm .......................................................................................................... 8
2.3.2 Edward O. Wilson .................................................................................................. 8
2.3.3 Stephen R. Kellert .................................................................................................. 8
2.4 BIOPHILIC DESIGN ................................................................................................. 9
2.4.1 Defining Biophilic Design ..................................................................................... 9
2.4.2 Biophilic Design in the context of Green Building ................................................ 9
2.4.2.1 The Attitude of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
Toward Biophilic Design .................................................................................. 10
2.4.2.2 The Attitude of the Living Building Challenge (LBC) Toward Biophilic
Design ............................................................................................................... 11
2.4.3 Biophilic Design Milestones ................................................................................ 12
2.4.3.1 Range of Biophilic Values (S. Kellert) ................................................................. 13
2.4.3.2 Dimensions, Elements and Attributes of Biophilic Design (Kellert et al.) ........... 14
2.4.3.3 Principles, Experiences and Attributes of Biophilic Design (S. Kellert) ............. 14
2.4.3.4 Patterns of Biophilic Design (Terrapin Bright Green, LLC.) ................................... 14
2.4.3.5 Characteristics of Biophilic Buildings (Heerwagen and Hase).............................. 15
2.4.3.6 A Sampling of Biophilic Design Strategies (A. Wilson) ....................................... 15
2.4.3.7 Qualities and Attributes of Biophilic Buildings (Rocky Mountain Institute) ........... 15
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2.5 EFFECTS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN ON HUMAN HEALTH AND

WELL-BEING .................................................................................................................... 16
2.5.1 Biophilic Environment and Well-being ............................................................... 17
2.5.2 Biophilic Design and Mind-body Impacts ........................................................... 18
2.5.2.1 Cognitive Functionality and Performance........................................................ 19
2.5.2.2 Psychological Health and Well-being .............................................................. 19
2.5.2.3 Physiological Health and Well-being ............................................................... 19
2.6 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 3: THE ALHAMBRA ARCHITECTURE, GRANADA ................................ 21

3.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 21
3.2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE ALHAMBRA .............................................. 22
3.2.1 What is al-Andalus ............................................................................................... 23
3.2.2 What is the Nasrid Kingdom ................................................................................ 24
3.2.3 What is the Alhambra and why was it built ......................................................... 24
3.2.4 Why is the Alhambra conserved today ................................................................ 26
3.3 STRUCTURE OF THE ALHAMBRA .................................................................... 26
3.3.1 The Alhambra as a City ........................................................................................ 27
3.3.2 The Palaces ........................................................................................................... 28
3.3.3 The Baths.............................................................................................................. 30
3.3.4 The Gardens and Orchards ................................................................................... 30
3.4 SOCIAL MEMORY OF THE ALHAMBRA ......................................................... 31
3.4.1 Who lived at the Alhambra .................................................................................. 32
3.4.2 Life in the Court ................................................................................................... 32
3.4.3 Life in the Medina ................................................................................................ 33
3.5 THE ALHAMBRA AND THE EARTHLY PARADISE CONCEPT ................... 33
3.5.1 Yearning for Heavenly Paradise in the Islamic Culture ....................................... 34
3.5.2 Roots of the Earthly Paradise concept in the Alhambra....................................... 35
3.5.2.1 Description of Water in Heavenly Paradise ..................................................... 35
3.5.2.2 Description of Vegetation in Heavenly Paradise.............................................. 36
3.5.2.3 Description of Shade in Heavenly Paradise ..................................................... 37
3.6 THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN NATURE AND THE ALHAMBRA
ARCHITECTURE .............................................................................................................. 38
3.6.1 Nature transformed into architectural elements in the Alhambra ........................ 38
3.6.2 Nature transformed into architectural experience in the Alhambra ..................... 39
3.7 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 4: BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA

ARCHITECTURE ................................................................................................................. 43
4.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................... 43
4.2 NATURE IN THE SPACE ....................................................................................... 43
4.2.1 Visual Connection with Nature ............................................................................ 43
4.2.1.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 43
4.2.1.2 Roots of the pattern ........................................................................................... 43
4.2.1.3 Appearance of the pattern in the Alhambra ...................................................... 44
4.2.2 Non-Visual Connection with Nature .................................................................... 45
4.2.2.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 45
4.2.3 Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli ........................................................................... 46
vi
4.2.3.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 46

4.2.4 Thermal and Airflow Variability.......................................................................... 47
4.2.4.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 47
4.2.5 Presence of Water................................................................................................. 51
4.2.5.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 51
4.2.6 Dynamic and Diffuse Light .................................................................................. 53
4.2.6.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 53
4.2.7 Connection with Natural Systems ........................................................................ 56
4.2.7.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 56
4.3 NATURAL ANALOGUES ....................................................................................... 59
4.3.1 Biomorphic Forms and Patterns ........................................................................... 59
4.3.1.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 59
4.3.2 Material Connection with Nature ......................................................................... 62
4.3.2.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 62
4.3.3 Complexity and Order .......................................................................................... 64
4.3.3.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 64
4.4 NATURE OF THE SPACE ...................................................................................... 69
4.4.1 Prospect ................................................................................................................ 69
4.4.1.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 69
4.4.2 Refuge .................................................................................................................. 70
4.4.2.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 70
4.4.3 Mystery................................................................................................................. 72
4.4.3.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 72
4.4.4 Risk/ Peril ............................................................................................................. 73
4.4.4.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 73
4.5 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 74
vii
CHAPTER 5: RULING BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA[S]

ARCHITECTURE AROUND THE WORLD ..................................................................... 77
5.1 INTRODUCTION: THE UNIVERSAL ALHAMBRA ......................................... 77
5.2 THE GEZIRA PALACE, EGYPT ........................................................................... 78
5.3 SA BASSA BLANCA MUSEUM, SPAIN ............................................................... 82
5.4 BOU INANIA MADRASA, MOROCCO................................................................ 86
5.5 ROYAL MANSOUR MARRAKECH HOTEL, MOROCCO .............................. 91
5.6 PALACE OF THE OSWALDO CRUZ FOUNDATION, BRAZIL ..................... 96
5.7 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 99
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................... 101

6.1 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................. 101
6.2 THE RESEARCH MAIN FINDINGS ................................................................... 102
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 102
6.4 FURTHER RESEARCH ........................................................................................ 103
REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 105-114
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: BIOPHILIA WITHIN CONCEPTS OF REGENERATION AND SUSTAINABILITY
APPENDIX B: ILLUSTRATION OF “RANGE OF BIOPHILIC VALUES”
APPENDIX C: ILLUSTRATION OF “DIMENSIONS, ELEMENTS AND ATTRIBUTES OF BIOPHILIC
DESIGN”
viii
APPENDIX D: ILLUSTRATION OF “GOALS, PRINCIPLES, EXPERIENCES AND ATTRIBUTES OF

BIOPHILIC DESIGN”
APPENDIX E: ILLUSTRATIONS OF “14 PATTERNS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN”
APPENDIX F: ILLUSTRATIONS OF “CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOPHILIC BUILDINGS”
APPENDIX G: ILLUSTRATIONS OF “BIOPHILIC DESIGN STRATEGIES”
APPENDIX H: ILLUSTRATION OF “QUALITIES AND ATTRIBUTES OF BIOPHILIC BUILDINGS”
APPENDIX I: HASSAN FATHY’S ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS FOR SA BASSA BLANCA, SPAIN
APPENDIX J: THE RESEARCHER’S PAPER PUBLISHED IN “HERITAGE 2018 – 6TH
INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HERITAGE AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT” IN GRANADA, SPAIN
ARABIC SUMMARY ........................................................................... ‫ملخص الرسالة باللغة العربية‬
ix
LIST OF TABLES BIOPHILIC APPROACH TO ARCHITECTURE
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1. Correlation of key elements from LEED credits in relation to Kellert et al.’s
biophilic design guidelines .................................................................................... 10
Table 4.1. Pattern of ‘Visual Connection with Nature’ and mind-body responses .................. 44
Table 4.2. Pattern of ‘Non-visual Connection with Nature’ and mind-body responses .......... 45
Table 4.3. Pattern of ‘Non-rhythmic Sensory Stimuli’ and mind-body responses .................. 46
Table 4.4. Pattern of ‘Thermal and Airflow Variability’ and mind-body responses ............... 48
Table 4.5. Pattern of ‘Presence of Water’ and mind-body responses ...................................... 51
Table 4.6. Pattern of ‘Dynamic and Diffuse Light’ and mind-body responses ....................... 54
Table 4.7. Pattern of ‘Connection with Natural Systems’ and mind-body responses .............. 56
Table 4.8. Pattern of ‘Biomorphic Forms and Patterns’ and mind-body responses................. 59
Table 4.9. Pattern of ‘Material Connection with Nature’ and mind-body response ................ 62
Table 4.10. Pattern of ‘Complexity and Order’ and mind-body responses.............................. 64
Table 4.11. Pattern of ‘Prospect’ and mind-body responses .................................................... 70
Table 4.12. Pattern of ‘Refuge’ and mind-body responses ...................................................... 71
Table 4.13. Pattern of ‘Mystery’ and mind-body responses .................................................... 72
Table 4.14. Pattern of ‘Risk/Peril’ and mind-body responses.................................................. 73
Table 4.15. The 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design in the Alhambra architecture ...................... 74
Table 5.1. Comparison between examples of the Alhambras according to the ruling biophilic
design in the Alhambra of Granada ..................................................................... 100
x
LIST OF FIGURES BIOPHILIC APPROACH TO ARCHITECTURE
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Diagrammatic Representation of Thesis Structure .................................................. 5

Figure 2.1. OHE: Optimal Healing Environmental strategy .................................................... 16
Figure 2.2. Aspects of Well-being ........................................................................................... 17
Figure 3.1. General view of the Alhambra and Generalife, Granada ....................................... 21
Figure 3.2. Parts of the Alhambra and Generalife.................................................................... 25
Figure 3.3. The Alhambra on the Sabika hill ........................................................................... 27
Figure 3.4. The Nasrid Palaces of the Alhambra ..................................................................... 28
Figure 3.5. The Palace of Comares, Alhambra ........................................................................ 29
Figure 3.6. The Palace of the Lions ......................................................................................... 29
Figure 3.7. The Partal Palace, Alhambra ................................................................................. 29
Figure 3.8. The Generalife Palace, Alhambra .......................................................................... 29
Figure 3.9. The Bath of Comares, Alhambra ........................................................................... 30
Figure 3.10. The inscription “al-Ghibta al-Mutasilah” in the Alhambra ................................. 34
Figure 3.11. Water in the Court of the Water Channel ............................................................ 35
Figure 3.12. Water within the Gardens of the Partal ................................................................ 35
Figure 3.13. The four water channels in the Court of the Lions .............................................. 36
Figure 3.14. Nearby fruits in the Alhambra ............................................................................. 37
Figure 3.15. Shade in the Garden of Dar Aisha (Jardín de Daraxa/Lindaraja) ........................ 37
Figure 3.16. Facades of the Court of the Golden Room .......................................................... 39
Figure 3.17. Hedges in the Lower Gardens of Generalife ....................................................... 40
Figure 3.18. Hedges in the Royal Road of the Alhambra ........................................................ 40
Figure 4.1. The Generalife Palace ............................................................................................ 44
Figure 4.2. The Court of the Water Channel ............................................................................ 44
Figure 4.3. The Soultana’s Court ............................................................................................. 44
Figure 4.4. Flowers of the Alhambra ....................................................................................... 45
Figure 4.5. Orchards of the Alhambra...................................................................................... 46
Figure 4.6. QR code for sound records in the Palace of the Lions........................................... 46
Figure 4.7. A red squirrel in the forest of the Alhambra .......................................................... 47
Figure 4.8. The scops owl in the Alhambra ............................................................................. 47
Figure 4.9. Hedgehogs in the Alhambra .................................................................................. 47
Figure 4.10. Cat movement in the Alhambra ........................................................................... 47
Figure 4.11. A frog in the Alhambra ........................................................................................ 47
Figure 4.12. The insectivorous birds in the Alhambra, Source: Juan Pérez Contreras ............ 47
Figure 4.13. The myrtle in the Alhambra ................................................................................. 47
Figure 4.14. Natural light in some remarkable spaces of the Alhambra .................................. 49
Figure 4.15. Adjustment and controlled inner illumination in different porticoes in the
Alhambra palaces, transition between the inside and outside of different
chambers ........................................................................................................... 49
Figure 4.16. Water and vegetation in the patios in the palace’s patios .................................... 50
Figure 4.17. Stack effect in the Princesses and Captive towers ............................................... 50
Figure 4.18. Venturi effect in the Hall of Comares .................................................................. 50
Figure 4.19. The Water Stairway in the Generalife ................................................................. 52
Figure 4.20. Fountain of the Court of the Golden Room ......................................................... 52
Figure 4.21. Water in the Court of the Myrtles ........................................................................ 52
Figure 4.22. Water in the Court of the Lions ........................................................................... 53
Figure 4.23. Water in the terraces of the Partal Gardens ......................................................... 53
Figure 4.24. Touching water of a fountain in the Alhambra .................................................... 53
xi
Figure 4.25. Reflection of the Palace of Comares’ facade on the pool of Court of the Myrtles
............................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 4.26. Arch detail from the enclosed Balcony of Dar Aisha .......................................... 55
Figure 4.27. Cupola of the Hall of the Two Sisters.................................................................. 55
Figure 4.28. “Qubba” of the Hall of the Abencerrages ............................................................ 55
Figure 4.29. Looking up into the Hall of the Ambassadors .................................................... 55
Figure 4.30. The lattice windows in the Hall of the Ambassadors .......................................... 55
Figure 4.31. The high-placed lattice windows in the Hall of the Kings .................................. 55
Figure 4.32. The lattice windows in an alcove at the Hall of the Ambassadors ...................... 56
Figure 4.33. View from upper terrace of the Partal Gardens ................................................... 56
Figure 4.34. Water channels linked to the Darro River, from which the Alhambra receives its
water supply ........................................................................................................ 57
Figure 4.35. Channels, slender streams and waterfalls within the walkways and groves around
the Alhambra ....................................................................................................... 57
Figure 4.36. The seasonal changes in the Alhambra and Generalife ....................................... 58
Figure 4.37. Some arabesque ceramic tiles within the Alhambra ............................................ 60
Figure 4.38. The enclosed Balcony of Dar Aisha (Mirador de Daraxa/Lindaraja) .................. 61
Figure 4.39. Ceiling of the Hall of Ambassadors ..................................................................... 61
Figure 4.40. The muqarnas in the Hall of the Kings ................................................................ 61
Figure 4.41. The muqarnas in the west pavilion’s ceiling in the Palace of the Lions .............. 61
Figure 4.42. Ornamental epigraphs at eye level in the Court of the Myrtles ........................... 61
Figure 4.43. South facade of the Court of the Golden Room showing the basic decoration
materials used in the Alhambra ........................................................................... 63
Figure 4.44. The lattice windows in the Alhambra .................................................................. 63
Figure 4.45. The ceiling of the room that links the Court of the Golden Room with the Court
of the Myrtles ...................................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.46. The Oratory ceiling of the Partal Palace .............................................................. 63
Figure 4.47. The skylight of the enclosed Balcony of Dar Aisha (Mirador de
Daraxa/Lindaraja)........................................................................................... 63
Figure 4.48. Colors on a stucco covering of muqarnas found in the Palace of the Lions ........ 64
Figure 4.49. Proportional layout of the Elevation of the West Pavilion .................................. 66
Figure 4.50. Proportional layout of Court of the Lions ............................................................ 66
Figure 4.51. Proportional layout of columns within the Court of Lions .................................. 66
Figure 4.52. Proportional layout of Palace of the Lions .......................................................... 66
Figure 4.53. Proportional layout of the Fountain of the Lions ................................................. 67
Figure 4.54. Proportional layout of the Fountain of the Lions relative to the Courtyard ........ 67
Figure 4.55. The Golden Ratio in the Palace of the Lions ....................................................... 67
Figure 4.56. The Golden Ratio in the Bath of Comares ........................................................... 68
Figure 4.57. Lengths proportions between the Palace of Comares and the Palace of the Lions
............................................................................................................................. 68
Figure 4.58. The order between the Palace of the Lions, the Palace of Comares and the
Mexuar ................................................................................................................ 69
Figure 4.59. Views towards the Alhambra’s surroundings ...................................................... 70
Figure 4.60. Views into the Generalife’s Court of the Water Channel .................................... 70
Figure 4.61. A view from the Tower of the Ladies, the Partal Palace ..................................... 71
Figure 4.62. The Oratory of the Partal Palace .......................................................................... 71
Figure 4.63. Pathways between the rammed earth wall of the Alhambra and trees ................ 72
Figure 4.64. The Gate of Bab al-Ramla within the Alhambra forest ....................................... 73
Figure 4.65. Spaces in the Alhambra stimulate a good Risk/Peril condition ........................... 74
Figure 5.1. Drawing of an entrance to the Court of Lions ....................................................... 78
xii
Figure 5.2. Details of an arch in portico of the Court of Lions ................................................ 78

Figure 5.3. Historic view of the Gezira Palace kiosk facade ................................................... 79
Figure 5.4. Postcard showing the selamlik of the Gezira Palace at the turn of the 20th century
............................................................................................................................... 79
Figure 5.5. Views of the Gezira Palace garden ........................................................................ 79
Figure 5.6. Views of the Nile River from the Gezira Palace ................................................... 79
Figure 5.7. Two fountains in the Gezira Palace ....................................................................... 80
Figure 5.8. Reflection of the western facade of the Gezira Palace on the pool ....................... 80
Figure 5.9. Details of the cast-iron porticoes in the Gezira Palace .......................................... 80
Figure 5.10. Islamic geometric patterns on walls and ceilings in the Gezira Palace ............... 81
Figure 5.11. Complexity and order in the Alhambresque style porticoes at the eastern entrance
of the Gezira Palace ............................................................................................ 81
Figure 5.12. Sa Bassa Blanca, Alcúdia, Spain ......................................................................... 82
Figure 5.13. The Mudéjar garden in the courtyard of Sa Bassa Blanca Museum .................... 83
Figure 5.14. The enclosed garden surrounding the main building of Sa Bassa Blanca Museum
............................................................................................................................. 83
Figure 5.15. The vantage point of Sa Bassa Blanca Museum high above the sea ................... 83
Figure 5.16. Presence of water in Sa Bassa Blanca Museum .................................................. 83
Figure 5.17. Mashrabiyas in Sa Bassa Blanca Museum .......................................................... 84
Figure 5.18. Tiles on walls and floor in Sa Bassa Blanca Museum ......................................... 84
Figure 5.19. Clay bricks in the main cupola of Sa Bassa Blanca Museum .............................. 84
Figure 5.20. Mudéjar coffered ceiling in the Karlweis Wing, Sa Bassa Blanca Museum ....... 85
Figure 5.21. Hassan Fathy’s sketches for the main cupola in Sa Bassa Blanca Museum........ 85
Figure 5.22. Bou Inania Madrasa, Fez, Morocco ..................................................................... 86
Figure 5.23. A marble fountain in the Bou Inania Madrasa’s courtyard ................................. 86
Figure 5.24. A water-channel at the edge of the Bou Inania Madrasa’s courtyard .................. 86
Figure 5.25. Facade with ornaments and arched frames with muqarnas in the Bou Inania
Madrasa ............................................................................................................... 87
Figure 5.26. Ornate inscriptional motifs in the Bou Inania Madrasa ....................................... 87
Figure 5.27. Detail of zellige in the Bou Inania Madrasa ........................................................ 87
Figure 5.28. Ornamented court facades in the Bou Inania Madrasa ........................................ 87
Figure 5.29. The ornate prayer-hall in the Bou Inania Madrasa .............................................. 88
Figure 5.30. Wooden ceilings in the Bou Inania Madrasa ....................................................... 88
Figure 5.31. Carved wooden frieze and brackets for a court facade in the Bou Inania Madrasa
............................................................................................................................. 88
Figure 5.32. Diagram for the analyzed southwest facade in the Bou Inania Madrasa ............. 89
Figure 5.33. Diagram for the decomposition of the southwest facade in the Bou Inania
Madrasa ............................................................................................................... 89
Figure 5.34. Structural graph for the southwest facade in the Bou Inania Madrasa ................ 89
Figure 5.35. Schemes of the southwest facade’s structural arrangement in the Bou Inania
Madrasa ............................................................................................................... 90
Figure 5.36. Zellige panels in the Bou Inania Madrasa: (a) A panel in the madrasa; (b) An
infinite quasiperiodic pattern; & (c) A finite part of the quasiperiodic pattern .. 90
Figure 5.37. Wooden gates at the Bou Inania Madrasa ........................................................... 90
Figure 5.38. Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel, Morocco ........................................................ 91
Figure 5.39. Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel’s visual connection with nature ..................... 91
Figure 5.40. Presence of water in Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel ....................................... 92
Figure 5.41. Biomorphic forms and patterns in Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel ................. 93
Figure 5.42. Representation of natural-source materials in Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel 94
Figure 5.43. Complexity and order in design of Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel ................ 95
xiii
Figure 5.44. Facade of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation Palace (FIOCRUZ), inspired by the
Alhambra, Granada, Spain .................................................................................. 96
Figure 5.45. FIOCRUZ’s visual connection with nature ......................................................... 96
Figure 5.46. FIOCRUZ’s biomorphic forms and patterns ....................................................... 97
Figure 5.47. Representation of natural-source materials in FIOCRUZ ................................... 98
xiv
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS BIOPHILIC APPROACH TO ARCHITECTURE
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
FIOCRUZ Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Foundation of Oswaldo Cruz)
FYBJ Fundación Yannick Vu Ben Jakober

(Foundation of Yannick and Ben Jakober)
IPHAN Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional

(National Historic and Artistic Heritage Institute)
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
LBC Living Building Challenge
LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
MSBB Museum of Sa Bassa Blanca
OHE Optimal Healing Environments
PAG Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife

(Council of the Alhambra and Generalife)
RMI Rocky Mountain Institute
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization
USGBC United States Green Building Council
xv
GLOSSARY OF FOREIGN WORDS BIOPHILIC APPROACH TO ARCHITECTURE
GLOSSARY OF FOREIGN WORDS
Allah The proper name of God and is not used to denote any other
being
Al-Andalus Iberian territory that was under Muslim rule, regardless of its
geographical dimensions at any given time
Alawiyya dynasty The ruling dynasty of Egypt and Sudan from the 19th to the
mid-20th century
Alcazaba A fortified area within a walled city, used as a refuge for

soldiers or as a residence for the governor; usually built in the
higher sections of the city
Al-Ghibta al-Mutasilah Expression of joy, happiness and well-being
Alhambra The Red One, referred to the red color of soil of the hill where
the Alhambra stands
Alliesthesia Perception of temporal and spatial pleasure
Almohad The Muslim dynasty that governed al-Andalus and North

Africa in the 12th century and early 13th century
Amazighs The native population of North Africa, many of whom entered

the Iberian Peninsula with the Eastern Arabs and Muslims
Barakah Manifestation of blessing or divine grace
Calahorra Tower fortress used as miniature palace
Chapines Clogs
Emirate/ Sultanate A state or country governed by an emir/ a sultan
Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Foundation of Oswaldo Cruz
Fundación Yannick Vu Ben Foundation of Yannick and Ben Jakober

Jakober
Generalife Garden of the master builder/ architect
Hadith A narrative record of the sayings or customs of Prophet

Muhammad
Hammam/ Hamamat Arab bath/ baths
Hortus Conclusus Enclosed Garden
xvi
Madrasa Muslim university or school dedicated mainly to religious

studies and in which students reside
Marinid Of or relating to the Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and

other parts of North Africa from the 13th to the 15th century
Mashrabiya(s) Type of enclosed balconies or windows decorated with carved

wood latticework
Medina/ Madinat City
Mihrab Niche built into the Qibla wall, further highlighting the
direction of Mecca
Moriscos Muslims who were forced to convert to Christianity upon the

fall of al-Andalus
Mudéjar Refers to an architecture and decoration style in Spain after

the fall of al-Andalus that was strongly influenced by the
Islamic attributes
Muqarnas Plaster or wood decoration formed by geometric combinations

of interlocking prisms, the undersides of which have a
concave surface. Their shape is reminiscent of a stalactite and
they are used to decorate arches, vaults, capitals and the inside
of domes and other architectural elements
Myrtus communis Common myrtle
Nasrid Of or relating to the dynasty of sultans that ruled in Granada

—Banu Nasr
Prophet Muhammad The final prophet of the divine message of Islam
Qibla Sacred orientation indicating the direction of Mecca, which

Muslims are supposed to face while praying
Qubba Dome
Quran The holy book of Islam
Rawda Royal cemetery for sultans
Riad In al-Andalus: courtyard gardens

In Morocco: a traditional Moroccan house, something like a
two-storey villa, with rooms arranged around a central
courtyard
Ribat Fortified building
Selamlik Part of a Turkish palace or house kept for men
xvii
Sultan Sovereign of an independent Islamic state, the maximum

political authority that recognizes the higher power of a caliph
Surah A term for a chapter of the Quran; there are 114 Surahs in the
Quran
Umayyad Of or relating to the Muslim dynasty that founded its capital in

Damascus (661-744) then was overthrown there, and came to
rule again but in al-Andalus
Zellige Patterned mosaic tilework used to ornament walls, ceilings,

and other surfaces
xviii
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
1.1 BACKGROUND ............................................................. 1

1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM ................................................ 2
1.3 AIM & OBJECTIVES .................................................... 2
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY & PLAN OF WORK
........................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Nature patterns can be recognized in the earliest human masterpieces such as stylized
animals feature of the sphinx of Egypt, or the acanthus leaves adorning temples of Greece.
Representations of animals and plants have long been utilized for symbolic and decorative
ornamentation. Besides, many civilizations around the globe have long brought nature into
residences and public spaces. Classic instances comprise the garden courtyards of the
Alhambra in Spain, lotus ponds in the homes Egyptian nobles, or the hanging gardens of
Babylon.
The congruity of natural attributes in historic buildings and places indicates that biophilic
design is not a new phenomenon; rather, as a scope in applied science, it is the codification of
history, human intuition and neural sciences showing that connections with nature are vital for
maintaining a healthful and active existence as an urban species (Browning et al, 2014).
Before the Industrial Revolution, the substantial majority of people lived an agrarian
existence, living much of their lives among nature. As urban populations grew in the 19th
century, reformers became increasingly concerned with health and sanitation issues for the
sake of serving workers. Providing large public parks became a goal to enhance the health and
minimize the tenseness of urban living. Then, western situations toward nature were changed
in the mid-19th century where natural landscapes became effective art subjects. Going to the
mountains or seashore for recreation was becoming a rising trend. In addition, winter gardens
became of requirements of wealthy homes in Europe and the United States.
In the first half of the 20th century, Frank Lloyd Wright promoted the notion of organic
architecture. Wright abstracted prairie flowers and plants for his art glass windows and
ornamentation. Also, he used the grain of wood and texture of brick and stone as decorative
elements. Further, Wright widened interiors to flow through houses in ways that had not been
done before, generating prospect views balanced with amiable refuges (Browning et al, 2014).
His later projects sometimes contain stimulating spaces, as the balcony jutting out over the
waterfall at Fallingwater house.
On the other hand, the European Modernists relinquished much ornamentation from their
buildings; however, they were involved in interpreting the relationship of interior to exterior.
Le Corbusier’s Cité Radiant (unbuilt 1924) may have resulted in pathetic urban designs, but
by putting towers in a park surrounded by grass and trees, he was trying to provide city
residents with a connection to nature. After that, the International Style took root, which led to
the spread of glass buildings everywhere. Subsequently, the buildings, and particularly the
interiors of office and commercial buildings, increasingly disconnected people from nature.
Therefore, in the second half of the 20th century, the term “biophilia” was coined by social
psychologist Eric Fromm (Fromm, 1964) and later popularized by biologist Edward Wilson
(Wilson, 1984). The several indications –which have derived from within the fields biology
and psychology, and been conformed to the fields of neuroscience, endocrinology,
architecture and beyond– all relate back to the desire for a (re)connection with nature and
natural systems. Such evidences suggest that human beings might instinctively tend to prefer
certain types of nature and natural scenery.
1
With the appearance of the green building movement in the early 1990s, rapports were
made between improved environmental quality and worker productivity (Romm & Browning,
1994). While the financial profits due to productivity improvements were considered crucial,
productivity was realized as a placeholder for health and well-being, which have even broader
influence (Browning et al, 2014). The healing power of a connection with nature was
established by Roger Ulrich’s landmark study comparing recovery rates of patients with and
without a view to nature (Ulrich, 1983). An experiment at a new Herman Miller
manufacturing facility, designed by William McDonough + Partners in the 1990s, was one of
the first to perform a technique for gains in productivity with connecting building occupants
to nature – which is engaged with biophilic design (Heerwagen & Hase, 2001).
The explanation of biophilia as a hypothesis into design of the built environment was the
topic of a 2004 conference and a later book on biophilic design (Kellert et al, 2008). At
present, green building standards begin to incorporate biophilia, principally for its
contribution to indoor environmental quality and connection to place. Most recently, biophilic
design is being boosted as a complementary strategy for addressing familiar challenges to
health and overall well-being. Hence, in this context, it is observed that the Alhambra
architecture in Granada, Spain fulfils this distinct strategy, the issue that will be investigated
in detail in this thesis.
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM

The scope of the thesis is organized in conformity with General-to-Specific Order (also
called the funnel approach) which examines the broad-based research first and then focuses
on specific studies that relate the topic as follows:
• Subject: Biophilic Design in Architecture

Understanding human’s innate rapport with nature in the built environment that is vital to
improve health and well-being.
• Topic: Proposing the Alhambra, al-Anadalus as a Case Study

Discussing the cultural and structural roots of the correlation between nature and
architecture in the Alhambra.
• Focus: Investigating the “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design” within the Alhambra
Architecture
Observing the presence of the “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design” within the architectural
composition of the Alhambra in Granada and five of its analogues around the world,
beside clarifying the patterns’ impacts on human health and well-being.
Accordingly, the research problem of this thesis is: Does the Alhambra show dynamic
architectural heritage values that have the potential to contribute to the regenerative
development in architecture?
1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The thesis attempts to rethink the Alhambra architecture in al-Andalus (Spain now) through
realizing the philosophies, characteristics and components that shaped this architectural
2
heritage, as well as reintroducing it in context of a novel concept mainly established from

contemporary methodologies, the “biophilic design”.
Hence, the aim of the thesis is to determine if the Alhambra architecture can manifest a
successful biophilic design, which may allow for a positive impact on human health and well-
being. This emanates from the observation that numerous analyses have focused much
attention on the Alhambra’s historical, stylistic or constructional aspects without sufficient
examination of its relationship with the current global needs in architecture. In the same way,
the thesis investigates the architectural attributes of the Alhambra that might have inspired
several buildings around the world to be unique models in their regions.
To attain this aim, it is intended to achieve the objectives of the thesis which could be listed
as follows:
• Explaining the biophilia hypothesis and biophilic design, as well as highlighting the
significance of biophilic design to human health and well-being;
• Describing the historical, structural and social aspects of the Alhambra that explore the
site and context of the Alhambra in al-Andalus under the rule of Nasrid Sultanate;
• Analyzing the architectural configuration of the Alhambra through the “14 Patterns of
Biophilic Design”, proposed by Terrapin Bright Green sustainability consulting firm; and
• Identifying the disparity of design in five examples of the Alhamabras around the world,
according to the ruling biophilic design patterns detected within the Alhambra of
Granada.
1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PLAN OF WORK

The typical Research Strategy depends on choosing appropriate Research Approach,
Research Design and Research Setting. These components could be used together in this
thesis to explain the main research problem and to achieve the previously mentioned aim and
objectives as follows:
➢ The Research Approaches
• Theoretical Studies
These studies test specific hypotheses, either suggested by experiences somewhere or

derived from more comprehensive theory. In addition, they tend to increase general insights
and focus more on the conceptual framework of a problem, rather than on precise nature of a
certain case observed.
Within the main body of the thesis, Chapter 2 covers the subjects of Defining Nature;
Biophilia Hypothesis; Biophilic Design; and Effects of Biophilic Design on Human Health
and Well-being. Moreover, Chapter 3 involves the subjects of Historical Context of the
Alhambra; Structure of the Alhambra; Social Memory of the Alhambra; the Alhambra and the
Earthly Paradise Concept; and the Dialogue between Nature and the Alhambra Architecture
(Fig. 1.1).
3
• Descriptive Studies
These studies describe certain characteristics and relationships. They develop clear
concepts and translate them into crucial issues and aspects that can be investigated.
Within the core of the thesis, Chapter 3 explores the topic of Biophilic Design Patterns in
the Alhambra Architecture which is divided into three categories: Nature in the Space;
Natural Analogues; and Nature of the Space. Further, Chapter 4 examines the extent of
fulfillment for five examples of the Alhambras around the world to the ruling biophilic design
patterns detected in the original Alhambra. These Alhambras are the Gezira Palace; Sa Bassa
Blanca Museum; Bou Inania Madrasa; Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel; and Palace of the
Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fig. 1.1).
➢ The Research Design
• Case Study
This research design develops intensive knowledge about one complex object, beside
describing and diagnosing a single but composite context. In this thesis, it delineates
boundaries of the Alhambra then observes the elements it comprises, relations among
elements and contextual influences like individuals, buildings, and processes.
➢ The Research Setting
• Normal Setting
The Normal Research Setting (non-contrived) offers a unique opportunity to make

observations in “Real Places”, or situations, with their particular elements, relationships and
dynamics, like in the case of the Alhambra.
On the other hand, several methods could be used to carry out research in the field of
architecture. In addition, they yield maximum potential when applied conjointly.
Consequently, this thesis utilizes two Research Methods as follows:
➢ The Research Methods
• Observation: Physical Traces
This method systematically looks at physical surrounding, as the context of the Alhambra,
to find certain indications, reflections or signs. From such traces, researchers infer how an
environment got to be the way it is -because of early decisions, pattern of use by people,
perception users or fulfillment of needs-.
• Observation: Environmental Behaviour
This method studies the mutual influence between the physical environment and the human
behavior patterns, like examining how the physical environment of the Alhambra might affect
the attitude and psychological well-being of its visitors.
4
• Analysis: “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design” Framework
This method articulates the relationship between the architectural configuration of the
Alhambra and human health and well-being, by analyzing the Alhambra architecture
according to the framework of “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design”.
Figure 1.1. Diagrammatic Representation of Thesis Structure, Source: the researcher
5
CHAPTER 2
BIOPHILIA AS A DESIGN DEMAND
OBJECTIVE CONTENTS
Explaining the biophilia 2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................... 7

hypothesis and biophilic 2.2 DEFINING NATURE ..................................................... 7
2.3 THE BIOPHILIA HYPOTHESIS ................................. 7
design, as well as 2.3.1 Erich Fromm ............................................................. 8
highlighting the relation 2.3.2 Edward O. Wilson ..................................................... 8
between biophilic design 2.3.3 Stephen R. Kellert ..................................................... 8
and human health and 2.4 BIOPHILIC DESIGN ..................................................... 9
well-being. 2.4.1 Defining Biophilic Design......................................... 9
2.4.2 Biophilic Design in the context of Green Building ... 9
2.4.3 Biophilic Design Milestones ................................... 12
2.5 EFFECTS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN ON HUMAN
HEALTH AND WELL-BEING ............................................... 16
2.5.1 Biophilic Environment and Well-being................... 17
2.5.2 Biophilic Design and Mind-body Impacts .............. 18
2.6 SUMMARY ................................................................... 20
CHAPTER 2 BIOPHILIA AS A DESIGN DEMAND
2 BIOPHILIA AS A DESIGN DEMAND
2.1 INTRODUCTION
People spend 90% of their time indoors, according to the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA, 2004); but with growing world population and urbanization,
even the time not spent indoors are spent in designed environments (Ojamaa, 2016). In view
of such large number of people who live in urban areas, people may find themselves separate
from nature, the matter that has become negative on man’s behavior, mental and physical
lifestyle. Therefore, architects and planners are looking forward to a solution for the built
environment that comprehends society’s urban lifestyle while integrating meaningful natural
attributes such as fresh air, daylight, vegetation, and views of nature which could enhance
human health and well-being. Hence, biophilic design focuses significantly on enriching this
vital relationship between people and nature within the built environment.
The objective of this chapter is to identify the biophilia hypothesis and biophilic design, as
well as exploring the significance of biophilic design to human health and well-being.
Accordingly, this chapter involves the subjects of Defining Nature; Biophilia Hypothesis;
Biophilic Design; and Effects of Biophilic Design on Human Health and Well-being.
2.2 DEFINING NATURE

Views of what constitutes natural, nature, wild, or beautiful greatly vary. While humans
have no intention of formalizing an explicit definition, some articulation of what is meant by
‘nature’ will help give context to practitioners of biophilic design. Simply put, Browning et al
(2014) consider that there are two extreme connotations of nature. One is that nature can only
be classified as a living organism unaffected by anthropogenic impacts on the environment.
This is a narrow perspective of nature that ultimately no longer exists because nearly
everything on Earth has been and will continue to be impacted at least indirectly by human
being.
Alternatively, it could be argued that everything, including all that humans design and
make, is natural and a part of nature because they are each extensions of people’s phenotype.
This perspective necessarily includes everything from paperback books and plastic chairs, to
chlorinated swimming pools and asphalt roadways. As a middle ground, for the purpose of
understanding the context of Biophilic Design, nature is being defined as living organisms
and non-living components of an ecosystem – inclusive of everything from the sun and moon
and seasonal arroyos, to managed forests and urban rain gardens, to the fishbowl habitat
(Browning et al, 2014).
2.3 THE BIOPHILIA HYPOTHESIS

Humans are nature and, as living beings, their need to be connected to nature is to be a part
of the greater process of life. The term biophilia may be a relatively new one, but the concept
is not. Upon breaking down the word, one arrives that bio- is “of or relating to life,” and -
philia is “denoting fondness, esp. an abnormal love for a specified thing” (Stevenson &
Lindberg, 2013). Biophilia is defined at its simplest meaning as the love of life. Thus, people
7
have been intuitively aware of it since ancient times, where natural objects, shapes, and
patterns have often acted as a source of inspiration for architects all over the history. As well,
definitions of biophilia has been developed by three influential scientists as following:
2.3.1 Erich Fromm
The constructing and coining of the term has its base in science, as one would suspect. The
psychologist, Erich Fromm, first puts the root in his book “The Heart of Man” in 1964. He
defines biophilia as a “tendency to preserve life and to fight against death” (Fromm, 1964).
The inverse of biophilia is necrophilia, which is simply defined as the love of death. Fromm
further explores biophilia nearly a decade later in “The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness”
book in 1973 and redefines it as “the passionate love of life and of all that is alive” and
furthermore “the wish to further growth, whether in a person, a plant, an idea, or a social
group” (Fromm, 1973). Not only is biophilia a personal preference inside one’s mind; it
manifests itself in the physical world and provokes an action on others. The cultivating of
biophilia will improve not only one's own character, but also the character of those others
around the biophilic person and the general environment surrounding them (Young, 2008).
2.3.2 Edward O. Wilson
Edward O. Wilson, though never relating his work to Fromm, takes the word and develops
it in the field of biology, particularly sociobiology, a few years later. Wilson first uses the
term biophilia in a 1979 article aptly titled “Biophilia,” defining it as “the rich, natural
pleasure that comes from being surrounded by living organisms, not just other human beings
but a diversity of plants and animals that live in gardens and woodlots, in zoos, around the
home, and in the wilderness”(Wilson, 1979). For Wilson biophilia gives something back to
humans for everything they put into living relationships; it is not a one-sided relationship.
Humans should desire to create biophilia in their lives because of the benefits of such a
transformation.
Wilson then goes on to develop the concept in an entire book dedicated to biophilia in
1984, once again titled Biophilia. He begins by defining it as “the innate tendency to focus on
life and lifelike process”(Wilson, 1984). Wilson is interested in thinking about how these
positive feelings towards nature are inborn in human beings. He feels that there is a reason to
believe that all humans truly want nature, though it is sometimes hidden within a person.
Almost another decade after his first biophilia book in 1993, Wilson teams up with Stephen
R. Kellert to edit a book, entitled The Biophilia Hypothesis, of a collection of articles about
the subject from other researchers. He redefines it a third time in his own article as “the
innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living organisms” (Kellert & Wilson,
1993). This time Wilson’s definition is closer to Fromm’s because of the focus on the
emotions. Both Fromm and Wilson are interested in what is going on in humans’ psyche,
though for slightly different reasons.
2.3.3 Stephen R. Kellert
Kellert describes the difference between Fromm and Wilson’s point of view of biophilia in
his 1997 book,
8
“Although Fromm describes biophilia as a love of life, ‘whether in a person

[or] a plant,’ his work focuses almost exclusively on human interactions. The
emphasis of [Kellert and Wilson’s work] is on people’s need to connect with
the whole realm of living diversity” (Kellert, 1997)
Young (2008) indicates that Fromm focuses solely on improving humans first and not
intentionally improving other parts of nature as a result. Wilson and Kellert, on the other
hand, focus on improving nature first but also intentionally improving humankind as a result
because the two are interconnected. Fromm puts much energy into the human view, while it is
Wilson and Kellert’s passion to see the earth sustain its biodiversity (Young, 2008).
2.4 BIOPHILIC DESIGN

Since the Industrial Revolution, the built environment and urban areas have exploded at an
unprecedented rate not seen in any other time in human history. Today, people spend the
majority of their time indoors surrounded by drywall, concrete, and steel. The sundry
denotations – which have evolved from within the fields of biology and psychology, and been
adapted to the fields of neuroscience and architecture– all relate back to the desire for a
reconnection with nature and natural systems. Hence, the biophilic design arises to remedy
this modern disconnect with nature and fulfill the longing that humans have to be immersed in
the natural environment.
2.4.1 Defining Biophilic Design
The term “biophilic design” was coined by Stephen Kellert, Professor of Social Ecology at
Yale University. It emerged from the translation of the concept of applying biophilia into
design and the built environment. Further, the term “built environment”, referring to human-
made places and spaces ranging in scale to provide the human activities of live, work and
recreate, itself distinguishes the built from the natural environment (Ojamaa, 2016). Biophilic
design is used to refer broadly to the incorporation of natural elements into the context that is
necessary to support the human connection to nature. The goal of biophilic design is to
construct environments imbued with positive experiences that can promote human health and
well-being from the contact between people and nature (Heerwagen, 2009; Kellert et al,
2008). Environmental psychologist Judith Heerwagen argued that the human brain is
constantly reverting back to its survival instincts of seeking out the things and places that help
survival such as - food (plants, flowers, and animals), shelter, light, water and fire. It is
important to understand what attracts people to these types of features so that they can be
introduced into the built environment (Heerwagen, 2009). Within this, Kellert et al (2008)
define biophilic design as the expression of the inherent human need to affiliate with nature in
the design of the built environment. In addition, biophilic design can be implemented in a
variety of ways within the built environment. It can connect its users directly, indirectly or
symbolically through a building’s exterior features, interior space, decoration and exterior
landscapes.
2.4.2 Biophilic Design in the context of Green Building
“We will never achieve an ethical architecture that is beautiful and sustainable
until nature is integral and at the core and at the substance and being of the
architecture, not added on. If it is not beautiful, it can not be sustainable.
Buildings must shelter and inspire” (Kieran, 2005)
9
Ecological sustainability is now achieving a status of global effort to reduce negative

impacts on the natural environment. Within this framework, even though connecting people to
nature is considered a very important link, it has yet to be addressed in design. In this sense,
the human desire for contact with nature should not be seen as a barrier to the realization of
sustainability, but as an opportunity to create contexts that are both attending to
environmental needs and to human needs for contact with nature (Van den Berg et al, 2007)
(Appendix A). Furthermore, while green building design is leading the way of innovations in
built form and its relationship to natural systems and processes, it becomes increasingly
important that the biophilic aspects are equally incorporated into leading green building
designs. Biophilic design is often referred to as the “missing link” in green building design
(Kellert et al, 2008). Although there has been effort in mitigating the adverse environmental
and human health impacts of buildings, these principles alone fail to foster a crucial
connection between people, nature, and culture. According to Kellert et al (2008),
“Low environmental impact design, while fundamental and essential, fails to

address the equally critical needs of diminishing human separation from
nature, enhancing positive contact with environmental process, and building
within a culturally and ecologically relevant context, all basic to human health,
productivity, and well-being” (p. viii)
However, there is great potential for green buildings to harmoniously incorporate biophilic
design attributes in order to improve the inhabitant’s quality of life without compromising
environmental performance. Therefore, this part attempts to clarify the differentiation
between biophilic design and the green building approaches.
2.4.2.1 The Attitude of the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
Toward Biophilic Design
While many of the leading examples of green design incorporate aspects of biophilic
design; many, unfortunately, do not. Given that the priority that is placed on the various green
design criteria are currently shaped by the scope, emphasis and content of the green building
assessment tools; these have the potential to assume a leading role in promoting this
connection. Among the green building assessment tools, the US Green Building Council’s
(USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) green building rating
system is the most widely used and referenced in the world. As such, the incorporation of
biophilic attributes into LEED would have great potential for positive change in the built
environment. Currently, however, there is no clear indication of biophilic values within the
LEED performance requirements or in the companion Reference Guide. Whereas, there is an
implicit reference of biophilic characteristics that are imbued into some of the credits.
Blaviesciunaite & Cole (2011) expose the correlation between some of the key LEED credits
in regards to Kellert et al.’s (2008) biophilic design principles (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1. Correlation of key elements from LEED credits in relation to Kellert et al.’s biophilic design
guidelines, Source: (Blaviesciunaite & Cole, 2011)
LEED: Requirements Biophilic design: Aspirations
Intentions Intentions
Protect greenfields, Choose a previously Emphasize landscape Improve ecology over the
preserve habitat and developed/ graded site, ecology, long-term,
natural resources, create density, connect with local habitats complement the landscape,
reduce environmental limit and avoid new and ecosystems aim for positive
impact, disturbances to land and transformation
restore damaged areas habitats
10
(Maximize open Reduce the development Promote spaciousness, Stimulate emotionally/

space): footprint or provide spatial variability/ shape intellectually/ aesthetically,
Promote biodiversity vegetated open space and form/ harmony, create harmony/ security,
inside-outside spaces integrate nature with
culture
Emphasize regional Address geographically- Facilitate geographic and Create familiarity/
importance specific environmental historic connection predictability and therefore
priorities security,
facilitate participation,
enhance collective memory
(Daylight and views): Achieve determined Introduce natural, Promote movement/
Provide a connection daylight levels/ direct line filtered, diffused, health/ well-being/
between indoors and of sight to the outdoors reflected light, shadow, productivity,
outdoors light as shape and form, enhance imagination/
create access to views and curiosity/exploration/
vistas, sunlight discovery,
mediate connection
between spaces,
improve morale and
comfort
In addition, according to Alencar (2013), the review of the LEED credits and requirements
makes evident that:
• Although LEED has created a daylighting and view credit, there is no reference to the
content of the views. This would be an important addition since research indicates that
the content of the view has a direct influence over the inhabitant’s health and well-being.
• Although there are credits promoting biodiversity and preservation of the surrounding
environment, there are no points given to the inclusion of greenery inside or throughout
the building. Furthermore, there is not even a remark about connecting people to nature.
2.4.2.2 The Attitude of the Living Building Challenge (LBC) Toward Biophilic Design
The Living Building Challenge (LBC) is a green building assessment tool that has rigorous
set of performance requirements and expands the range of issues beyond resource use and
environmental impacts. The LBC makes explicit mentioning of biophilia as one of the
requirements, using the Kellert et al (2008) list as a reference for its guidelines. This
requirement sits within the LBC Health Petal (maximizing physical and psychological health
and well-being), as 10- Biophilia:
“The project must be designed to include elements that nurture the innate
human attraction to natural systems and processes. Each of the six established
Biophilic Design Elements must be represented for every 2000 m2 of the
project: Environmental Feature, Natural Shapes and Forms, Natural Patterns
and Processes, Light and Space, Place-based Relationships, Evolved Human-
Nature relationships” (International Living Future Institute, 2012)
While it is clearly important in that the LBC acknowledges the significance of biophilia,
there are several problems associated with its simple formulation indicated by Alencar (2013):
• There is no indication of the benefits and goals associated with biophilic design.
• There is no declaration of the actual intentions of biophilic design.
• There are no indications of what designers should be aiming for when they select.
11
• There is no consideration given to the exposure to the biophilic design strategies, how
many people it is affecting, and how they are benefiting from the inclusion of this
feature.
Thus, after the evaluation of leading current assessment tools in North America, such as
LEED and Living Building Challenge, Alencar & Cole (2012) draw the following
conclusions:
• In the context of North America, for instance, biophilic design principles have not yet
been incorporated into the most widely used green building assessment tool - LEED.
There is no explicit reference to biophilic design through the requirements and
guidelines.
• Although the notion of biophilia has been incorporated into the Living Building
Challenge tool, this is achieved through in a simplified way that passes over the profound
ideas of biophilia.
• While biophilia is increasingly being recognized as a human requirement, it is yet to find
widespread assimilation in building design.
• It is important to develop the biophilic design framework in order to provide an
informative and comprehensive model that is robust enough to properly assist in
designing with biophilic design criteria. Such a framework could eventually be
transferred to green building assessment tools that currently do not include a qualitative
dimension relating to the health and well-being benefits.
Consequently, biophilic design attempts to realize connections between nature and built
environments. In short, Judith Heerwagen distinguishes between green building design and
biophilic design by asking these questions: in sustainable design, one asks, “what is human
impact on nature?” but in biophilic design, one asks, “what impact does nature have on
human?” (Kellert et al, 2008).
2.4.3 Biophilic Design Milestones
Over the years, designers and professionals have published several works that included
unique approaches to realize the transition of biophilia from a theory to application in the
built environment through biophilic design. Currently, there is no universally admitted
definition of the elements of biophilic design or established strategies as to how to achieve
them (Ojamaa, 2016). This section presents a description of existing frameworks and clearly
defined and structured approaches for translating biophilic design to the built environment.
This is done to offer a more comprehensive understanding of the topic and to identify
different approaches that exist. The approaches generally vary in how they are organized, how
complex or simple they are and what they are defining in terms of goals, strategies, elements,
qualities or resulting connections.
There are about five major groupings that seem to be the most comprehensive and relevant
to architectural applications, as argued by Ojamaa (2016). In several cases, authors have
developed or been a part of developing more than one approach, or released new approaches
over time. As part of the master book of Biophilic Design, “Biophilic Design: The Theory,
Science and Practice of Building Buildings to Life”, Stephen Kellert et al (2008) published a
framework of “Dimensions, Elements and Attributes of Biophilic Design” to address a need
for a detailed understanding of biophilic design that would assist in the practical application
12
of biophilic design to the built environment. In 2012, the environmental consulting and
strategy planning firm Terrapin Bright Green published a white paper, “The Economics of
Biophilia: Why Designing with Nature in Mind Makes Financial Sense”. Following which it
published a newly defined organization of 14 Patterns that inform design in the built
environment based on research focused on cognitive, psychological and physiological
responses to different environments. These 14 Patterns were then developed and rereleased in
a new report, “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design: Improving Health and Well-Being in the Built
Environment” (Browning et al, 2014).
Although these two approaches of “Biophilic Design” and “14 Patterns” in some ways
become the most significant because they are the most widely referenced, several other
frameworks and organizations of note have been established with varied approaches
depending on the perspectives and goals of the author (Ojamaa, 2016). For example Alex
Wilson, founder of BuildingGreen firm, organizes biophilic design strategies by design scales
in terms of its generality, landscape and site design, building design and interior design, while
the environmental psychologist Judith Heerwagen who has published extensively on biophilia
in the built environment and was part of developing the “Dimensions, Elements and
Attributes of Biophilic Design” (2008) has also published approaches that are more focused
on the human response to environment and related health benefits from psychosocial and
psychological perspectives.
The milestones of biophilic design, identified by Ojamaa (2016) and mainly organized
according to the number of citations for their sources at the time of this writing, are:
1. “Range of Biophilic Values” (Kellert, 1997; 2005)

2. “Dimensions, Elements and Attributes of Biophilic Design” as part of “Biophilic Design:
The Theory, Science, and Practice of Bringing Buildingsto Life” (Kellert et al, 2008)
3. “Principles, Experiences and Attributes of Biophilic Design” by Stephen Kellert (Kellert
& Calabrese, 2015)
4. “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design” by Terrapin Bright Green (Browning et al, 2014)
5. “Characteristics of Biophilic Buildings” by Judith Heerwagen and Betty Hase
(Heerwagen & Hase, 2001)
6. “A Sampling of Biophilic Design Strategies” by Alex Wilson (Wilson, 2006)
7. “Qualities and Attributes of Biophilic Buildings” by the Rocky Mountain Institute
(Griffin, 2004; Lovins, 2004)
2.4.3.1 Range of Biophilic Values (S. Kellert)
Stephen Kellert, a social ecologist and senior research scholar at Yale University’s School
of Forestry and Environmental Studies, was one of the leading forces in publication and
discussion around biophilia and biophilic design. One of the initial approaches he discussed
regarding biophilia was in defining the way people attach meaning and derive benefit from
nature as a series of nine values with associated adaptive benefits (Appendix B). By defining
these constructs, the symbiotic relationship that people have with nature is characterized in a
way that allows them to not only better understand the manner of and benefits to their
relationship to nature as a whole, but creates terminology and a framework to analyze the
specific elements, attributes and principles that begin to be developed as part of discussing
and implementing biophilic design to practice as well (Ojamaa, 2016).
13
2.4.3.2 Dimensions, Elements and Attributes of Biophilic Design (Kellert et al.)
Together with Judith H. Heerwagen and Martin L. Mador, Kellert edited the seminal book
on biophilic design, in 2008. This book coined the term “biophilic design” which established
the concept of biophilia in the realm of the built environment. Within it, they define the term
as an approach to designing the built environment in a way that emphasizes the necessity of
“maintaining, enhancing and restoring beneficial experience of nature” and establish two
main dimensions of biophilic design (organic or place-based) that then can be applied to six
biophilic design elements that are continued to be explained in more than 70 attributes
(Appendix C). Within the text, each element and attribute are defined in more detail,
describing why each element is important including examples. Even though the list is
formatted in a way that one can focus on the large categories or delve deeper into specifics, -
as an overall list- it can be a bit overwhelming. Ojamaa (2016) considers focusing on more
individual elements doesn’t provide a good overall strategy for implementing the elements
and attributes through design. It is stated in the book that this classification should be viewed
as a work in progress and will be further developed as it has, both by these authors and others.
2.4.3.3 Principles, Experiences and Attributes of Biophilic Design (S. Kellert)
After that, Kellert released an updated list of elements and attributes where instead of the
six elements originally listed, attributes were categorized under three kinds of experience with
nature- direct, indirect and an experience of space and place (Appendix D). In many ways this
classification of distinction of experiences with nature mirrors research which indicates that
even though direct contact with nature provides the most benefit, representations of nature are
more beneficial than none at all (Ulrich, 1984; 2008; Wilson, 2006). This becomes an
important consideration as people will have to continue to redefine and understand their
relationship with nature in an ever changing and urbanizing world. As part of this “Practice of
Biophilic Design”, Kellert also establishes goals that biophilic design should have and basic
principles that represent conditions for the effective practice of biophilic design. It is found
that these broader defined descriptions and principles begin to address some of the parts that
found to be missing in the dialogue of biophilic design practice and assist in clarifying the
“bigger picture” along with more detailed individual element (Ojamaa, 2016).
2.4.3.4 Patterns of Biophilic Design (Terrapin Bright Green, LLC.)
The “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design”, proposed by the Terrapin Bright Green firm,
provides a context of biophilia and biophilic design along with providing “14 Patterns” or a
“series of tools” (Appendix E; Fig. E.1) to implement biophilic design, also provide the
science and research behind each. A series of design considerations (Appendix E; Fig. E.2)
discuss various factors that designers should consider for successful implementation of
biophilic design patterns. These factors will be investigated in detail on the case study of the
Alhambra by the fourth chapter of this thesis. The significance of the “14 Patterns” work is
that it in an accessible manner provides a “toolkit” that is beginning to translate research to
design application, balancing between research, benefits and evidence of them and ways in
which to apply them successfully in an appropriate design approach. While the environmental
consulting firm’s first white paper focused on the economic benefits, “14 Patterns” has a
much more health benefit related focus, explaining how each of the 14 Patterns relates to
evidence of stress reduction; cognitive performance; and emotion, mood and performance
14
2.4.3.5 Characteristics of Biophilic Buildings (Heerwagen and Hase)
“We derive these features from research on habitability, natural processes and
the geometry of nature. We also draw on research on playfulness and humor,
topics that have been largely neglected in building design. Yet research on
humor and playfulness shows positive impacts on emotional functioning with
far reaching benefits on social relationships, stress reduction and creative
problem solving” (Heerwagen & Hase, 2001)
This collection of approaches by Heerwagen and respective co-authors discusses the

“essence” of the natural environment and what has been positive in elements, qualities and
characteristics that create a good habitat and how to translate that into a design (Ojamaa,
2016). (Appendix F) illustrates the features and qualities of biophilic buildings.
2.4.3.6 A Sampling of Biophilic Design Strategies (A. Wilson)
Alex Wilson’s “Biophilic Design Strategies” are one of the few frameworks focused on
specific strategies for design implementation, broken into general and more specific
disciplines of landscape and site, building design, and interior design (Appendix G). Although
published on the popular Building Green website (Wilson, 2006) and within “Biophilic
Design” (Wilson, 2008), it does not seem to be widely referenced. His approach is helpful
when thinking of application strategies and within the articles he discusses how to balance
biophilia with other green design priorities and project costs, important realities not often
discussed. His strategies range between general specific and the table in general is fairly
wordy, potentially deterring those looking for a quick overview (Ojamaa, 2016). Towards the
end of his chapter in “Biophilic Design”, Wilson (2008) outlines three efforts needed to move
the concept of biophilic design forward:
• Research into biophilia and human health and performance

• Education about biophilic design
• Incentives to spur the implementation of these concepts
After years since these writings, research and publication has really spread in the field, but
education and incentives to spur implementation are lagging behind. Ojamaa (2016) indicates
that even though topics related to biophilia and biophilic design like daylighting or benefits of
architecture-landscape integration, may be discussed in architecture schools and the design
community, discussion on the specific topic of biophilic design are limited.
2.4.3.7 Qualities and Attributes of Biophilic Buildings (Rocky Mountain Institute)
The Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI), a non-profit organization dedicated to the research,
publication, consulting, and lecturing on the general field of sustainability published their
topics in Qualities of Biophilic Buildings and Biophilic Design Attributes in a 2004 article
discussing biophilia in the Built Environment (Griffin, 2004) and in a presentation looking at
the Economics of Daylight and Occupant Productivity (Lovins, 2004) (Appendix H).
A distinction in their approach is in a clear separation between a physical or visual connection

to nature. Even though at first glance it may seem that this distinction exists in Kellert and
Terrapin’s approaches, it is more of a visual or non-visual connection (Browning et al, 2014)
or direct-indirect experience (Kellert & Calabrese, 2015). These approaches are more about a
feature of representation of nature, not necessarily whether you have direct access to nature.
15
Whereas in RMI’s explanation, it is an important characteristic and a point to consider when

designing, since the experience and benefits of being in direct contact with elements is very
different than seeing them either at a distance or through glazing.
2.5 EFFECTS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN ON HUMAN HEALTH AND

WELL-BEING
“The concept of biophilia implies that humans hold a biological need for
connection with nature on physical, mental, and social levels and this
connection affects our personal wellbeing, productivity, and societal
relationships” (Dias, 2015, p. 149)
There is a long history in different cultures that supports the idea that contact with nature
can promote health and well-being. One of the earliest references to the idea that nature has
health promoting qualities is found on the Greek text “Air, Waters, and Places”, attributed to
Hippocrates (460-370 BC), which emphasizes the importance of water quality, climate and a
scenic environment for health. Many other references can be found in historical texts of later
periods relating to the physical and emotional benefits of nature, as it will be posed in the next
chapter about the Alhambra architecture.
Recently, however, often overlooked is the impact of the physical and built environment on
human senses, emotions, sense of community, participation in community life and general
well-being, relating to the link between environments and how it affects its inhabitants and
their behavior: environmental psychology (Blom, 2014). Spaces and environments affect
human well-being in a conscious and sub-conscious manner; at the same time, nature has a
positive impact on healing. Therefore, employing nature into design and everyday life would
enhance healthier living environments (Blom, 2014) (Fig. 2.1). Hence, architects play a
crucial role in improving the user’s behavior in the built environment by designing biophilic
spaces that integrate him into nature.
Figure 2.1. OHE: Optimal Healing Environmental strategy, Source: Terri Zborowsky (www.blog.lpainc.com)
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2.5.1 Biophilic Environment and Well-being
The pursuit of well-being is a goal for people around the world, because lack of well-being
is an impediment for the development of individuals and society as a whole. Well-being, in its
simplest form, is defined by Oxford Dictionary as a state of being comfortable, healthy, or
happy. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2013), from a public
health point of view well-being includes multiple aspects, such as: physical well-being,
economic well-being, social well-being, development and activity, emotional well-being,
psychological well-being, life satisfaction, and engaging work and activities (Fig. 2.2).
Figure 2.2. Aspects of Well-being, Source: mecteam.blogspot.com
Biophilic design is heavily centered on well-being because it poses benefits for a variety of
users in a variety of environments, regardless of age, abilities, and economic status
(Heerwagen, 2009). In fact, creative constructions of the human built environment can be
either a positive facilitator or a harmful impediment to the biophilic need for ongoing contact
with natural systems and processes. Besides, a growing body of knowledge supports the role
of contact with nature in human health, well-being and productivity. This argument is
discussed by Kellert (2005) and summarized in the following findings:
• Contact with nature has been found to enhance healing and recovery from illness and
major surgical procedures, including direct contact (e.g., natural lighting, vegetation), as
well as representational and symbolic depictions of nature.
• People living in proximity to open spaces report fewer health and social problems, and
this has been identified independent of rural and urban residence, level of education, and
income. Even the presence of limited amounts of vegetation such as grass and a few trees
has been correlated with enhanced coping and adaptive behavior.
• Office settings with natural lighting, natural ventilation, and other environmental features
result in improved worker performance, lower stress, and greater motivation.
• Contact with nature has been linked to cognitive functioning on tasks requiring
concentration and memory.
• Healthy childhood maturation and development has been correlated with contact with
natural features and settings.
17
• The human brain responds functionally to sensory patterns and cues emanating from the
natural environment.
• Communities with higher-quality environments reveal more positive valuations of nature,
superior quality of life, greater neighborliness, and a stronger sense of place than
communities of lower environmental quality. These findings also occur in poor urban as
well as more affluent and suburban neighborhoods.
Hence, biophilic design is a contemporary philosophy of architecture that supports these

tendencies and seeks solutions for sustainability in nature, not by replicating the natural
forms, but by understanding the rules governing those forms (Ramzy, 2015). The origins of
this approach, as mentioned in former sections, lies in the theory of biophilia which contends
that human health and well-being has a biologically-based need to affiliate with nature
(Wilson, 1993).
2.5.2 Biophilic Design and Mind-body Impacts
American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted argued in 1865,
“…the enjoyment of scenery employs the mind without fatigue and yet exercises
it, tranquilizes it and yet enlivens it; and thus, through the influence of the
mind over the body, gives the effect of refreshing rest and reinvigoration to the
whole system” (Olmsted, 1993)
The field of human well-being has become a significant research theme for both the
medical and psychological professions. People have basic physical, mental and spiritual needs
which combine to determine happiness and well-being (Maslow, 1962). The spiritual and
psychological point of view can make an important contribution to a person’s well-being that
impacts mental and physical behavior patterns (Day, 2002b). Environmental Psychologists
explore the symbiotic relationships between humans and their environments, stating that there
is stimulus and reaction through human response whether from an experiential or
physiological perspective (Ojamaa, 2016). In a real basic form, this is saying that human body
is made of many systems that are interconnected and along with people’s normal functioning
they respond and react to triggers in the environment people are in. These reactions can be
either positive or negative. On the beneficial side, Kopec (2006) describes that positive
environmental characteristics influence the secretion and absorption of neurochemicals that
positively affect human physical and psychological health and wellbeing. These beneficial
features may include light, sound, odor, wind, weather, water, vegetation, animals, or
landscapes.
It has been also proven that people are attracted to the environment that is full of positive
qualities because it provides a primal source of the so-called “neurological nourishment”
(Salingaros & Masden, 2008). The mechanism for this nourishment was discovered in
neurological studies, where it has been concluded that humans have an innate craving for
certain type of information that is associated with the brain’s pleasure centers and which also
control the reduction of pain (Biederman & Vessel, 2006). Additionally, empirical findings on
psychological advantages of natural environments, and environments mimicking their
geometrical qualities, on human wellbeing were documented in several studies by Kellert
(2005), Biederman & Vessel (2006), Joye (2007) and Salingaros & Masden (2008).
This understanding that environment impacts human systems and responses creates the
basis for most research and data on the benefits of biophilia and biophilic design. Much of the
18
evidence for biophilia can be linked to research in one or more of three overarching mind-
body systems –cognitive, psychological and physiological– that have been explored and
verified to varying degrees, in laboratory or field studies, to help explain how people’s health
and well-being are impacted by their environment. The nature-health relationships of these
mind-body systems are discussed briefly in the following points:
2.5.2.1 Cognitive Functionality and Performance
Cognitive functioning encompasses human mental agility and memory, and human ability
to think, learn and output either logically or creatively. For instance, directed attention is
required for many repetitive tasks, such as routine paperwork, reading and performing
calculations or analysis, as well as for operating in highly stimulating environments, as when
crossing busy streets. Directed attention is energy intensive, and over time can result in
mental fatigue and depleted cognitive resources (Kellert et al, 2008; Van den Berg et al,
2007). Strong or routine connections with nature can provide opportunities for mental
restoration, during which time people’s higher cognitive functions can sometimes take a break
(Browning et al, 2014). As a result, one’s capacity for performing focused tasks is greater
than someone with fatigued cognitive resources.
2.5.2.2 Psychological Health and Well-being
Psychological responses encompass concentration, and emotion and mood. This includes
interactions to nature that impact restoration and stress management. For instance, empirical
studies have reported that experiences of natural environments provide greater emotional
restoration, with lower instances of tension, anxiety, anger, fatigue, confusion and total mood
disturbance than urban environments with limited characteristics of nature (Alcock et al,
2014; Barton & Pretty, 2010; Hartig et al, 2003). Psychological responses can be learned or
hereditary, with past experiences, cultural constructs and social norms playing a significant
role in the psychological response mechanism (Browning et al, 2014).
2.5.2.3 Physiological Health and Well-being
Physiological responses encompass human aural, musculoskeletal, respiratory, circadian

systems and overall physical comfort. Physiological responses triggered by connections with
nature include relaxation of muscles, as well as lowering of diastolic blood pressure and stress
hormone levels in the blood stream (Park et al, 2009). Short term stress increases in heart rate
and stress hormone levels, such as caused by encountering an unknown but complex and
information-rich space, can probably be beneficial to regulate physiological health (Kandel et
al, 2013). The physiological system needs to be tested regularly, but only enough for the body
to remain resilient and adaptive. Physiological responses to environmental stressors can be
buffered through design, allowing for the restoration of bodily resources before system
damage occurs (Steg et al, 2012).
Moreover, Browning et al (2014) illustrate functions of 14 patterns of biophilic design,

suggested by Terrapin Bright Green sustainability consulting firm, in supporting stress
reduction, cognitive performance, emotion and mood enhancement and the human body.
However, despite of these evidences that show the positive effect of biophilic design on
individuals, tracking and measuring efficacy of biophilic patterns and parameters or metrics is
still challenging. This is due to the high number of variables, shifting baselines, the
19
unpredictability of the built and natural environments, as well as the highly invasive nature of
some data collection techniques (Ryan et al, 2014).
2.6 SUMMARY
The “biophilia hypothesis” enhances the notion that contact with nature is a basic human
need, claiming that it should no longer be seen as just cultural or individual preference, but
rather as a global primary need. The human mind has been adapted to recognize beneficial
environments, living organisms, and natural processes that sustain life. Moreover, biophilia
probably promotes development of self, among many other physical and psychological
benefits. Hence, biophilic design is vital to remedy the modern disconnect with nature and
fulfill the longing that humans have to be involved in the natural environment.
As discussed in this chapter, no clear industry accepted framework or list of prescriptive

measures exists for biophilic design, yet architects often look for standards to follow as
guidelines in order to properly implement and evaluate its application. While the benefits of
biophilic design can have quantifiable outcomes, the principal itself and its individual
elements and attributes are not as simple to define and measure (Ojamaa, 2016). It is worth
mentioning that the objective of this chapter is not to determine the optimum methodology of
biophilic design for the sake of implementation. It is just an attempt to provide an overview
about the differences between biophilic design approaches, as well as to understand the
relation between biophilic design and human health and well-being. The explanation of
biophilic design approaches shows that there are crossovers between them as a result of
developing in parallel, but each is driven by unique perspectives of the same dialogue.
Thereafter, the researcher will analyze the architectural configuration of the Alhambra
utilizing the framework of “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design” in the fourth chapter of this
thesis, with the objective of understanding the rapports between nature, human biology and
psychology, and the design of the built environment.
20
CHAPTER 3
THE ALHAMBRA ARCHITECTURE,
GRANADA
OBJECTIVE CONTENTS
Exploring the culture that 3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 21

originally generated the 3.2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE ALHAMBRA ... 22
3.2.1 What is al-Andalus .................................................. 23
design of the Alhambra, by 3.2.2 What is the Nasrid Kingdom ................................... 24
discussing the historical, 3.2.3 What is the Alhambra and why was it built............. 24
structural and social aspects 3.2.4 Why is the Alhambra conserved today .................... 26
of the Alhambra under the 3.3 STRUCTURE OF THE ALHAMBRA ........................ 26
3.3.1 The Alhambra as a City ........................................... 27
rule of Nasrid dynasty in 3.3.2 The Palaces.............................................................. 28
Granada, al-Andalus 3.3.3 The Baths ................................................................ 30
3.3.4 The Gardens and Orchards ...................................... 30
3.4 SOCIAL MEMORY OF THE ALHAMBRA .............. 31
3.4.1 Who lived at the Alhambra ..................................... 32
3.4.2 Life in the Court ...................................................... 32
3.4.3 Life in the Medina ................................................... 33
3.5 THE ALHAMBRA AND THE EARTHLY PARADISE
CONCEPT ................................................................................. 33
3.5.1 Yearning for Heavenly Paradise in the Islamic Culture
................................................................................. 34
3.5.2 Roots of the Earthly Paradise concept in the Alhambra
................................................................................. 35
3.6 THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN NATURE AND THE
ALHAMBRA ARCHITECTURE ............................................ 38
3.6.1 Nature transformed into architectural elements ....... 38
3.6.2 Nature transformed into architectural experience.... 39
3.7 SUMMARY ................................................................... 41
CHAPTER 3 THE ALHAMBRA ARCHITECTURE
3 THE ALHAMBRA ARCHITECTURE, GRANADA
3.1 INTRODUCTION
“In many ways, the environmental crisis is a design crisis. It is a consequence
of how things are made, buildings are constructed, and landscapes are used.
Design manifests culture, and culture rests firmly on the foundation of what we
believe to be true about the world” (Van der Ryn & Cowan, 2007, p. 24)
Architecture is more than just props in people’s constructions; it relates, mediates and
projects meaning. Although not always perceived, the ultimate meaning of all buildings is
beyond architecture; as with the Alhambra, it manages to direct people’s consciousness back
to the world and towards their own sense of being (Moustafa, 2008). As expressive means
between humans and nature evolve, architecture integrated to its environment and cultural
context expands the space of the biological and social balance; and secures a favourable
habitat for health, well-being and productivity (Beatley, 2011). Nature and design are both
strong parts of the cultural identity of the Alhambra. It is observed that of the Alhambra’s
architectural configuration offers a good precedent for understanding how design can
functionally and beautifully connect people with nature. Hence, such attempt to translate an
understanding of the people’s innate connection with nature into the design of the built
environment is what’s defined as biophilic design (Kellert et al, 2008).
The Alhambra is a palatine complex erected on the Sabika hill forming part of the city of
Granada, al-Andalus (Spain now) (Fig. 3.1). It is a walled community containing a military
zone, palaces of the sultans, a city proper and surrounding gardens and orchards. Besides, the
Generalife is a large royal palace with a recreational role, situated next to the walls of the
Alhambra. The Alhambra was built by Muslims in al-Andalus from the 11th century onwards,
reaching its most splendid point during the 14th and 15th centuries under the reign of the
Nasrid dynasty (Delgado et al, 2007). The Nasrid period (1238-1492) was the culmination of
ornamental art in the Alhambra (Cardell-Fernández & Navarrete-Aguilera, 2007). After 1492
with the departure of the Nasrid rulers from Spain, then the conflict of the Spanish Succession
by the end of the 17th century; the Alhambra had been exposed to neglect and abandonment
until its rebirth at the turn of the 19th century, but its basic formal structure remains unchanged
(Parker, 1994).
Figure 3.1. General view of the Alhambra and Generalife, Granada, Source: wikiwand.com
Historically, during this Golden Age of Islamic scholarship, it was believed that spiritual
knowledge was the highest aim of the individual, the most nourishing for any soul, achieved
through the use of the Active Intellect and therefore connecting with the Divine (Moustafa,
2008). This spiritual knowledge could be found within the close examination of nature and its
cosmos, represented in aesthetic features that people might see within the architecture of the
21
Alhambra. For instance, in his contemplation on the cultural expression of the Alhambra
palaces, Darr (2006) observes the repeated use of the word “barakah” in hundreds of places
throughout the palaces. Barakah means manifestation of “blessing” or “divine grace” and is
coded as the pinecone, acorn, leaf sprout and seashell as naturalistic emblems.
The notion that esthetics is concerned with how particulars reflect a universal beauty is
instrumental in realizing the Alhambra’s architectural intentions and motivations (Moustafa,
2008). The design of spaces in the Alhambra evolved out of certain matrix of Islamic
aesthetic values that are inspired by descriptions of the heavenly paradise in the holy book of
Quran. Taking into consideration the factors like climate, topography, geography and the
social ones like public and private lives (Ansari, 2011). Moustafa (2008) considers that the
architecture of the Alhambra is a creative application of science. According to Fernández-
Puertas (1997),
“... designs in the Alhambra mirror the universe and therefore an infinity which
goes beyond the geometry of Euclid...” (p. x)
That is to say, the mathematics in the Alhambra architecture is exact and more importantly
consistent.
Currently, the Alhambra represents one of the most famous and admirable examples of
Islamic architectural heritage in Europe. Due to its cultural and historic significance, it has
been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO since 1984 (UNESCO World Heritage
Centre, 1992). Moreover, the Alhambra is the most visited monument in Spain, at the time of
this writing, according to the Spain’s official tourism portal (Turespaña, 2018); receiving
nearly two and half million visitors per year, according to the Council of the Alhambra and
Generalife, Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife (PAG) (2015). It was classified among the
“12 Treasures of Spain” that were selected through a Spanish voting process in 2007.
To quantify the impact of the Alhambra on Granada, Murillo Viu et al (2008) indicate a
survey accomplished in 2003 which focuses on those visitors whose primary intention for
travel to the city of Granada is linked to visiting the Alhambra. By analyzing the survey data,
it is found that 51% state that the main reason for their trip is ‘to see Granada’ (of which the
Alhambra is the principal point of interest) and 36.2% put ‘to see the Alhambra’, giving a
more specific reason (Murillo Viu et al, 2008).
The objective of this chapter is to explore the culture that initially generated the design of
the Alhambra. Hence, this chapter discusses the historical, structural and social aspects of the
complex of Alhambra under the rule of Nasrid dynasty in Granada, al-Andalus. Then, it
illustrates the relationship between the Alhambra architecture and the Islamic concept of
earthy paradise. Afterward, the chapter explains the existing dialog between nature and the
Alhambra architecture.
3.2 HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF THE ALHAMBRA

To understand the meaning beyond the Alhambra’s aesthetics, it is essential to relate it to
the time, space and its specific historical context. Therefore, this section covers the historical
background of the Alhambra.
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3.2.1 What is al-Andalus
Following the rise of Islam in the 7th century with Prophet Muhammad, Muslims began a
rapid expansion outward from the Arabian Peninsula. This took them to the Near East, India
and Central Asia in the East; while in the West they dominated North Africa and then the
Iberian Peninsula in 711.
The parts of the Iberian Peninsula that were under Muslim control were known as al-
Andalus. Its borders changed repeatedly over time due to the changing configuration of the
different Islamic states. In addition, the occupation of Christian states from the North
gradually appropriated land until 1492, when the fall of the last Islamic state of al-Andalus:
the Nasrid Kingdom, which saw the construction of the Alhambra, the focal point of this
chapter.
These political ups and downs are indicative of the complex historical circumstances that
originate a society which blended the preceding cultures, the Visigoths and Hispano-Romans,
with the influence of the Islamic world of the East (Guzmán, 2016b). The society of al-
Andalus was made up of Arabs, Amazighs -from North Africa- and Hispano-Visigoths. It was
a prospering society where people of different races, beliefs and cultures lived side by side.
The predominant religion was Islam, although people were allowed to practice Christianity
and Judaism, with periods of greater and lesser tolerance in this regard. However, the
population as a whole did adopt the customs and lifestyles of the Muslim majority.
On the other hand, cities of al-Andalus developed considerably as a result of an economic

system that revolved around large marketplaces where both manufactured products and
locally-grown agricultural products were sold (Guzmán, 2016b). The large cities even
exported luxury items, such as ceramics and silk, to Northern Europe and the rest of the
Mediterranean region. As for agriculture, production levels also increased considerably, as the
people of al-Andalus further developed the irrigation systems inherited from the Roman and
Visigoth periods.
Furthermore, culture reached high levels during the Andalusian period, as shown by the
numerous monuments that express their outstanding artistic achievements. The Great Mosque
of Córdoba, Madinat al-Zahra (the city-palace of the Umayyads of Córdoba), the Giralda
(Almohad minaret of the main mosque in Seville), the Aljafería Palace of Zaragoza, the Arab
Baths of the Villardompardo Palace in Jaén, the Alcazaba of Málaga, the Tower of Gold
(Torre del Oro) of Seville and the Madrasa of Granada can be cited as very significant
examples. Marcais (1954) claims that the Islamic expression in architecture and landscape in
al-Andalus is revealed at a highly developed stage, unique in its form, pure in its separation
and its differences from all other styles, even from other Islamic regions. In the same way,
arts, literature, music and sciences such as medicine flourished during this time and
knowledge was conserved in libraries, making use of the increasingly widespread Chinese
invention, paper.
This high culture incorporated knowledge from the classical Greek and Roman traditions as
well as knowledge from the Islamic East (Isaac, 1997). It had a very large influence on the
rest of Europe and laid the foundations for the development of the Renaissance, which
represents the beginning of modern history (Guzmán, 2016b).
23
3.2.2 What is the Nasrid Kingdom
Few medieval political formations have transcended borders and sustained over the passage
of time as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada has. This is largely due to the great cultural
heritage that the Nasrid dynasty left (1238-1492) (Arabic: banu Nasr), as exemplified by the
conservation of the Alhambra, its finest architectural expression. In fact, the Nasrid Kingdom
occupied a very small area if it is compared geographically to the territory occupied by the
Islamic world at the time and even to al-Andalus in previous centuries.
Gallardo (2016b) argues that the kingdom came into existence as a result of the territorial
reduction that al-Andalus experienced in the first half of the 13th century. She adds that it
encompassed approximately the current Spanish provinces of Granada, Málaga and Almería,
along with the southern part of Jaén and part of Cádiz; while the Alhambra in Granada was
the residence and seat of rule of the Nasrid dynasty. After its founding, various names appear
in medieval Arabic texts to refer to it. These names are: Kingdom, Emirate and Sultanate; but
each of these names has its different political definition. At the end, the Nasrids were the last
in a succession of Muslim governments within the peninsula dating as far back as the eighth
century (Eggleton, 2011).
3.2.3 What is the Alhambra and why was it built
The Alhambra is a complex settlement located on the Sabika hill, to the south east of the
city of Granada. It is widely believed that the name ‘Alhambra’ (Arabic: Al-Hamra – the red)
referred to the red color of soil of the hill where the Alhambra stands (Hussain, 2014). The
multifarious role of the Alhambra is evident in its character and spatial organization. It
comprised of various parts that were mainly built during the reign of the Nasrid dynasty,
although it has some elements from previous Islamic periods and some Christian elements
that came later (Sanjosé, 2016). The Alhambra can be divided into four parts and was
constructed in different phases: the military area or Alcazaba, the palaces, the city proper and
the outlying area, with its orchards and vegetable gardens, especially the Generalife (Fig. 3.2).
24
Figure 3.2. Parts of the Alhambra and Generalife, Source: alhambra.org, translated from Spanish
When Muhammad I ruled Granada in 1238, he decided to develop the Alhambra, laying
foundations for the fortress and taking water up the hill, by means of a waterwheel and an
irrigation channel. The Alhambra’s walls are close to the Darro river which is one of the most
incised rivers of the region (Justo et al, 2008). The intention was therefore to create a stable
settlement by building imposing defense structures in the area of the Alcazaba and providing
the entire complex with a method to obtain water. Additionally, the network of aqueducts and
water canals that supplied the compound at those times is still partially working today
(Eggleton, 2011). Afterward, Muhammad III (1302-1309) was the sovereign who gave shape
to the palatine city, with the building of the royal mosque of the Alhambra and the baths
situated in front of it. He built the gate that separated the Alcazaba from the residential section
of the sultans. Also, he has been attributed with the Palace of the Partal which would become,
starting at that time, the palatine area.
The Alhambra’s most splendorous period was marked by the actions of Yusuf I (1333-
1354) and Muhammad V (1354-1359/1362-1391) (Sanjosé, 2016). The two most outstanding
palaces were built under orders issued by these two sultans: the Palace of Comares, under
Yusuf I and Muhammad V; and the Palace of the Lions under the latter. The Palace of
Comares was conceived for court activities while the Palace of the Lions was primarily the
king’s private quarters. This period also witnessed an increase in cultivated terrain. Then,
following the Nasrid period, the Alhambra went through further transformations with the
Catholic existence (Sanjosé, 2016).
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3.2.4 Why is the Alhambra conserved today
The Alhambra has preserved, since Nasrid times, a series of aesthetic values which have
acted at all times as a positive presence, determining a large part of the human cultural
heritage (Guzmán, 2016a). In 1492, the last Nasrid ruler left the Alhambra after the
occupation of Granada by the Christian Kingdoms. Later on, from 1568 to 1571, the Moriscos
(Muslims who were coerced into converting to Christianity) rebelled against the Catholic
rulers; then the Moriscos were expelled from Kingdom of Granada. By the end of the 17th
century, the Catholic governors of the Alhambra, Tendilla-Mondejar family, departed from
Granada due to the dispute of the Spanish succession (Jiménez, 2016; Malpica, 2016).
Subsequently, the Alhambra fell into a state of dormancy and abandonment that persisted
until the beginning of the 19th century (Sánchez, 2016a).
A short-lived rebirth might be seen at the Alhambra with the Napoleonic invasion between
1810 and 1812. French troops reinforced the walls and their heights; in contrast, when they
forced to retreat, they blew up some old Nasrid towers and surrounding buildings (Malpica,
2016; Sánchez, 2016a). Thereafter, the travelers of the Romantic period discovered the
Alhambra, and with their writings and art work they contributed to the world becoming aware
of the monument. With their contemporary vision, they underlined the need to conserve this
outstanding legacy, explaining its historic and aesthetic importance (Jiménez, 2016).
Especially important among them was the American writer Washington Irving with his “Tales
of the Alhambra” (1832), which describes a situation of almost total ruin.
From the late 19th century till the mid-20th century, archaeology was thought to be needed
to determine the functions of the different areas and built structures of the Alhambra, with
focusing on the areas of Nasrid power (Malpica, 2016). Of all the persons who have been
involved in the conservation of the Alhambra, one in particular deserves special mention:
Leopoldo Torres Balbás, the architect-conservator of the monument from 1923 to 1936, who
played a very important role in the scientific conservation of the heritage. It could be said that
the Alhambra people may see today is the Alhambra restored by Torres Balbás. Jiménez
(2016) indicates that the cultural dimension of the Alhambra palaces was the factor taken into
account in the decisions regarding their maintenance. Hence, the Alhambra’s value was
recognized by the UNESCO in 1984 when it was added to the list of World Heritage Sites
(UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 1992).
“The Alhambra’s power of suggestion and inspiration, and the intensity of the
aesthetic experience it offers to visitors have not lessened with the arrival of
globalization. They have in fact increased and not just in the greater affluence
of visitors but also in the continuous inspiration it provides to artists,
musicians, literati and creators in general” (Guzmán, 2016a, p. 1)
Thus, the Alhambra is and will continue to be a paradigmatic example of beauty; its future
can be shaped with studying, conserving and reviving its aesthetic values by linking them to
contemporary arts, sciences, tools and concepts.
3.3 STRUCTURE OF THE ALHAMBRA

It is improbable to develop a certain notion without first understanding the process of its
construction. Hence, this section explores the structure of the Alhambra represented in its
entity as a city, its palaces, baths, and its gardens and orchards.
26
3.3.1 The Alhambra as a City
The Alhambra is a palatine city, a city of palaces, that was planned and built to be the seat
of the Nasrid dynasty. Its urban layout reflects common practice in the medieval Islamic west
and, particularly, in al-Andalus (López, 2016a). Over the course of its more than two and a
half centuries of evolution, its many different spaces slowly developed. During this time the
city was in constant transformation, resulting from the political fluctuations.
The shape of the Alhambra complex is described as a boat anchored on a mountain, which
was called Sabika (López, 2016a) (Fig. 3.3). The mountain lies into the region’s fertile plains.
Such a setting made it possible to circle the entire city of the Alhambra with a defensive wall,
that is connected to the adjacent neighborhoods of the city of Granada. The Alhambra has
four main gates for entering and leaving the complex: its names are the Gate of Arms (Puerta
de las Armas), the Gate of the Arrabal (Puerta del Arrabal), the Gate of Seven Floors (Puerta
de los Siete Suelos) and the Gate of Justice (Puerta de la Justicia). On the inner part of the
wall, all along the perimeter, a walkway made it possible to move among the various spaces
easily and quickly. About thirty towers of different shapes and sizes form the defensive walls.
These towers serve as both strategic locations within the defensive system and as observation
points for looking out at the surrounding territory from the complex, giving the Alhambra its
appearance as a fortified structure.
Figure 3.3. The Alhambra on the Sabika hill, Source (from left to right): foto-podroznik.blogspot.com &
spainventure.com
As a palatine city, the Nasrid Palaces of the Alhambra were the most important space as
being the residence of the dynastic family (López, 2016a). In that zone there were also
administrative offices, meeting rooms for Quran recitation -the Muslims’ holy book-, the
council of ministers, and halls where the rulers held audiences. This area was considered a
single space, but it had various palaces built in different periods. Besides, these palaces had
decorations fitting of the sultans who occupied them, as well as patios, observation points and
gardens in which water and vegetation played a very important role. The palaces had baths
(hammam) and small mosques for the various daily prayer sessions required in Islam. The
city’s primary defense and the security of the ruling family were guaranteed by the Alcazaba
(al-Qasba), a military district where the elite guards lived with their families, and it was
directly linked to the rest of the Alhambra.
To meet the needs of the city and the court there was the Madinat al-Hamra, a residential
neighborhood within the Alhambra’s walls. This medina, being a Muslim city, was arranged
around a main Mosque which had a hammam. Next to the Mosque there was a Rawda or
27
royal cemetery for sultans. The medina also had houses, in which individuals with
government positions, civil servants and court assistants lived. In the high part of the city
there were small artisan workshops, with kilns for ceramics and glass, a tannery and a mint
where coins were made.
The section of the Acequia Real (Royal Channel) that ran through the city has been
supplying water to the entire complex through a network of cisterns, waterwheels and
numerous offshoots (López, 2016a). Small squares, minor streets, shelters and other
constructions completed the urban landscape of the city of the Alhambra.
3.3.2 The Palaces
The palaces of the Alhambra gave the urban complex its reason for existence (Orihuela,
2016) (Fig. 3.4). Two of these palaces have survived intact to this day, another two are
partially preserved and three others stand as reinforced archaeological remains. The complex
is also home to two calahorras, or miniature palaces hidden inside what appear to be military
towers. The area surrounding the Alhambra contains the fully preserved Generalife palace.
Hence, the Alhambra is exemplary in that it has preserved several practically complete
Islamic palaces from the 13th and 14th centuries.
Figure 3.4. The Nasrid Palaces of the Alhambra, Source: docplayer.es, translated from Spanish
The Palace of Comares (Palacio de Comares) (Fig. 3.5) represents the culmination of the
archetype of a mansion constructed around a rectangular courtyard with porticoes on the
shorter sides and a large, long central pool with gardens on both sides (Orihuela, 2016); in
case of this palace, the courtyard is known as the Court of the Myrtles (Patio de los
Arrayanes). This design was applied during the Nasrid kingdom using different scales,
ranging from important houses to medium-sized and large palaces. The Palace of Comares
was the royal citadel where the Nasrid sultans lived from the time of its construction. The
palace is preceded by the Mexuar, the emirate’s administrative area, a room with a north-
south longitudinal axis that comprises a large courtyard. At the extreme north lies the seat of
the royal throne, the Hall of Comares, a large, square qubba-type room with an admirable
vaulted wooden ceiling.
28
To the east and adjoining this palace, there is the Palace of Happy Garden (Arabic: al-Riyad
al-Sa'id) or as commonly known the Palace of the Lions (Palacio de los Leones) (Fig. 3.6).
The latter name is derived from the twelve lions that support the Nasrid fountain in the middle
of the palace’s patio (Almagro & Ramón-Laca, 2007). The palace quite elaborate layout
features a rectangular cross-axial courtyard, decorated with a large central fountain from
which four narrow conduits emerge at right angles to each other. All four sides are lined with
porticoes, with pavilions projecting from the two shorter sides. The most outstanding rooms
in this building are covered with surprising vaults of muqarnas (stalactite plasterwork) instead
of the wooden structures found in the previous palaces (Orihuela, 2016). The Palace of the
Lions was designed as an escape for occupants of the Alhambra from the rigid constraints of
court life and was used as an urban villa (Dickie, 1986). Gallardo (2016a) argues that it is the
palace where the Nasrid architecture reached its highest point, expressing its own personality.
One of the palaces that are partially preserved is the Partal Palace (Fig. 3.7) which is
formed by open pavilions lined along a north-south axis. The first pavilion is adjacent to a
large pool, while the southern pavilion has a smaller U-shaped pool. The eastern half of the
Alhambra contains the reinforced archaeological remains of three palaces. The largest and
most important of these is the Upper Partal (Partal Alto) which it is supposed to be the
residence of the Nasrid sultans from the first dynastic line (Orihuela, 2016). Its gardens on
both sides of a large, long pool are divided into four quadrants by a crosswalk. Additionally,
the two calahorras (miniature palaces) in the Alhambra, known as the Tower of the Captive
(Torre de la Cautiva) and the Tower of the Princesses (Torre de las Infantas). Further, the
Generalife Palace (Arabic: Jannat al-Arif) (Fig. 3.8) was the royal residence on a large
country estate watered by the Alhambra’s Royal Channel (Acequia Real). It has a cross-axial
rectangular garden that is quite long.
One characteristic common to all the palaces in the Alhambra is the rich and colorful
decoration on their walls, ceilings and floors made up of plant, geographic and epigraphic
motifs, with a great spread of poetry (Orihuela, 2016). In fact, structural and ornamental
forms were greatly refined based on a mathematic system of proportions that acted as a
template for rulers and their court designers and architects, creating rich environments that
privileges Nasrid architecture (Eggleton, 2011).
Figure 3.5. The Palace of Comares, Alhambra, Source: Figure 3.6. The Palace of the Lions, Alhambra,
Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife (PAG) Source: PAG
Figure 3.7. The Partal Palace, Alhambra, Source: PAG Figure 3.8. The Generalife Palace, Alhambra,
Source: PAG
29
3.3.3 The Baths
In the medina part of the Alhambra, also in horticultural and recreational gardens, and the
palaces beside them, just as in other cities of al-Andalus; there are many hamamat, or baths,
both public and private (Vílchez, 2016). The Alhambra’s public baths were in the Alcazaba
and next to the main mosque. In contrast, private baths, the glorified version and vast
majority, were an essential feature of the multiple palaces of the Alhambra. The Arab bath, or
hammam, received water from a channel and/or an underground cistern, which provided the
abundant flow of water needed. The bath had panes of star-shaped skylights with different
colors which were found in the vaults and were opened and closed to control the density of
the steam that was rising from the bath. Further, some baths were consisting of brilliantly
colored mosaic walls and benches in their lower part.
Vílchez (2016) indicates that the hamamat had multiple values and uses: the primary use
was hygiene; the second might have been therapeutic, through hydrotherapy; the third was the
quest for physical pleasure; and the last use could be as a meeting place where people might
chat about political issues or everyday life, as occurred in the Bath of Comares (Baño de
Comares) (Fig. 3.9).
Figure 3.9. The Bath of Comares, Alhambra, Source: (above) (Murphy, 1815) & (below) PAG.
3.3.4 The Gardens and Orchards
As an inseparable part of its palaces and built areas, the Alhambra’s gardens and cultivated
space, exceptional elements of adornment, sophistication and symbolism, appear one after
another throughout the entire complex; bringing a component of transcendence to the
landscape of the place. As the centuries have passed on the Red Hill, the variety of the
gardens found in the Alhambra has expanded and become richer, and the number and
30
singularity of the plant species found there provide clear evidence of the Alhambra’s passage
through various garden forms and tastes. The medieval gardens, created during the Nasrid
period, are exceptionally important because of the refined manner in which they integrate
vegetation and water to the buildings around them (Esteban Hernández-Bermejo et al, 2013),
and due to their evocation of the longing-for paradise described in the Quran (Márquez,
2016).
Márquez (2016) considers that the riad, courtyard gardens, are the most profound reflection
of the Andalusian garden. Sometimes they are divided into four parts, such as in the
Generalife’s Court of the Water Channel (Patio de la Acequia) or the Court of the Lions
(Patio de los Leones); sometimes they are quite large, holding a sizeable pool, such as in the
Court of the Myrtles (Patio de los Arrayanes) of the Palace of Comares or the Damas
courtyard in the Partal Palace. In courtyards, water has a prominent role as the essential
expression of power and prosperity. The reflections on the water allow the “reconstruction” of
volumes, the illumination of shaded areas and the evocation of the sublime.
The Generalife was a place of recreation for the Nasrid rulers, with elegant private spaces
reserved for rest and large horticultural gardens devoted to food production. Across it,
running longitudinally, is the Royal Channel (Acequia Real) which along with various
reservoirs and other hydraulic structures serves the areas used for cultivation and the private
gardens in its interior. Márquez (2016) indicates that the more modern examples of the wide
array of gardens at the Alhambra include gardens redesigned from the Renaissance, the
Garden of Dar Aisha (Jardín de Daraxa/Lindaraja); from the 17th century, the Garden of the
Ramparts (Jardín de los Adarves) in the Alcazaba; from the 19th century, the Higher Gardens
of Generalife (Jardines Altos del Generalife); from the 20th century, the Gardens of the Partal
(Jardines del Partal); and even from the 21st century, the area around the Generalife theatre.
The steep slope over the Darro River, beside its orientation and the water that is leaking
down from the palace’s fountains, allows a large density of bushes and trees to grow. The
monument’s vegetation has changed over time in terms of the number and variety of species.
In addition to the species traditionally used during the Nasrid period such as wallflower, iris,
jasmine, cypress and bitter orange; many new species from other regions and continents have
been incorporated and are now fully integrated into gardening practices in Granada. These
include boxwood, wintersweet, wisteria and miniature roses. Of all the species present, if one
had to be chosen to represent the gardens of the Alhambra, it would be the myrtle. This bush
with dense and fragrant foliage has been used in all periods and almost all of the Alhambra’s
gardens (Márquez, 2016).
Although various ingenious hydraulic devices made it possible to build palaces and
cultivate ornamental and horticultural gardens in the hill where the Alhambra is located, the
predominant form of land use there would have been the meadow with its scattered trees
enabling the space to be used for extensive livestock activity. Eventually, today the gardens of
the Alhambra remain one of the most extensive in Spain. In fact, these gardens may be among
the oldest in Europe (De la Herran et al, 2016).
3.4 SOCIAL MEMORY OF THE ALHAMBRA

“The spirit of a particular place is fed by the attitudes and the many actions of
the people responsible for the built environment” (Day, 2002, p.7)
31
Based on that, it is vital to evoke the life of people who originated the design of the
Alhambra. This will be emphasized within the following sections.
3.4.1 Who lived at the Alhambra
In previous sections, the history and the structure of the Alhambra have been highlighted.
However, this part draws attention to an aspect that is less visible now but was fundamental in
the past and is still expressing the Alhambra’s spirit. It refers to the people who spent their
lives building, maintaining and defending that marvelous complex.
Initially, it should be remembered that the Alhambra did not always have a stable structure
(Gómez-Moreno, 2016). The sultans gradually built their palaces and houses, walls and gates
and the city evolved and gained in complexity, as did its inhabitants. In the early years of the
Nasrid dynasty, the Alhambra was little more than what is currently the Alcazaba. This
fortress is the first clear evidence about the incipient population. At the end of the 13th
century, the Alhambra began to take on more of the form and functions of a city. Houses and
palaces started to be built around the whole area, which at this point was still more rural than
urban. At the beginning of the 14th century, the city became more consolidated and the
population grew. The Partal Palace was built, and also the first of the Alhambra’s many gates.
Moreover, the mosque, a hammam adjacent to it and the first street were founded.
Gómez-Moreno (2016) argues that, throughout the 14th century, the Alhambra became a
large palatine city, which must attend to the multiple needs associated with the presence of the
Court, such as: royal functions (protocol and residence); military, economic, administrative
and judicial functions; in addition to construction and maintenance activities. All of this
brought significant growth in population, people of diverse origins, social class, education and
activity. The Sultan, his immediate family, his extended family, allies and collaborators,
viziers and councilors, civil servants working in the areas of administration and justice, a
large group of servants and slaves, the Sultan’s personal guards, officers and elite soldiers
and, finally, the architects, engineers, builders, carpenters, artisans and calligraphers, who
created this unique masterpiece, made up the Alhambra that was densely populated,
multidisciplinary and multiracial.
Presently, the Alhambra is the most-visited tourist attraction in Spain (Turespaña, 2018)
with almost two and half million visitors annually (Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife
(PAG), 2015), representing one of the most remarkable examples of Islamic architectural
Heritage in Europe.
3.4.2 Life in the Court
The Alhambra was the hub of administrative and governing activity of the Nasrid
Kingdom. Along with their religious duties and official governing tasks, the sultans and
members of the court enjoyed public recreational activities in reserved sections of the
complex, such as war or battle games in which horses wearing ornately-decorated tack, and
items such as shields and swords were present as an essential part of the sumptuous
provisions (Sánchez, 2016b). At official celebrations, they wore luxuriant clothes in red, blue
and green and sometimes with golden or silver threads that were weaved through a creative
technique. They also used embossed leather for shoes and belts, all of excellent craftsmanship
and richly adorned. Subsequently, these styles were highly regarded and started to be used by
the Christian courts as well.
32
Among the complements worn by women, some examples of golden jewellery with filigree
have been preserved. They were featured incrustations of precious gems and glazes in
earrings, rings and necklaces. Another element worn by women that crossed the border into
the Christian area were the shoes known as chapines (clogs). These pieces, which began as a
simple item for use in the hamamat or baths, moved beyond these spaces when they started to
be enhanced with embossed leather, silk ribbons, velvet and embroidered or metallic
decorations (Sánchez, 2016b).
The Nasrid ruler was seated on a platform during public audiences, in a scissors chair with
interweaving wood strips of different colours, and incrustation inlaid with bone and silver.
White, blue and gold ceramic dishware decorated the rooms, in the form of cups and pitchers
for beverages. Jugs and large vases further decorated the large halls. Hence, these descriptions
reflect the cultural and economic prosperity of the Nasrid Kingdom and refer to its interest
and appreciation for beauty. The Nasrids’ tenacity was so exceptional; in spite of the violent
political vicissitudes, the Alhambra continued to produce some of the most sophisticated arts
and architecture known to the region.
3.4.3 Life in the Medina
The Alhambra’s urban structure developed over two and a half centuries, the ruling period
of the Nasrid dynasty. The medina of the Alhambra was established for the sake of serving
the court. It was organized around a main street and had a mosque, a hammam, workshops
and houses. In other words, the medina had everything needed for the daily life of its
population. In the highest section, a neighbourhood of artisans was formed, with houses and
workshops similar to the ones found in North Africa (López, 2016b).
López (2016b) highlights that the general conception of the Alhambra’s traditional house
was based on family relationships. The space looked towards the interior, with a clear
separation from the exterior, few openings to the outside and with transit rooms. Inside, the
elements comprising the house were arranged around a central courtyard, which was a
defining element of any home and the main axis of family life. The courtyard helped to
organize family relationships, being the central gathering area and the place where many daily
activities were performed. Also, the surrounding rooms or alcoves served as places for
gathering, eating, sleeping and even working. The kitchen was often nothing but a small stove
made of clay. Moreover, the house courtyard and the street were linked by means of an
entryway, a room that was usually small and assisted to connect the street to the courtyard,
but emphasizing the separation between the two ranges, private and public.
It is clear that the social function of the houses, where the family and private life of its
inhabitants took place, was guided by essential Islamic principles, which valued an inward-
oriented ambience that was organized around the central courtyard.
3.5 THE ALHAMBRA AND THE EARTHLY PARADISE CONCEPT

The Alhambra complex includes architecture of palaces, gardens, water, arabesque,
inscriptions, and delightful nature that might reveal a metaphorical image of heavenly
paradise in the Islamic vision (Alkholy, 1995). The visual transformation of the Quranic
literary images of Paradise could be expressed in several levels: material, artistic, spiritual,
and symbolic by the Muslim architect of the Alhambra (Alkholy, 1995). However, the quality
of images of Paradise can not be evaluated because no ordinary person has seen Paradise. The
33
Alhambra is described as one of the most luxurious books of poems ever produced, with
poetic and religious epigraphic texts engraved on the walls (Moustafa, 2008). Many lines of
poetry are dedicated to the architectural descriptions of the palaces (El-Gamal, 2004).
Blair et al (1991) give many examples of the visual image of heavenly paradise in the
Islamic art which are clearly incorporated into the Alhambra: the floral arabesque is a symbol
of heavenly flowers, and pavilions are used to create an ambiance for relaxation which
provide physical and spiritual renew. Alkholy (1995) adds that the muqarnas as an important
element in the Alhambra symbolizes the richness of the cosmic motion; the ornamented
cupolas and ceilings symbolize the dome of heaven; and watercourses are symbols of the
abundance of rivers and springs in Paradise. In numerous places throughout the Alhambra, it
is observed the repeated use of the inscription “al-Ghibta al-Mutasilah” (Fig. 3.10) which
means “eternal bliss”, in other words, the expression of joy, happiness and well-being the
Alhambra’s inhabitants were looking forward to in heavenly paradise. Darr (2006) points out,
“Mystical and cosmological symbolism, whether found in literature, art, or

architecture, created a context for understanding and attuning oneself to the
spiritual world” (p. 11).
Figure 3.10. The inscription

“al-Ghibta al-Mutasilah” in
the Alhambra, Source:
(above)
youtu.be/BvuS06822zI
(below from left to right)
khtt.net & the researcher
3.5.1 Yearning for Heavenly Paradise in the Islamic Culture
In fact, the intellectual perspective for the Muslim scholars of al-Andalus and other Islamic
regions is based on the search for truth in their lives, to know God (Moustafa, 2008). In the
Islamic faith, nature’s components such as plants, trees and flowers are considered to be
manifestations of the magnificence of God (Hussain, 2014). Additionally, human beings are
entrusted to be custodians of the earth and stewards of nature. Therefore, Dickie (1968)
argues that the Andalusian Muslim looked at the terrestrial garden as a reflection or an
anticipation of heavenly paradise described in the Quran. It is believed that the garden
designers at that time attempted to evoke the spiritual essence of the paradisiacal environment
on earth (Latiff & Yaman, 2017), where the believer can enjoy using his senses to glorify the
creation of God. This might be seen as a stimulus to the ideal conditions waiting for the
faithful beyond his earthly life (Llewellyn, 1980). Hence, the awareness about the Andalusian
approaches to ecology helps to comprehend the concept behind designing gardens of the
Alhambra.
34
The gardens of the Alhambra provide space and setting for recreation and contemplation
(Hussain, 2014). They are arranged in courtyards and garden spaces of water, vegetation and
light (Omer, 2009); which provide a link between inside and outside experiences of nature
and architecture. This is evident in the stone paving, white stuccoed walls, bright and dark
colored tiles and pools with trickling fountains; surrounded by scented flowers, singing birds
and entertaining water sound (Lehrman, 1980; Maqqari & Gayangos, 2002). Accordingly,
these features could promote the impression of earthly paradise within the Alhambra.
3.5.2 Roots of the Earthly Paradise concept in the Alhambra
The descriptions of heavenly paradise in the Quran and Hadith provide vivid impressions of
greenery, trees, lushness, gushing fountains, delicious fruit, and unimaginative beauty
(Nassar, 2002). Besides, the Paradise (Arabic: al-Jannah) is indicated as a blissful, eternal,
sheltered and secure place (Clark, 2003). As mentioned earlier, it is envisioned as a garden in
Muslim thought (Ruggles, 2011). Out of all the garden elements of Paradise mentioned in the
Quran; water, vegetation and shade will be pointed in the following sections. Thus, the
heavenly descriptions of these elements might be reflected and used as design elements in the
Alhambra.
3.5.2.1 Description of Water in Heavenly Paradise
Water plays a vital role in purity of body, soul and life in the Islamic faith. There are many
verses in the Quran that mention water in Paradise similar to the following:
ْ َّ َ ًَ َ َ َ َ َ َ َ َ ُ َ َْ َ ْ َ ْ َ ‫ي َو ْال ُم ْؤم َنات َج َّن‬
َ ‫اَّلل ْال ُم ْؤمن‬
ُ ‫• ﴿ َو َع َد ه‬
﴾ … ‫ات َعد ٍن‬
ِ ‫ات تج ِري ِمن تح ِتها األنهار خ ِال ِدين ِفيها ومس ِاكن طيبة ِ يف جن‬
ٍ ِ ِ ِ ِ
]72 :‫[التوبة‬
• « Allah has promised the believing men and believing women gardens beneath which
rivers flow, wherein they abide eternally, and pleasant dwellings in gardens of perpetual
residence... » (Surah at-Tawbah, 9:72) (Saheeh, 1997)
The use of the word “rivers” emphasizes the abundance of water in Paradise (Yakup &
Clarke, 2005). This phrase is frequently used as expression for the bliss of the faithful
(Nassar, 2002). Clark (2004) states that the plentiful flowing water in gardens of the
Alhambra is an evocative representation of the rivers in Paradise. Such a distinguishing
feature could be noticed in the Court of the Water Channel (Patio de la Acequia) (Fig. 3.11)
and within the Gardens of the Partal (Jardines del Partal) (Fig. 3.12).
Figure 3.11. Water in the Court of the Water Channel, Figure 3.12. Water within the Gardens of the
Source: gibspain.com Partal, Source: Mouhammad Zeino
35
َّ ‫ه‬ َ َْ ُ َ َ َ ‫هَ ه‬ ٌ َ َْ َ ْ َ َّ ‫ون ف َيها َأ ْن َه ٌار م‬ َ ُ َّ ُ ْ َ ُ ‫َ َ ُ ْ َ َّ ه ر‬
‫ي ل ْم َيتغ َّ ْت ط ْع ُمه َوأن َه ٌار م ْن خ ْم ٍر لذ ٍة‬
ٍ ‫آس ٍَن ْ وأن ٌهار ِم َّن ل‬ِ ‫ن ماء َّ غ ِت‬ ‫• ﴿ مثل الجنة الت وعد المتق‬
ْ َ َ َ َ ُ َ ْ ُ َ َ ‫َ َ َ ْ َ ِ ٌ ِ ي ْ َ ِ َ ُّ َ ى‬
ِ
َّ ِّ
]15 :‫ ﴾ [محمد‬... ‫ات ومغ ِفرة من رب ِهم‬ ِ ‫للش ِار ِبي وأنهار من عس ٍل مصق ولهم ِفيها ِمن كل الثمر‬
• « Is the description of Paradise, which the righteous are promised, wherein are rivers of
water unaltered, rivers of milk the taste of which never changes, rivers of wine delicious
to those who drink, and rivers of purified honey, in which they will have from all [kinds
of] fruits and forgiveness from their Lord... » (Surah Muhammad, 47:15) (Saheeh, 1997)
After the rise of Islam, designing gardens with four streams of water was prevalent
(Beizaeijouybari & Gungor, 2016). These watercourses are symbol of four flowing rivers in
Paradise (Moustafa, 2008): which are of water, milk, wine and honey as mentioned in the last
verse. Hussain (2014) assumes that the presence of water in the Islamic gardens seeks to
evoke tranquility and contemplation upon Paradise. For instance, the Court of the Lions (Patio
de los Leones) in the Alhambra is divided by four water channels, symbolize the four rivers
(Fig. 3.13). Then, in addition to the court’s central space where the channels intersect and the
fountain of twelve lions stands, the court is considered a recreational place.
Figure 3.13. The four water channels in the Court of the Lions, Source (from left to right): Manuel Rubio Terrón,
& PAG
3.5.2.2 Description of Vegetation in Heavenly Paradise
Trees, shrubs, and foliage are distinctive components in the Islamic gardens. Plant materials
are used both for their pragmatic and aesthetic qualities. Fruit trees are planted in abundance;
they provide food, aroma, and color. Tall trees are planted for protection against the wind, and
to shade the gardens from the heat and brightness of the sun (Attia & Wierina, 2005). The
following are some verses from the Quran which describe vegetation in Paradise:
َ ُ َ ُُْ ً َ ُ َ ْ‫ُ ُ َ ر‬
-41 :‫اشبوا ه ِنيئا ِب َما كنت ْم ت ْع َملون ﴾ [المرسالت‬
َ َ ْ َ َ
‫ كلوا و‬ ‫ َوف َو ِاكه ِم َّما َيشت ُهون‬ ‫ون‬ ُُ َ َ َ َّ ُ ْ َّ
ٍ ‫• ﴿ ِإن المت ِقي ِ يف ِظَل ٍل وعي‬
]43
• « Indeed, the righteous will be among shades and springs * And fruits from whatever
they desire, * [Being told], “Eat and drink in satisfaction for what you used to do”. »
(Surah al-Mursalat, 77:41-43) (Saheeh, 1997)
ْ َ ُ ُ ُ ْ َ ِّ ُ ُ َ ً َ
]14 :‫• ﴿ َود ِان َية َعل ْي ِه ْم ِظالل َها َوذللت قطوف َها تذ ِليال ﴾ [اإلنسان‬
• « And near above them are its shades, and its [fruit] to be picked will be lowered in
compliance. » (Surah al-Insan, 76:14) (Saheeh, 1997)
Fruits are plenty and easy to reach in some places within the Alhambra, as an endeavor to
emulate the vital image of vegetation in Paradise (Ma, 2009) (Fig. 3.14).
36
Figure 3.14. Nearby fruits in the Alhambra, Source (from left to right): hiveminer.com; Mikelle Hembree; &
PAG.
3.5.2.3 Description of Shade in Heavenly Paradise
Shade is a significant feature in Paradise gardens (Nassar, 2002). The Paradise has been
described as having a perfect temperate climate where no extreme heat or cold (Surah al-
Insan, 76:13) (Saheeh, 1997). Thus, some Islamic gardens were densely planted for shade to
create cool usable space. (Attia & Wierina, 2005). There are many verses in the Quran that
indicate shade in Paradise as the following:
ُّ َ ُُ ُ َْ َ َ َ ُ َّ ْ َ ‫َ ْ َّ ه‬
]35 :‫ ﴾ [الرعد‬... ‫• ﴿ َّمث ُل ال َجن ِة ال ِ ر يت ُو ِعد ال ُمتقون ت ْج ِري ِمن ت ْح ِت َها األن َه ُار أ كل َها دا ِئ ٌم َو ِظل َها‬
• « The example [i.e., description] of Paradise, which the righteous have been promised, is
[that] beneath it rivers flow. Its fruit is lasting, and its shade... » (Surah ar-Ra'd, 13:35)
(Saheeh, 1997)
َ ُ َْ ‫ا‬
َ ‫وعة َوال َم ْم ُن‬ َ َ َ َ ُ ْ َّ َ َ ُ ْ َّ ٍّ َ
]33-30 :‫وع ٍة ﴾ [الواقعة‬ ٍ ‫ ّل مقط‬ ‫ وف ِاكه ٍة ك ِث َتٍة‬ ‫وب‬ ٍ ‫ وماء مسك‬ ‫ود‬ ٍ ‫• ﴿ و ِظل ممد‬
• « And shade extended * And water poured out * And fruit, abundant [and varied], *
Neither limited [to season] nor forbidden. » (Surah al-Waqi'ah, 56:30-33) (Saheeh, 1997)
Perpetual shade is promised in the Quran as part of the reward that awaits the righteous
(Nassar, 2002). As an allegorical try to evoke, the enhancement of shade is apparent at the
Alhambra in the Garden of Dar Aisha (Jardín de Daraxa/Lindaraja) (Fig. 3.15). It is a cool
and shady garden as the trees and plants are dense; they reduce the intensity of the sunlight
that reaches to the ground, thus providing a gentle wind all day.
Figure 3.15. Shade in the Garden of Dar Aisha (Jardín de Daraxa/Lindaraja), Source: PAG
Hence, the Alhambra is an outstanding example that clearly demonstrates the concept of
earthly paradise. As noted above, there was an attempt to define the verbal images of
heavenly paradise symbolically into visual levels according to descriptions of the Quran;
37
which could probably be observed in the architectural configuration of the complex. In fact,
there is an argument whether this tendency was deliberately expressed or coincidentally
(Alkholy, 1995; Latiff & Yaman, 2017). Nevertheless, it might reflect how the sultans and
architects of the Alhambra were yearning for Paradise with its beauty in their lives.
3.6 THE DIALOGUE BETWEEN NATURE AND THE ALHAMBRA

ARCHITECTURE
The Alhambra is a unique complex that reveals the relationship between nature and
architecture. In the Alhambra, the dialog between nature and architecture relates to how
natural materials are transformed into elements of architecture and architectural experiences.
The sensitive attention paid to these aspects might enable people to feel the experience of the
Alhambra as an integration of the two (Torres, 1992).
3.6.1 Nature transformed into architectural elements in the Alhambra
Nature can be transformed into an architectural element. One element of nature that
expresses this is water. There are many ways in which water is used to explain the experience
of the Alhambra. Among these, water can be recognized as a surface. The surface of the water
as a natural element acts like the architectural material of glass with its reflections and
opacities.
In the Court of the Myrtles (Patio de los Arrayanes), water in the reflecting pool spans
almost the entire length of the court. Because of its size in relation to the dimension of the
floor area in the court, it becomes a floor surface which acts as a mirror. Movement around
the court might reflect in detail many images of the architecture. It is observed that the
ornamental details of the portico’s arches are vividly magnified while walking around the
pool (Torres, 1992). Water in this way becomes a mirror-like surface and has the ability to
enlarge space, expanding the scale of the court. This expansion of space is also seen in the
reflection of the sky along its surface. Normally, the sky is seen above, but it becomes an
integral part of the floor surface as well.
It is important to understand that the size of the reflecting pool is vital in this perception of
space (Torres, 1992). If the pool is small in relation to the court size, it will not expand the
space as it does. Instead, it will react in much the same way as it does in the Court of the
Golden Room (Patio del Cuarto Dorado). In the Court of the Golden Room, the fountain is
small. Besides, the shape of the fountain is that of an octagonal shell and its surface is above
the floor level. It does not reflect the surfaces in the court, but like fluid glass, water pours
over the edge and into the recessed pool beneath the floors surface. In this case, scales help to
transform water into the architectural object of fountain (Torres, 1992).
It is crucial to look more closely at how nature is transformed into an architectural element.
For example, the elements which create surfaces and openings in the Court of the Golden
Room represent nature through architectural elements. The surface of the walls surrounding
the court and the arcade which introduces it express this with richness (Torres, 1992) (Fig.
3.16). In addition, there is a division in the scale of the south facade, where a band with star
and leaf-shaped patterns of various colored tile wrap around that wall of the court. The details
of the column capital with acorn, shell and leaf motifs in the north facade further suggests the
use of nature represented in the architecture (Torres, 1992). Torres (1992) argues that
38
although these elements are only representations of nature, they begin the basis of the
dialogue that fosters the marvelous feeling of the court.
Figure 3.16. Facades of the Court of the Golden Room, Source: (above from left to right) PAG & (Goury &
Jones, 1842), (below from left to right) PAG & (Murphy, 1815).
3.6.2 Nature transformed into architectural experience in the Alhambra
Nature can be transformed into an architectural experience. There are several methods to
accomplish this transition in the Alhambra. One of them adopts the making of spaces from
natural elements, turning landscape elements into an architectural vocabulary. These elements
of nature in such case do not often exist as elements alone; they are integrated to other items
for creating a more complex architectural experience (Torres, 1992).
As an illustration, the hedge alone is an element of nature that is grown rather than
constructed (Torres, 1992). Once it develops a dialog with scale and context, it is transformed.
It could become more than a hedge, perhaps a wall and at times, even the wall becomes an
element in the making of a corridor or hallway (Torres, 1992). Natural elements such as
39
hedges, earth, planting, stones and water might be transformed into walls, floors, ceilings,
steps and courts. The unity of these natural elements can create an architectural experience.
Analyzing spaces that are constructed through this dialog helps to understand the ways that
formulate the architectural experience within the Alhambra.
For instance, in the middle section of the Lower Gardens of Generalife (Jardines Bajos del
Generalife) there is a clearly defined pathway which is lined with small plants, and
occasionally a small bench or fountain has been placed along the path (Fig. 3.17). The
pathway leads to an opening, defined by hedges, planting and sky. It is not only realized as an
outdoor garden space, but also seems to be an outside room (Torres, 1992). The room
becomes nature transformed into an architectural experience. The opening has the scale of a
doorway. It leads into a space that is shaded from the bright sunlight and is surrounded by
hedges and plantings in a circular pattern. It creates a doorway, wall and room through the
simple combination of nature’s elements in a garden space. Thus, nature is transformed into
architectural experience. A hedge becomes a wall, but the surface is made from natural
materials outside. This surface is interrupted by openings formed by the alteration of hedges
and coverings, create movement through space.
Figure 3.17. Hedges in the Lower Gardens of Generalife, Source (from left to right): Tom Payne; Manuel
Guerrero; & Manuel Guerrero.
Likewise in the Royal Road of the Alhambra (Calle Real de la Alhambra) next to the Gate
of Seven Floors (Puerta de los Siete Suelos), there are two rows of hedges creating walls
(Torres, 1992) (Fig. 3.18). It might make a person feel that he is being led through a corridor
(Torres, 1992). This is because of the relationship of the height to the width of the passage.
Hence, nature has created the expression of architecture through surfaces where hedges
become walls and walls create passageways and corridors (Torres, 1992).
Figure 3.18. Hedges in the

Royal Road of the Alhambra,
Source (from left to right):
Yacine Belebna & Javier
Lopez Domenech.
40
3.7 SUMMARY
This chapter has revealed the culture behind the architecture of the Alhambra, Granada. In
fact, it has observed that nature and design are both characteristic components of the
Alhambra’s cultural identity. The thinker of the Alhambra experience probably perceives that
the essence of its architecture might be shaped through the understanding of its architects and
craftsmen to the beauty and harmony as manifested in nature, beside using their active
intellect and connecting with God. These values perhaps lead naturally to the development of
quality in architecture, and to realize why the Alhambra is an exemplary architecture, based
on creativity and thoughtful innovation.
41
CHAPTER 4
BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE
ALHAMBRA ARCHITECTURE
OBJECTIVE CONTENTS
Analyzing the 4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 43

architectural configuration 4.2 NATURE IN THE SPACE ............................................ 43
4.2.1 Visual Connection with Nature ............................... 43
of the Alhambra through 4.2.2 Non-Visual Connection with Nature ....................... 45
the “14 Patterns of 4.2.3 Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli .............................. 46
Biophilic Design”, 4.2.4 Thermal and Airflow Variability ............................. 47
proposed by Terrapin 4.2.5 Presence of Water.................................................... 51
Bright Green sustainability 4.2.6 Dynamic and Diffuse Light ..................................... 53
4.2.7 Connection with Natural Systems ........................... 56
consulting firm. 4.3 NATURAL ANALOGUES ........................................... 59
4.3.1 Biomorphic Forms and Patterns .............................. 59
4.3.2 Material Connection with Nature ............................ 62
4.3.3 Complexity and Order ............................................. 64
4.4 NATURE OF THE SPACE........................................... 69
4.4.1 Prospect ................................................................... 69
4.4.2 Refuge ..................................................................... 70
4.4.3 Mystery ................................................................... 72
4.4.4 Risk/ Peril ................................................................ 73
4.5 CONCLUSION .............................................................. 74
CHAPTER 4 BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA ARCHITECTURE
4 BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA

ARCHITECTURE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
“…Biophilia is not a single instinct but a complex of learning rules that can be
teased apart and analyzed individually.” (Wilson, 1993, p. 31)
Terrapin Bright Green, an environmental consulting firm, has suggested “14 Patterns of
Biophilic Design” to articulate the relationships between nature, human biology and
psychology, and the design of the built environment which could help designers to reach a
successful implementation or evaluation of biophilic design (Browning et al, 2014).
Additionally, this consulting firm has organized the 14 patterns into three categories – Nature
in the Space, Natural Analogues, and Nature of the Space. In fact, these patterns represent a
collection of tools for realizing design opportunities in a certain environment.
Hence, the objective of this chapter is to analyze the architectural configuration of the
Alhambra according to the “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design” by defining these patterns;
recognizing their mind-body impacts; and observing their appearance in the Alhambra.
4.2 NATURE IN THE SPACE

Nature in the Space addresses the direct, physical and ephemeral presence of nature in a
space or place. This includes plant life, water and animals, as well as breezes, sounds, scents
and other natural elements. The strongest Nature in the Space experiences are achieved
through the creation of meaningful, direct connections with these natural elements,
particularly through diversity, movement and multi-sensory interactions (Browning et al,
2014). Nature in the Space encompasses seven biophilic design patterns: Visual Connection
with Nature; Non-Visual Connection with Nature; Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli; Thermal
& Airflow Variability; Presence of Water; Dynamic & Diffuse Light; and Connection with
Natural Systems (Browning et al, 2014).
4.2.1 Visual Connection with Nature
A Visual Connection with Nature is a view to elements of nature, living systems and
natural processes (Ryan et al, 2014).
4.2.1.1 The Experience
A space with a good Visual Connection with Nature makes one feel whole, it grabs one’s
attention and can be stimulating or calming. It can convey a sense of time, weather and other
living things (Browning et al, 2014).
4.2.1.2 Roots of the pattern
The Visual Connection with Nature pattern has evolved from research on visual preference
and responses to views to nature showing reduced stress, more positive emotional
functioning, and improved concentration and recovery rates (Table 4.1). Stress recovery from
43
visual connections with nature have reportedly been realized through lowered blood pressure
and heart rate; reduced attentional fatigue, sadness, anger, and aggression; improved mental
engagement/attentiveness, attitude and overall happiness. There is also evidence for stress
reduction related to both experiencing real nature and seeing images of nature.
Table 4.1. Pattern of ‘Visual connection with Nature’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
Pattern Stress reduction Cognitive performance Emotion, mood &
preference
Visual Lowered blood pressure Improved mental Positively impacted
connection and heart rate engagement/ attitude and overall
with nature (Brown et al, 2013; attentiveness happiness
Tsunetsugu & Miyazaki, (Biederman & Vessel, (Barton & Pretty, 2010)
2005; Van den Berg et 2006)
al, 2007)
4.2.1.3 Appearance of the pattern in the Alhambra
The Generalife Palace is framed by panoramic views of a natural landscape that extends out
to the horizon. It comprises a garden pavilion, terraces and rich diversity of spaces, including
courts filled with shrubs, flowers and plants in addition to oblong pools, fountains and
pathways (Fig. 4.1). The Court of the Water Channel (Patio de la Acequia) (Fig. 4.2) and the
Soultana’s Court (Patio de la Sultana) (Fig. 4.3) are two marvelous courtyards existing in the
palace.
(b) Elements of nature in the Generalife Palace
Figure 4.1. The Generalife Palace, Source:

(a) (Delgado et al, 2007)
(b) José M. Azcona
(a) Section (A-A') and floor of the Generalife

Palace
Figure 4.2. The Court of the Water Channel, Source: Figure 4.3. The Soultana’s Court,
alhambradegranada.org Source: PAG
44
4.2.2 Non-Visual Connection with Nature
Non-Visual Connection with Nature is the auditory, haptic, olfactory, or gustatory stimuli
that engender a deliberate and positive reference to nature, living systems or natural processes
A space with a good Non-Visual Connection with Nature makes one feel fresh and well
balanced; the ambient conditions are perceived as complex and variable but at the same time
familiar and comfortable, whereby sounds, aromas, and textures are reminiscent of being
outdoors in nature (Browning et al, 2014).
The Non-Visual Connection with Nature pattern has evolved from research on reductions in
systolic blood pressure and stress hormones; impact of sound and vibration on cognitive
performance; and perceived improvements in mental health and tranquility as a result of non-
visual sensory interactions with non-threatening nature (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2. Pattern of ‘Non-visual Connection with Nature’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al,
2014)
preference
Non-visual connection Reduced systolic blood Positively impacted on Perceived improvements
with nature pressure and stress cognitive performance in mental health and
hormones (Ljungberg et al, 2004; tranquility
(Hartig et al, 2003; Mehta et al, 2012) (Jahncke et al, 2011;
Orsega-Smith et al, Kim et al, 2007; Li et al,
2004; Park et al, 2009; 2012; Park et al, 2009;
Ulrich et al, 1991) Stigsdotter & Grahn,
2003)
Olfactor: The Alhambra gardens is stunningly full of lovely colorful flowers with
interesting aromas (PAG, 2017) (Fig. 4.4).
Gustatory and haptic: The orchards of the Alhambra (Heurtas de la Alhambra) are a large
area located between the Alhambra complex and the Generalife. These orchards have been
devoted to food production (Fig. 4.5).
Auditory: Water also is spouting and rushing from a fountain and other small pools in the
Palace of the Lions, generating relaxing sound and calm atmosphere (Fig. 4.6).
Figure 4.4. Flowers of the Alhambra, Source: PAG
45
Figure 4.6. QR code for

sound records in the
Figure 4.5. Orchards of the Alhambra, Source: PAG Palace of the Lions,
Source: (Cerda, 2016)
4.2.3 Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli
Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli are stochastic and ephemeral connections with nature that
may be analyzed statistically but may not be predicted precisely (Browning et al, 2014).
A space with good Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli makes one feel as if he is momentarily
privy to something special, something fresh, interesting, stimulating and energizing. It is a
brief but welcome distraction (Browning et al, 2014).
The Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli pattern has evolved from research on looking
behavior; eye lens focal relaxation patterns; heart rate, systolic blood pressure and
sympathetic nervous system activity; and observed and quantified behavioral measures of
attention and exploration (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3. Pattern of ‘Non-rhythmic Sensory Stimuli’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Non-rhythmic sensory Positively impacted on Observed and quantified
stimuli heart rate, systolic blood behavioral measures of
pressure and sympathetic attention and exploration
nervous system activity (Windhager et al, 2011)
(Beauchamp et al, 2003;
Li, 2010; Park et al,
2009; Ulrich et al, 1991)
In the forest of the Alhambra, the gardens of the Generalife or in the palaces of the Nasrid
complex, numerous species inhabit. The red squirrel can be seen moving among the treetops
under the watchful eye of tourists and onlookers (Fig. 4.7). Moreover, the scops owl may be
watched in the Alhambra (Fig. 4.8). Also, hedgehogs already live in the Alhambra fortress
(PAG, 2017) (Fig. 4.9). In addition, cats’ movements could be observed in the complex (Fig.
4.10).
Further, the complex of ditches, pools and fountains of the Alhambra and the Generalife
constitutes an important place for proliferation of the amphibians which are currently one of
the most threatened groups on the planet (IUCN, 2017) (Fig. 4.11). Besides, the insectivorous
birds find in the winter a food sustenance in the refuges of the forests, gardens, pools and
ditches of the Alhambra (PAG, 2017) (Fig. 4.12). On the other hand, the most characteristic
46
plant of the Alhambra is the “Myrtus communis”, or myrtle (PAG, 2017). Among its varieties
stands out the Andalusian myrtle “myrtus baetica”, with larger leaves, which is today few in
the Alhambra, and some are centenarians (Fig. 4.13).
Figure 4.7. A red squirrel in the Figure 4.8. Figure 4.9. Hedgehogs in the Figure 4.10. Cat movement in the
forest of the Alhambra The scops Alhambra Alhambra
owl in the
Alhambra Sources: PAG
Figure 4.11. A frog in the Figure 4.12. The insectivorous birds in the Figure 4.13. The myrtle in the
Alhambra Alhambra, Source: Juan Pérez Contreras Alhambra
4.2.4 Thermal and Airflow Variability
Thermal & Airflow Variability can be characterized as subtle changes in air temperature,
relative humidity, airflow across the skin, and surface temperatures that mimic natural
environments (Ryan et al, 2014).
A space with good Thermal & Airflow Variability makes one feel refreshing, active, alive,
invigorating and comfortable. The space provides a feeling of both flexibility and a sense of
control (Browning et al, 2014).
The Thermal & Airflow Variability pattern has evolved from research measuring the effects
of natural ventilation, its resulting thermal variability, and worker comfort, well-being and
productivity; physiology and perception of temporal and spatial pleasure (alliesthesia). The
impact of nature in motion is on concentration; and, generally speaking, a growing discontent
with the conventional approach to thermal design, which focuses on achieving a narrow target
area of temperature, humidity and air flow while minimizing variability (Table 4.4).
47
Table 4.4. Pattern of ‘Thermal and Airflow Variability’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Thermal & Positively impacted Positively impacted Improved perception of
airflow comfort, well-being and concentration temporal and spatial
variability productivity (Hartig et al, 2003; pleasure (alliesthesia)
(Heerwagen, 2006; Tham Hartig et al, 1991; (Arens et al, 2006; De
& Willem, 2005; Wigö, Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) Dear & Brager, 2002;
2005) Heschong, 1979;
Parkinson et al, 2012;
Zhang, 2003; Zhang et
al, 2010)
The natural process of cooling in architecture can be achieved in two different ways:
through preventing heat from penetrating the interior of the building, by means of direct
protection against the sun, or through eliminating excess temperature from the different areas
to be cooled using a series of combined physical mechanisms (Jiménez Alcalá, 1999).
Strong solar radiation was the main source of internal heat in the buildings developed in al-
Andalus and thus the Alhambra, so natural light was manipulated and intentionally controlled
in the architecture, providing protection from the rays of the sun primarily by preventing them
from entering directly (García-Pulido, 2012). The most common practice was to confine this
indirect illumination to the higher part of the rooms, which diffused the light from top to
bottom, making it somewhat hazy, giving a suggestive atmosphere to the interiors (García-
Pulido, 2012) (Fig. 4.14). As a consequence, the influx of sunlight and hot air is reduced to
the minimum, achieving the desired level of illumination and ventilation.
When there are larger openings, such as entrance or exit arches, they are protected by deep
porticoes and pronounced eaves, always present in the sunniest wings of the patios. These
porticoes are often made up of arcades where there is a gradual adjustment of light from the
entrance area to the latticed area in the upper parts of the walls (García-Pulido, 2016) (Fig.
4.15). Moreover, temperature and humidity were controlled and mitigated by the presence of
water and vegetation in the patios (Fig. 4.16).
Further, the effective ventilation of a room depends on the distribution and shape of the
windows, with regard not only to their size, but also to their strategic placement with the aim
of obtaining suitable cross-ventilation (García-Pulido, 2012). According to García-Pulido
(2016), the “stack effect” is caused in the Alhambra by a difference of air density and pressure
between the heavier cold air and lighter warm inside a space, as in the Tower of the
Princesses (Torre de las Infantas) and the Tower of the Captive (Torre de la Cautiva) (Fig.
4.17). In addition, the “Venturi effect” occurs when rapid air circulation causes a lowering of
pressure. This takes place in areas with cross-ventilation, where the draft induces air from
other areas, thus creating air convection as in the Hall of Comares (Fig. 4.18).
48
Figure 4.14. Natural light in some remarkable spaces of the Alhambra (from left to right & from above to
below): Hall of the Two Sisters, Source: PAG; Tower of the Princesses, Source: lugaresdegranada.blogspot.com;
Hall of the Abencerrages, Source: PAG; Hall of Comares (centre), Source: spain.info; Balcony of Dar Aisha or
Mirador de Daraxa, Source: PAG; and two photographs of the Baths of Comares, Source: culturamas.es &
hammamalandalus.com.
Figure 4.15. Adjustment and controlled inner illumination in different porticoes in the Alhambra palaces,
transition between the inside and outside of different chambers (top left: the Golden Room; centre left: North
Hall of the Generalife Palace; top right: Hall of the Muqarnas of the Palace of the Lions, Sources: PAG).
Reflecting water surfaces in the Alhambra (below left: pool of the Comares Palace, Source: PAG; below right:
pool of the Partal Palace, Source: spain.info)
49
Figure 4.16. Water and vegetation in the patios in the palace’s patios (Comares, Lions & Generalife), Source:
(García-Pulido, 2016)
Figure 4.17. Stack effect in the Princesses and Captive towers, Source: (García-Pulido, 2016)
Figure 4.18. Venturi effect in the Hall of Comares, Source: (García-Pulido, 2016)
50
4.2.5 Presence of Water
Presence of Water is a condition that enhances the experience of a place through the seeing,
hearing or touching of water (Ryan et al, 2014).
A space with a good Presence of Water condition makes one feel compelling and
captivating. Fluidity, sound, lighting, proximity and accessibility each contribute to whether a
space is stimulating, calming, or both (Browning et al, 2014).
The Presence of Water pattern has evolved from research on visual preference for and
positive emotional responses to environments containing water elements; reduced stress,
increased feelings of tranquility, and lower heart rate and blood pressure from exposure to
water features; improved concentration and memory restoration induced by complex,
naturally fluctuating visual stimuli; and enhanced perception and psychological and
physiological responsiveness when multiple senses are stimulated simultaneously (Table 4.5).
Table 4.5. Pattern of ‘Presence of Water’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Presence of water Reduced stress, increased Improved concentration Observed preferences
feelings of tranquility, and memory restoration and positive emotional
lower heart rate and (Alvarsson et al, 2010; responses
blood pressure Biederman & Vessel, (Barton & Pretty, 2010;
(Alvarsson et al, 2010; 2006) Biederman & Vessel,
Biederman & Vessel, Enhanced perception and 2006; Heerwagen &
2006; Pheasant et al, psychological Orians, 1993; Karmanov
2010) responsiveness & Hamel, 2008; Ruso &
(Alvarsson et al, 2010; Atzwanger, 2003; Ulrich,
Hunter et al, 2010) 1983; White et al, 2010;
Windhager et al, 2011)
Water is used in a variety of ways; flowing, reflective as a mirror and playful, with light.
The multitudinous watercourses in the Alhambra consisted of canals, pools, water stairs,
water bannisters, fountains and basins of varying geometric form (Baker, 1986). One of the
most unique elements of the Generalife is the Water Stairway (Escalera del Agua). Innovative
designs such as open water bannisters run to lower terraces inviting participation and offering
sights and sounds relieving intense summer heat (Fig. 4.19).
In the Court of the Golden Room (Patio del Cuarto Dorado), the fountain in the center of
the court has only a small spout of water rising from its center. It’s sound is calm and quiet
and it helps to create the wonderful sense (Fig. 4.20). In the Court of the Myrtles, the
reflecting pool with small circular pools at either end, gurgle water through small spouts (Fig.
4.21).
Movement throughout the Court of the Lions involves the integration with water; stepping
over the small channels and addressing the pools and fountains creates a physical involvement
with the human body and the element of water (Torres, 1992) (Fig. 4.22). In the terraces of
the Partal Gardens, there is a sequence of paths which lead upwards by way of inclined ramps
51
and steps. The spaces are made up of a series of plantings, pools and fountains (Fig. 4.23).
Hence, water is an important element in the making of these spaces.
It has been “surprising” to touch the water and hear its sound in one of the fountains of the
Alhambra and contemplate how it flowed and became a subtle mirror of architecture (Fig.
4.24). The surface of the pool of the Court of the Myrtles (Patio de los Arrayanes) works like
a mirror that reflects the architecture itself and what surrounds it; thus, an admirable visual
effect can be achieved (Fig. 4.25).
Figure 4.19. The Water Stairway in the Generalife, Figure 4.20. Fountain of the
Source (from above to below then from left to Court of the Golden Room,
right): webgranada.com; estudi-arte.blogspot.com; Source (from above to below):
Francisco Laguna; & la-alhambra.org.es PAG & alhambradegranada.org
Figure 4.21. Water in the Court of the Myrtles, Source: PAG
52
Figure 4.22. Water in the Court of the Figure 4.23. Water in the terraces of the Partal Gardens,
Lions, Source: PAG Source: alhambra-entradas.com
Figure 4.24. Touching water of a fountain in the Figure 4.25. Reflection of the Palace of Comares’ facade
Alhambra, Source: juntadeandalucia.es on the pool of Court of the Myrtles, Source: PAG
4.2.6 Dynamic and Diffuse Light
Dynamic & Diffuse Light leverages varying intensities of light and shadow that change
over time to create conditions that occur in nature (Browning et al, 2014).
A space with a good Dynamic & Diffuse Light condition conveys expressions of time and
movement to evoke feelings of drama and intrigue, buffered with a sense of calm (Browning
et al, 2014).
Lighting design has long been used to set the mood for a space, and different lighting
conditions elicit differing psychological responses. The impact of daylight on performance,
mood and well-being has been studied for many years, in a variety of environments, and as a
complex field of science and design, light has been extensively studied and written about.
Recent research has focused more heavily on illuminance fluctuation and visual comfort,
human factors and perception of light, and impacts of lighting on the circadian system
functioning (Table 4.6).
Table 4.6. Pattern of ‘Dynamic and Diffuse Light’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
53

preference
Dynamic & diffuse light Positively impacted
circadian system
functioning
(Beckett & Roden, 2009;
Figueiro et al, 2011)
Increased visual comfort
(Kim & Kim, 2007)
The Alhambra is characterized by dividing some of its domes, arches or corners into
muqarnas. This muqarnas involves the geometrical formations resembling stalactites,
described as honeycomb cells (Fig. 4.26). The magical effect experienced by these formations
is attributed to the way in which they catch and filter light giving it a delicate luminous
quality (Moustafa, 2008). Light stands to represent unity in that it ties nature directly back to
the structure creating a balance and harmony between both external elements of nature and
the architecture inspired by it. At the precise time during sunset in the Hall of the Two Sisters
(Sala de las Dos Hermanas), the sun aligns at just the right angle where enough light rays
travel through the cupola windows and hit the surfaces of the muqarnas detailing resulting in
a shimmering band of gold reflection that lifts the top of the dome (Torres, 1992) (Fig. 4.27).
The entire structure of the Hall of the Abencerrages (Sala de los Abencerrajes) in the Palace
of the Lions revolves around a large “qubba” equipped internally with a magnificent
muqarnas dome of three-dimensional composition (Fig. 4.28). In the Hall of the
Ambassadors, during the day, the ceiling is rich with details painted on its surface. The light
of day brightly displays this, but the light from the moon that reaches the ceiling, brightens
only the patterns carved in wood and the gold leaf displaying a ceiling of stars (Torres, 1992)
(Fig. 4.29).
The lattices were the closing devices, mainly windows and holes, in different spaces in the
Alhambra. The name given to the lattices in Arabic is ‘qamiriyya’ (from ‘qamar’: moon) or
‘shamsiyya’ (from ‘shams’: sun), depending on their relationship with the external light that
they sift or blur, allowing only the adequate clarity for each stay (PAG, 2017) (Fig. 4.30). The
lattice windows were generally located in high areas, so they enhanced the decoration of the
walls and raking the walls (Fig. 4.31).
The decorative design always used a geometric base, with a network of intersecting ribbons
(Fig. 4.32). Further, in the garden spaces, surfaces interact with light. The garden is filled with
a variety of textures and scales which create spaces of shade and openness to bright sunlight;
this could be observed in the Partal Gardens (Fig. 4.33).
54
Figure 4.26. Arch detail from the enclosed Balcony of Figure 4.27. Cupola of the Hall of the Two Sisters,
Dar Aisha, Source: alhambradegranada.org Source: Alexander Pöschel
Figure 4.28. “Qubba” of the Hall of the Abencerrages, Figure 4.29. Looking up into the Hall of the
Source: archnet.org Ambassadors, Source: alhambradegranada.org
Figure 4.30. The lattice windows in the Hall of the Ambassadors, Source: Figure 4.31. The high-placed
PAG lattice windows in the Hall of the
Kings, Source: PAG
55
Figure 4.32. The lattice windows in Figure 4.33. View from upper terrace of the Partal Gardens, Source:
an alcove at the Hall of the spain.info
Ambassadors, Source: Kurt
Schmidt
4.2.7 Connection with Natural Systems
Connection with Natural Systems is the awareness of natural processes, especially seasonal
and temporal changes characteristic of a healthy ecosystem (Browning et al, 2014).
A space with a good Connection with Natural Systems evokes a relationship to a greater
whole, making one aware of seasonality and the cycles of life. The experience is often
relaxing, nostalgic, profound or enlightening, and frequently anticipated (Browning et al,
2014).
There is limited scientific documentation of the health impacts associated with access to
natural systems; this pattern is suspected to enhance positive health responses (Table 4.7).
Kellert et al (2008) frame this as “Natural Patterns and Processes”, whereby seeing and
understanding the processes of nature and can create a perceptual shift in what’s being seen
and experienced. This pattern has a strong temporal element, which can be expressed
culturally.
Table 4.7. Pattern of ‘Connection with Natural Systems’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al,
2014)
preference
Connection with Enhanced positive health
natural systems responses;
Shifted perception of
environment
(Kellert et al, 2008)
56
From the Darro river, water was brought to the site by means of a complicated canalisation
system and aqueducts to the Generalife then to the Alhambra (Rabbat, 1984) (Fig. 4.34). The
spur which the complex lies on is fed in part from the range of mountains where the water
from atop, travels down the mountains. This water is supplied by the traditional method of
irrigation utilizing water from the Darro river below. Further, it links the city below with the
Alhambra above. The link between nature and architecture becomes even more unified with
the understanding that the source of water which connects these spaces in part is derived from
the rain and snow that falls on the mountain tops (Torres, 1992). As the snow melts, following
the winter months, it cascades down the mountain side and becomes the water which
facilitates the supply that fills the Alhambra complex.
Today, dense groves of trees surround the monument, covering the slopes down to the
Darro river and towards the city of Granada. In addition, many channels, slender streams and
waterfalls can be observed within the walkways and groves around the Alhambra (Fig. 4.35).
The Alhambra architecture provides visitors with an awareness of seasonal or temporal

changes characteristic of a functional ecosystem, which reinforces their cultural appreciation
of the environment (Fig. 4.36). It offers the opportunity to observe the plant life interactions,
and changes in vegetation across seasons.
Figure 4.34. Water
channels linked to the
Darro River, from which
the Alhambra receives its
water supply, Source:
(Garcia-Pulido, 2016)
Figure 4.35. Channels, slender streams and waterfalls within the walkways and groves around the Alhambra,
Source: PAG
57
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.36. The seasonal changes in the Alhambra and Generalife, Source (from above to below): (a) Jesús Ruiz; Mark
Prior; & David Passerat de la Chapelle. (b,c) PAG (d) PAG; theweekendguide.com; & PAG.
58
4.3 NATURAL ANALOGUES

Natural Analogues addresses organic, non-living and indirect evocations of nature. Objects,
materials, colors, shapes, sequences and patterns found in nature, manifest as artwork,
ornamentation, decor, and textiles in the built environment. Mimicry of leaves, decoration
with organic shapes, and natural materials that have been processed or extensively altered,
each provide an indirect connection with nature; they are analogous of the items in their
‘natural’ state. The strongest Natural Analogue experiences are achieved by providing
information richness in an organized and sometimes evolving manner (Browning et al, 2014).
Natural Analogues encompasses three patterns of biophilic design: Biomorphic Forms &
Patterns; Material Connection with Nature; and Complexity & Order (Browning et al, 2014).
4.3.1 Biomorphic Forms and Patterns
Biomorphic Forms & Patterns are symbolic references to contoured, patterned, textured or
numerical arrangements that persist in nature (Browning et al, 2014).
A space with good Biomorphic Forms & Patterns makes one feel interesting and
comfortable, possibly captivating, contemplative or even absorptive (Browning et al, 2014).
Biomorphic Forms & Patterns has evolved from research on view preferences, reduced
stress due to induced shift in focus, and enhanced concentration (Table 4.8). Nature abhors
right angles and straight lines (Thompson, 1917). People have a visual preference for organic
and biomorphic forms. While human brain knows that biomorphic forms and patterns are not
living things, people may describe them as symbolic representations of life (Vessel et al,
2012).
Table 4.8. Pattern of ‘Biomorphic Forms and Patterns’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Biomorphic forms & Observed view
patterns preference
(Joye, 2007; Vessel et al,
2012)
It may be closer to reality to interpret the Islamic decorative ornaments as something based
on the recurring reproduction of the beauty of the world, in three dimensions –the Universe,
Nature and the Human Being– which can only be represented on a flat surface by
superimposing the shapes (El-Gamal, 2004). Gómez (2016) believes that it is the reason for
the appearance and intermingling of the three architectural decorations of the Alhambra:
geometric decoration, as a representation of the order of the universe; plant-based decoration,
as testimony of the beauty of the world in which people live; and epigraphic decoration, as a
reference to the human being.
The arabesque ornamentation found throughout the Alhambra is developed in an infinite

variety, however, is always expressed in two different ways: being woven from one single
59
band or radiating from many identical centres (Moustafa, 2008) (Fig. 4.37). Geometric roses
or stars continuously run into one another and develop out of each other. Each centre creates a
cosmos of its own creating an unending reflection of centres in each other.
The enclosed Balcony of Dar Aisha (Mirador de Daraxa/Lindaraja) is one of the most
beautiful corners of the Alhambra. Its represents spectacular decorations with various
geometric and epigraphic compositions and with delicate plasterwork that frames the front
window, under a curtain arch of muqarnas. The dados of tiny tiles show a simple but colorful
succession of stars, topped by inscriptions with characters cut out in pieces of black ceramic
on a white background, arranged like a puzzle (Fig. 4.38). In addition, the decoration of the
Hall of the Ambassadors, culminates in the exceptional ceiling. It is executed in seven panels
of superimposed panels; the geometric motif of its decoration consists of successive star
wheels that symbolize the cosmos (Fig. 4.39).
The three-dimensional effect of the muqarnas is the result of the union and staggered
arrangement of four types of prisms: rectangle, parallelogram, isosceles triangle and right
isosceles triangle. In the Hall of the Kings (Sala de los Reyes), this motif achieves an
exceptional aesthetic sense, appearing both in the domes and the arches, thus, providing a
textile appearance (Fig. 4.40). The muqarnas formation is also evident in the west pavilion’s
ceiling in the Palace of the Lions (Fig. 4.41).
Ornamental epigraphs were interwoven with the surface decorations located above the
plaster panels and perforated screens. A common position of the epigraph is just above the tile
decoration found on the lower part of most walls at eye level so that epigraphs are visible for
the visitors to see and read them (Grabar, 1978), as in the porticoes of the Court of the
Myrtles (Fig. 4.42).
Figure 4.37. Some arabesque ceramic tiles within the Alhambra, Source: alhambradegranada.org
60
Figure 4.38. The enclosed Balcony of Dar Figure 4.39. Ceiling of the Hall of
Aisha (Mirador de Daraxa/Lindaraja), Ambassadors, Source: PAG
Source: PAG
Figure 4.40. The muqarnas in the Hall of the Kings, Source: Figure 4.41. The muqarnas in the west
PAG pavilion’s ceiling in the Palace of the
Lions, Source: PAG
Figure 4.42. Ornamental epigraphs at eye level in the Court of the Myrtles, Source (from left to right):
alhambradegranada.org & Brigida Soriano Caballero
61
4.3.2 Material Connection with Nature
A Material Connection with Nature is material and elements from nature that, through
minimal processing, reflect the local ecology or geology to create a distinct sense of place
A space with a good Material Connection with Nature makes one feel rich, warm and
authentic, and sometimes stimulating to the touch (Browning et al, 2014).
While scientific documentation on the health impact of natural materials is limited,

available research is beginning to shed light on opportunities for informed design. As such,
the Material Connection with Nature pattern has evolved from a limited body of scientific
research on physiological responses to variable quantities of natural materials, and the impact
of natural color palette, has on cognitive performance (Table 4.9).
Table 4.9. Pattern of ‘Material Connection with Nature’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Material Decreased diastolic Improved comfort
connection blood pressure (Tsunetsugu et al, 2007)
with nature (Tsunetsugu et al, 2007)
Improved creative
performance
(Lichtenfeld et al, 2012)
The basic technique for surface decoration of most walls in the Alhambra is to use dado
tiling at the bottom and cover the upper part of the wall with carved stucco, as in the south
facade at the Court of the Golden Room (Cardell-Fernández & Navarrete-Aguilera, 2007)
(Fig. 4.43). Stucco is essential to the Alhambra’s art; while woodwork is limited to ceilings,
doors or architectural elements such as girders and eaves. Stucco and woodwork are
polychromed in bright colours. Moreover, different materials are used in elaborating the
lattice windows of the Alhambra, the most characteristic are the plaster and the wood (PAG,
2017) (Fig. 4.44).
Wood is a vital element in the architecture of the Alhambra which characterizes the
coffered ceiling of the room that links the Court of the Golden Room with the Court of the
Myrtles (Fig. 4.45), beside identifying the ceiling of the Oratory of the Partal (Fig. 4.46). In
addition, the roof of the Balcony of Dar Aisha (Mirador de Daraxa/Lindaraja) is made of
colored crystals assembled in a vaulted wooden structure (Fig. 4.47). On a stucco covering of
muqarnas found in the Palace of the Lions, the following colors are observed: white, red,
different tones of green and blue and gold (Cardell-Fernández & Navarrete-Aguilera, 2007)
(Fig. 4.48).
62
Figure 4.43. South facade of the Figure 4.44. The lattice windows in the Alhambra, Source: PAG
Court of the Golden Room showing
the basic decoration materials used in
the Alhambra, Source: PAG
Figure 4.45. The ceiling of the room that links the Figure 4.46. The Oratory ceiling of the Partal Palace,
Court of the Golden Room with the Court of the Source: PAG
Myrtles, Source: PAG
Figure 4.47. The skylight of the enclosed Balcony of Dar Aisha (Mirador de Daraxa/Lindaraja), Source:
PAG
63
Figure 4.48. Colors on a stucco covering of muqarnas found in the Palace of the Lions, Source: PAG
4.3.3 Complexity and Order
Complexity & Order is rich sensory information that adheres to a spatial hierarchy similar
to those encountered in nature (Ryan et al, 2014).
A space with good complexity & order makes one feel engaging and information-rich, as
an intriguing balance between boring and overwhelming (Browning et al, 2014).
The Complexity & Order pattern has evolved from research on fractal geometries and
preferred views; the perceptual and physiological responses to the complexity of fractals in
nature, art and architecture; and the predictability of the occurrence of design flows and
patterns in nature (Table 4.10). In such fractal environments, our body automatically dampens
its response to stress induced by intensive tasks and reaction to external forces (Salingaros,
2012). This implies that spaces with convenient complexity & order are healing, or at least
buffer us from life’s stresses.
Table 4.10. Pattern of ‘Complexity and Order’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Complexity Positively impacted Observed view
& order perceptual and preference
physiological stress (Hagerhall et al, 2008;
responses Hagerhall et al, 2004;
(Joye, 2007; Kaplan, Salingaros, 2012; Taylor,
1988; Salingaros, 2012; 2006)
Taylor, 2006)
Throughout the Alhambra, builders and designers played with the ratios between irrational
numbers and whole numbers, such as the square roots of 2, 3, 5. The beauty of the Court of
the Lions is based upon proportion and upon abstract geometric designs of complexity (Irwin,
2011).
64
In the Court of the Lions such a ratio applied to the heights of the columns (Fig. 4.49), as
well as the lengths and widths of the courtyard (Ma, 2009). In order to understand the overall
proportions of the Court of the Lions, the size of the courtyard was fixed by creating a
rectangle generated by diagonals drawn from the corners of the eastern wall of the Hall of the
Muqarnas, the inside angle of each diagonal being 60 degrees and the outside one 30 degrees
(Fig. 4.50).
Similar calculations, involving diagonals and square roots, fixed the size of pavilions on the
west and east of the courtyard (Ma, 2009) (Fig. 4.51). In addition, a six-pointed star can be
drawn on the ground plan of the Palace of the Lions in such a manner that the tips of the star
touch the four corners of the courtyard, the fountain in the Hall of the Abencerrages and that
in the Hall of the Two Sisters (Fig. 4.52).
The Fountain of the Lions has an intricate design proportion (Fig. 4.53). Also, the
proportional layout of the Fountain of the Lions is related to the scale of the Court of the
Lions (Ma, 2009) (Fig. 4.54).
On the other hand, several main places at the Alhambra palaces were defined according to
the Golden Ratio (Perez Avendano, 1994). For instance, in the Palace of the Lions, the
distance between the secondary fountains defines a circle of a diameter which determines the
position of the inner wall, and from the squared unities in the Hall of the Kings, the
neighboring chambers are defined (Fig. 4.55). Moreover, it is observed that the four principal
fountains, located at the edges of the court, define an exact square centered on the Fountain of
the Lions. Further, it is noticed that if a circle centered on the Fountain of the Lions is drawn
with radius to one of the mentioned fountains, the circle will pass over the four corner
columns of the court’s porticoes.
Likewise, dimensions of the Bath of Comares (Baño de Comares) have been determined on
the basis of the Golden Section (Perez Avendano, 1994). By the geometrical analysis, a
relationship could be observed between the Bath of Comares and the Palace of the Lions (Fig.
4.56): note the 90° angle formed by both roots. Additionally, the diameter of the circle,
defined by the distance between the fountain in the Hall of the Two Sisters and that to the
western end of the Court of the Lions, is exactly twice the width of the baths. Thus, as shown
in latter figure, the proportional layout of the baths shows an application of the Golden Ratio.
In the same way, the length of the pool in the Court of the Myrtles in identical to the length
of the Court of the Lions (Perez Avendano, 1994) (Fig. 4.57). Also, the total width of the
Palace of Comares is identical to the diameter of the main circle organizing the Palace of the
Lions. Besides, the same 30° line, which links the center of the Fountain of the Lions to a
facade in the Palace of Comares, extends to be the south-east diagonal of the rear chamber of
the Mexuar (Fig. 4.58).
65
Figure 4.49. Proportional layout of the Elevation of Figure 4.50. Proportional layout of Court of the Lions,
the West Pavilion, Source: (Fernández-Puertas, 1997, Source: (Fernández-Puertas, 1997, p. 56)
p. 74)
Figure 4.51. Proportional layout of columns Figure 4.52. Proportional layout of Palace of the Lions,
within the Court of Lions, Source: (Fernández- Source: (Fernández-Puertas, 1997, p. 60)
Puertas, 1997, p. 68)
66
Figure 4.53. Proportional layout of the Fountain of the Figure 4.54. Proportional layout of the Fountain
Lions, Source: (Fernández-Puertas, 1997, p. 74) of the Lions relative to the Courtyard, Source:
(Fernández-Puertas, 1997, p. 73)
Figure 4.55. The Golden Ratio in the Palace of the Lions, Source: (Perez Avendano, 1994, p. 148)
67
Figure 4.56. The Golden Ratio in the Bath of Comares, Source: (Perez Avendano, 1994, p. 153)
Figure 4.57. Lengths proportions between the Palace of Comares and the Palace of the Lions,
Source: (Perez Avendano, 1994, p. 157)
68
Figure 4.58. The order between the Palace of the Lions, the Palace of Comares and the Mexuar,
Source: (Perez Avendano, 1994, p. 159)
4.4 NATURE OF THE SPACE

Nature of the Space addresses spatial configurations in nature. This includes humans’
innate and learned desire to be able to see beyond their immediate surroundings, their
fascination with the slightly dangerous or unknown and obscured views and revelatory
moments (Browning et al, 2014). The strongest Nature of the Space experiences might be
achieved through the creation of deliberate and engaging spatial configurations commingled
with patterns of Nature in the Space and Natural Analogues. Nature of the Space encompasses
four biophilic design patterns: Prospect; Refuge; Mystery; and Risk/Peril (Browning et al,
2014).
4.4.1 Prospect
Prospect is an unimpeded view over a distance for surveillance and planning (Ryan et al,
2014).
A space with a good Prospect condition conveys the feeling of openness and freeing, yet
imparts a sense of safety and control, particularly when alone or in unfamiliar environments
69
The Prospect pattern has evolved from research on visual preference and spatial habitat
responses, as well as cultural anthropology, psychology and architectural analysis (Table
4.11). Health benefits are suggested to include reductions in stress, boredom, irritation,
fatigue and perceived vulnerability, as well as improved comfort.
Table 4.11. Pattern of ‘Prospect’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Prospect Reduced stress Reduced boredom, Improved comfort and
(Grahn & Stigsdotter, irritation, fatigue perceived safety
2010) (Clearwater & Coss, (Herzog & Bryce, 2007;
1991) Petherick, 2000; Wang &
Taylor, 2006)
The unrestricted views of the Alhambra extend prospect with sightlines down to the lower
parts of the complex, planted slopes of the Sabika hill, and buildings of the city of Granada
which stretch down the slopes of Albaicín hill (Fig. 4.59). Sceneries from the pavilions of the
Generalife Palace are afforded into the gardens in the courtyard. Also, the rooftop terrace of
the palace continues to provide exceptional views of the gardens below (Fig. 4.60).
Figure 4.59. Views towards the Alhambra’s surroundings, Source: PAG
Figure 4.60. Views into the Generalife’s Court of the Water Channel, Source (from left to right):
alhambradegranada.org; PAG; Benjamin Nuñez; & PAG.
4.4.2 Refuge
Refuge is a place for withdrawal, from environmental conditions or the main flow of
activity, in which the individual is protected from behind and overhead (Browning et al,
2014).
A space with a good Refuge condition makes one feel safe, providing a sense of retreat and
withdrawal – for work, protection, rest or healing. A good refuge space also makes one feel
70
separate or unique from its surrounding environment; its spatial characteristics can convey
feels of contemplative, embracing and protective, without unnecessarily disengaging
The Refuge pattern has evolved from research on visual preference research and spatial
habitat responses, and its relationship to Prospect conditions. Refuge conditions are important
for restoration experiences and stress reduction, which can be realized through lowered blood
pressure and heart rate (Browning et al, 2014). Other benefits of Refuge are suggested to
include reduced irritation, fatigue and perceived vulnerability, as well as improved
concentration, attention and perception of safety (Table 4.12).
Table 4.12. Pattern of ‘Refuge’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Prospect Improved concentration,
attention and perception
of safety
(Grahn & Stigsdotter,
2010; Petherick, 2000;
Ulrich, 1993; Wang &
Taylor, 2006)
The Tower of the Ladies (Torre de las Damas), in the Partal Palace, stands out above the
portico. It contains in its interior a viewpoint with windows towards the four cardinal points,
working as a contemplative refuge (Fig. 4.61). Further, the Oratory of the Partal, right of the
Partal Palace, has a rectangular floor plan. It is accessed through some stairs because it is
raised above the surrounding gardens and pool level accentuating refuge condition (Fig. 4.62).
Figure 4.61. A view from the Tower of the Ladies, the Partal Palace, Source: PAG
Figure 4.62. The Oratory of the Partal Palace, Source: PAG
71
4.4.3 Mystery
Mystery is the promise of more information achieved through partially obscured views or
other sensory devices that entice the individual to travel deeper into the environment (Ryan et
al, 2014).
A space with a good Mystery condition has a palpable sense of anticipation, or of being
teased, offering the senses a kind of denial and reward that compels one to further investigate
the space (Browning et al, 2014).
The Mystery pattern is largely based on the idea that people have two basic needs in
environments: to understand and to explore (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1989) and that these ‘basic
needs’ should occur ‘from one’s current position’ in order to engender a sense of mystery
(Herzog & Bryce, 2007). The Mystery pattern has evolved from research on visual preference
and perceived danger, as well as pleasure responses to anticipatory situations (Table 4.13).
Table 4.13. Pattern of ‘Mystery’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Mystery Induced strong pleasure
response
(Biederman, 2011;
Ikemi, 2005)
The Alhambra lies in a forested area and blends in with its setting. Visitors can enter along
a narrow path between the rammed earth wall and trees, then travel deeper into environment
(Fig. 4.63). By walking through the Alhambra Forest, the pedestrians can view the Gate of
Bab al-Ramla (Puerta de Bibarrambla) (Fig. 4.64). In fact, the gate does not announce itself to
pedestrians; this inconspicuous entryway can delight visitors with the experience of
happening upon an unexpected slice of green in the midst of the forest.
Figure 4.63. Pathways between the rammed earth wall of the Alhambra and trees, Source: PAG
72
Figure 4.64. The Gate of Bab

al-Ramla within the Alhambra
forest, Source: PAG
4.4.4 Risk/ Peril
Risk/Peril is an identifiable threat coupled with a reliable safeguard (Browning et al, 2014).
A space with a good Risk/Peril condition makes one feel exhilarating, and with an implied
threat, maybe even a little mischievous. One feels that it might be dangerous, but intriguing
(Ryan et al, 2014).
Risk can be generated by a learned or biophobic response (fear of nature) triggered by a

near and present danger (Browning et al, 2014). This danger, however, is inert and unable to
cause harm due to a trusted element of safety. Having an awareness of a controllable risk can
support positive experiences that result in a strong dopamine or pleasure responses (Table
4.14).
Table 4.14. Pattern of ‘Risk/Peril’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al, 2014)
preference
Risk/Peril Resulted in strong
dopamine or pleasure
responses
(Kohno et al, 2013;
Wang & Tsien, 2011;
Zald et al, 2008)
The opening and exposure over the embracing heights in the battlements of the Alhambra
gives one the sense of threat accompanied by reliable safeguard (Fig. 4.65).
73
Figure 4.65. Spaces in the Alhambra stimulate a good Risk/Peril condition, Source: (above) Jesús Ruiz; (below,
from left to right) Jesús Pérez; Alba López; & Fabrizio Pivari.
4.5 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, the Alhambra in Granada, Spain shows notable contact with nature.
Besides, the findings of this chapter are organized in (Table 4.15). This table reveals that the
architectural configuration of the Alhambra has fulfilled the 14 patterns of biophilic design.
Thus, it can be concluded that the Alhambra architecture may allow for a positive impact on
human health and well-being.
Table 4.15. The 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design in the Alhambra architecture, Source: the researcher
14 PATTERNS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN PRESENCE OF DETECTED PLACES IN THIS
THE PATTERN IN STUDY
THE ALHAMBRA
1. Visual Connection with Nature  The Generalife Palace:
- Court of the Water Channel
- The Soultana’s Court
2. Non-visual Connection with Nature  - Orchards of the Alhambra
- Palace of the Lions
NATURE IN THE SPACE
3. Non-rhythmic Sensory Stimuli  - Forest of the Alhambra

- The Generalife Gardens
- The Nasrid Palaces
4. Thermal and Airflow Variability  - Hall of the Two Sisters
- Tower of the Princesses
- Hall of the Abencerrages
- Hall of Comares
- Balcony of Dar Aisha
- Bath of Comares
- The Golden Room
- Different patios and porticoes in
the Nasrid Palaces
- Tower of the Princesses
- Tower of the Captive
74
5. Presence of Water  - The Water Stairway in the

Generalife
- Fountain of the Court of the
Golden Room
- Court of the Myrtles
- Court of the Lions
- Terraces of the Partal Gardens
NATURE IN THE SPACE
6. Dynamic and Diffuse Light  - Balcony of Dar Aisha

- Cupola of the Hall of the Two
Sisters
- Qubba of the Hall of the
Abencerrages
- Ceiling of the Hall of the
Ambassadors
- Lattice windows in the Hall of the
Ambassadors
- Lattice windows in the Hall of the
Kings
- The Partal Gardens
7. Connection with Natural Systems  - Linkage with Darro River
- Channels, slender streams and
waterfalls within the Alhambra
Forest
8. Biomorphic Forms and Patterns  - Balcony of Dar Aisha
- Ceiling of the Hall of
Ambassadors
- Hall of the Kings
- Ceiling of the west pavilion in the
Palace of the Lions
- Porticoes of the Court of the
NATURAL ANALOGUES
Myrtles
9. Material Connection with Nature  - South facade of the Court of the
Golden Room
- Ceiling of the room between
Court of the Golden Room & the
Court of the Myrtles
- Ceiling of the Oratory of the
Partal Palace
- Skylight of the Balcony of Dar
Aisha
10. Complexity and Order  - Court of the Lions
- Fountain of the Lions
- Bath of Comares
- Palace of Comares
- The Mexuar
11. Prospect  - Pavilions and the rooftop terrace
NATURE OF THE SPACE
of the Generalife Palace

12. Refuge  - Tower of the Ladies in the Partal
Palace
- Oratory of the Partal Palace
13. Mystery  - Pathways within the Alhambra
Forest
14. Risk /Peril  - Battlements of the Alhambra
75
CHAPTER 5
RULING BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS
IN THE ALHAMBRA[S] ARCHITECTURE
AROUND THE WORLD
OBJECTIVE CONTENTS
Identifying the disparity of 5.1 INTRODUCTION: THE UNIVERSAL ALHAMBRA

design in five examples of ......................................................................................... 77
5.2 THE GEZIRA PALACE, EGYPT ............................... 78
the Alhamabras around the 5.2.1 Visual Connection with Nature ............................... 79
world, with reference to 5.2.2 Presence of Water.................................................... 79
the ruling biophilic design 5.2.3 Biomorphic Forms and Patterns .............................. 80
patterns detected within 5.2.4 Material Connection with Nature ............................ 81
the Alhambra of Granada. 5.2.5 Complexity and Order ............................................. 81
5.3 SA BASSA BLANCA MUSEUM, SPAIN .................... 82
5.3.2 Presence of Water.................................................... 83
5.4 BOU INANIA MADRASA, MOROCCO .................... 86
5.5 ROYAL MANSOUR MARRAKECH HOTEL,
MOROCCO ............................................................................... 91
5.6 PALACE OF THE OSWALDO CRUZ FOUNDATION,
BRAZIL ..................................................................................... 96
5.7 CONCLUSION .............................................................. 99
CHAPTER 5 RULING BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA[S]
5 RULING BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE

ALHAMBRA[S] ARCHITECTURE AROUND THE WORLD
5.1 INTRODUCTION: THE UNIVERSAL ALHAMBRA

The Alhambra has preserved, since Nasrid times, a series of cultural values which have
gradually grown over the centuries and have acted at all times as a positive presence,
determining a vital part of the universal heritage culture. Its power of attraction, suggestion
and the intensity of the aesthetic experience it offers to visitors have not lessened with the
arrival of globalization; they have indeed increased and not just in the greater affluence of
visitors but also in the continuous inspiration it provides to artists, architects, and creators in
general (Guzmán, 2016a). In fact, the Alhambra of Granada has a prominent extended
presence outside Spain in art and architecture. It was the source of historic Islamic
architectural styles that were digested, interpreted, and displayed for a contemporary audience
in East and West, during the latter part of the 19th and earlier part of 20th centuries
(McSweeney, 2015). Consequently, it could be said that there are many Alhambras around the
world.
The universal aesthetic of what is known as “Alhambraism” was adapted and flourished in
a wide range of geographical areas (Viñuales & Guzmán, 2017). Also, the boom in
Alhambraism is partly the result of the contributions made by a significant number of
architects who both travelled and trained in Europe and whose designs, on occasion, reflect
the territorial surroundings that inspired them. These travelers returned with artistic items that
would subsequently be incorporated into architectural designs (Viñuales & Guzmán, 2017).
Thus, the Alhambra’s architectural details were readily accessible even to architects and
patrons who had never visited Granada.
Part of the wider eclecticism movement in architecture at that time was the
“Alhambresque”. The term refers specifically to the style of architecture, inspired largely by
depictions of the Alhambra, that was popularized in the second half of the 19th century
(Rosser-Owen, 2014). The Alhambresque came in particular from Jules Goury and Owen
Jones’s landmark book “Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra” (Goury &
Jones, 1842; McSweeney, 2015). Their publication was crucial in the formation of an
Alhambresque style in contemporary architecture and interior design, which enabled
architects and patrons to imagine a finished product (Fig. 5.1 & Fig. 5.2) to be able to design
analogues of the Alhambra that were widely disseminated in Spain, Europe, Islamic context,
and further afield, that led to the Alhambresque becoming a global architectural style, albeit
briefly. Besides, the “Alhambresque” is also being recognized as a “Neo-Moorish” style or a
“Neo-Mudéjar” one (Harris & Monasterio, 2008).
Hence, this chapter offers an initial approach to the wealth of the global heritage that was
inspired by the Alhambra architecture in Granada. It reveals the existence of a vast
Alhambresque heritage dispersed worldwide and encompassing a variety of architectural
typologies. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to examine the disparity of design in
five examples of the Alhambras according to the ruling biophilic design patterns in the
Alhambra of Granada. These selected Alhambras are: the Gezira Palace; Sa Bassa Blanca
Museum; Bou Inania Madrasa; Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel; and Palace of the Oswaldo
Cruz Foundation. Additionally, the ruling biophilic design patterns in the Alhambra of
77
Granada, as the researcher suggests are: Visual Connection with Nature; Presence of Water;
Biomorphic Forms & Patterns; Material Connection with Nature; and Complexity & Order.
Figure 5.1. Drawing of an entrance Figure 5.2. Details of an arch in portico of the Court of Lions, Source:
to the Court of Lions, (Goury & Jones, 1842)
Source: (Goury & Jones, 1842)
5.2 THE GEZIRA PALACE, EGYPT

The Gezira Palace is one of the Egyptian royal palaces that was built in 1868 by the
Khedive Isma’il, the fifth ruler of Egypt from the Alawiyya dynasty. Presently, it is part of the
Marriott International Hotel, located in al-Zamalek district on Gezira Island, situated on the
Nile, to the west of Downtown Cairo, Egypt. The purpose for establishing this palace was to
host the French Empress Eugénie -of Granadian Spanish origins- who was invited along with
her husband the French Emperor Napoleon III (Pakkala, 1990). The occasion of that
invitation was to celebrate the inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1869, which was a huge
project at that time (Rabbat, 2004).
The Khedive Isma’il’s Gezira Palace is probably one of the most well-known examples of
the use of Alhambresque style in the Islamic world. Western architects, chosen by the
khedive, designed it to show the exoticism of the Muslim world and to impress the West
(McSweeney, 2015). The German architect Julius Franz designed the palace; the British
architect Owen Jones decorated the interiors in Alhambresque style; and the Prussian architect
Carl von Diebitsch added an Alhambresque style portico to the other neoclassical structure of
the palace, as well as building a monumental garden kiosk in a similar style, to lend the palace
a suitably festive air (Çelik, 2005) (Fig. 5.3). But later on, the kiosk was destroyed by fire
while hosting an international tourism art exhibition. On the other hand, the “selamlik”, part
of the palace reserved for men, combined European high rectangular windows and cornices
derived from the Italian Renaissance with traditional Islamic architectural features and
ornaments such as the horseshoe arches recalling those of the Alhambra (Naguib, 2008) (Fig.
5.4).
78
Figure 5.3. Historic view of the Gezira Palace kiosk Figure 5.4. Postcard showing the selamlik of the
facade, Source: marriott.com Gezira Palace at the turn of the 20th century,
Source: marriott.com
The palace gardens were landscaped to recapture much of their former beauty in the 19th
century (Pakkala, 1990). Many trees and shrubs were planted (Fig. 5.5), and one of the
principles of garden design noticed in the palace is positioning single trees on lawns. Besides,
the palace overlooks the Nile River, which emphasizes its visual connection with nature (Fig.
5.6).
Figure 5.5. Views of the Gezira Palace garden, Source (from left to right): (Naguib, 2008); jp.trip.com; &
marriott.com.
Figure 5.6. Views of the Nile River from the Gezira Palace, Source: marriott.com
The garden of the palace includes two fountains (Fig. 5.7), one of them attempts to imitate
the Fountain of the Lions in the Alhambra. Moreover, the surface of the pool, in front of the
western entrance of the palace, acts as a mirror that reflects the Alhambresque style portico
(Fig. 5.8).
79
Figure 5.7. Two fountains in the Gezira Palace, Source: marriott.com
Figure 5.8. Reflection of the western facade of the Gezira

Palace on the pool, Source: marriott.com
The imposing details of the cast-iron slender porticoes, that are inspired by the architecture
of the Alhambra, could be seen obviously at the western entrance of the palace (El-Ashmouni,
2014) (Fig. 5.9). Further, the Islamic geometric patterns are visible in interiors of some grand
salons in the palace (Fig. 5.10).
Figure 5.9. Details of the cast-iron porticoes in the Gezira Palace, Source (from left to right): marriott.com &
(El-Ashmouni, 2014).
80
Figure 5.10. Islamic geometric patterns on walls and ceilings in the Gezira Palace, Source (from left to right):
jp.trip.com; marriott.com; & archnet.org.
Not directly noticed or obviously apparent in design.
Complexity and order might be observed in the Alhambresque style porticoes at the eastern
entrance of the palace (Fig. 5.11).
Figure 5.11. Complexity and order in the Alhambresque style porticoes at the eastern entrance of the Gezira
Palace, Source: marriott.com
5.3 SA BASSA BLANCA MUSEUM, SPAIN

Sa Bassa Blanca is a villa built in 1978 for the artists Ben Jakober and Yannick Vu in
Alcúdia, on the island of Mallorca off the eastern coast of Spain (Fundación Yannick y Ben
Jakober, 2003). The Egyptian architect Hassan Fathy (1900-1989) was invited to draw up the
plans of this construction, with retaining some of outer walls for a pre-existing farmhouse
(Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2016a). It is the first building constructed by Hassan
Fathy in Western Europe, which represents a splendid example of Hispano-Moorish style that
is modeled on a “ribat” (fortified building) (Frei-Klipstein, 2012). Fathy also incorporates
many characteristics of his Islamic architectural style in the design. White crenellated walls,
traditional vaults and domes crown the terraces of the edifice, surrounding a courtyard with
gardens and fountains (Appendix I). Beside these features, Sa Bassa Blanca might appear as a
mountain villa in a natural area like the Generalife in Granada (Fig. 5.12).
81
Sa Bassa Blanca has become a private cultural foundation called the Fundación Yannick
Vu Ben Jakober (FYBJ) since 1993. The purpose of this foundation is to preserve and restore
objects of the historical heritage of Spain (Frei-Klipstein, 2012). Its main building, that is
designed by Hassan Fathy, is open to the public and has become an exhibition space within an
expanded museum. In addition, Sa Bassa Blanca Museum (MSBB) was declared as a Listed
Building (Landmark) by the Heritage Commission of the Government of Mallorca, Spain in
2012 (Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2016a). Moreover, the foundation has received
awards and recognitions like the special mention of the European Union Prize for Cultural
Heritage “Europa Nostra Awards 2009” and the “Gold Medal of the Town of Alcúdia 2008”
(Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2016b).
Figure 5.12. Sa Bassa Blanca, Alcúdia, Spain, Source: (Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003)
Nature and architecture coexist harmoniously in the museum. As a clear reflection of the
passion for combining nature and architecture, Hassan Fathy chose a rectangular
configuration with a central courtyard designed with Mudéjar garden including large palm
trees, lime trees and jasmine (Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003) (Fig. 5.13). Not only
can visitors enjoy the impressive design inside the museum, but also explore the beautiful
garden outside. The garden outside the main building is designed by Yannick Vu, and planted
over the years with more than one hundred varieties of old and English roses (Fundación
Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2016a). It is planned as a “Hortus Conclusus” (Enclosed Garden), as
a medieval garden, surrounded by hedges which combine the flowers with a herbarium of
aromatic plants, to provide an experience of colours and scents (Frei-Klipstein, 2012) (Fig.
5.14). Another great attraction that perfectly integrates the building with nature, is the vantage
point. The land of Sa Bassa Blanca Museum is close to the sea; from there you can see a
spectacular panoramic view of the entire Bay of Alcúdia (Fig. 5.15).
82
Figure 5.13. The Mudéjar garden in the courtyard of Sa Bassa Blanca Museum, Source (from left to right):
(Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003); totnmallorca.com; & archnet.org.
Figure 5.14. The enclosed garden surrounding the main building of Sa Bassa Blanca Museum, Source (from left
to right): archnet.org; archnet.org; & (Frei-Klipstein, 2012).
Figure 5.15. The vantage point of Sa Bassa Blanca Museum high above the sea, Source (from left to right):
mallorca-spotlight.com; museu.ms; & fundacionjakober.org.
The central courtyard of the museum includes a pool and two fountains (Fig. 5.16).
Figure 5.16. Presence of water in Sa Bassa Blanca Museum, Source: (Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003)
83
In Sa Bassa Blanca Museum, most of the windows are decorated with turned lattice-work
called “Mashrabiyas” (Fig. 5.17). Also, the doors and the tiles on walls and floor are antique
elements brought from Andalucía, Northern Spain or Morocco (Fundación Yannick y Ben
Jakober, 2016a) (Fig. 5.18).
Figure 5.17. Mashrabiyas in Sa Bassa Blanca Museum, Source: (Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003)
Figure 5.18. Tiles on walls and floor in Sa Bassa Blanca Museum, Source (from left to right): (Frei-Klipstein,
2012); (Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003); (Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003); &
totnmallorca.com.
The Jakobers used clay bricks to build the main cupola in the museum (Fundación Yannick
y Ben Jakober, 2003) (Fig. 5.19).
Figure 5.19. Clay bricks in the

main cupola of Sa Bassa Blanca
Museum, Source: (Fundación
Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003)
In the main building designed by Hassan Fathy, the Karlweis Wing houses an extraordinary
Mudéjar polychrome coffered ceiling dates back to 1498 (Fig. 5.20) which was declared
among the “Heritage of the Balearic Islands” (Fundación Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2016a). On
the other side, Hassan Fathy’s sketches for the main cupola in the museum shows kind of
order in its design (Fig. 5.21).
84
Figure 5.20. Mudéjar coffered ceiling in the Karlweis Wing, Sa Bassa Blanca Museum, Source (from left to
right): museu.ms; fundacionjakober.org; & totnmallorca.com.
Figure 5.21. Hassan Fathy’s sketches for the main cupola in Sa Bassa Blanca Museum, Source: (Fundación
Yannick y Ben Jakober, 2003)
5.4 BOU INANIA MADRASA, MOROCCO

The Bou Inania Madrasa in Fez, Morocco is one of the madrasas that were built during the
reign of the Marinid dynasty, a Sunni Muslim dynasty ruled Morocco and other parts of
northern Africa from the 13th to the 15th century (O'Connell, 2017). The Bou Inania Madrasa
was constructed between 1350-1355 AD by the Marinid sultan, Abu Inan Faris, whom the
madrasa bears his name (ArchNet, 2011). It is widely acknowledged as a marvel of the
Marinid architecture (Stevens, 2010). The Bou Inania Madrasa simultaneously functioned as
both an educational institute and as a congregational mosque. In the Marinid period, it has
become among the most important religious places of Fes and Morocco, gaining the status of
Grand Mosque (Stevens, 2010).
The Fez’s Bou Inania is the best-preserved among all the Marinid madrasas with its
architectural and ornamental elements retaining their original character (Madras & Maslow,
1958) (Fig. 5.22). Art and architectural historians have been impressed by the intricate
intensity of the ornamentation in the Marinid constructions as well as the contemporary
Nasrid buildings of Granada in Spain (Latif, 2011). The basic plan of the Bou Inania Madrasa
is quite simple: a single large courtyard flanked by two sizeable halls and opening onto an
85
oratory. If a person enters the madrasa and moves toward the exquisite marble courtyard, he
might notice a muqarnas domed entrance chamber, which is a characteristic adapted in this
case from the Andalusian architecture (Rough Guides, 2013).
Figure 5.22. Bou Inania Madrasa, Fez, Morocco, Source (from left to right): Bjørn Christian Tørrissen & Zishan
Sheikh.
The presence of water is elemental to the visuality of the Marinid madrasas (Latif, 2011). In
the courtyard of the Bou Inania Madrasa, an attractive fountain of marble could be seen (Fig.
5.23). Besides, there is a water-channel travels through one edge of the courtyard (Fig. 5.24).
Figure 5.23. A marble fountain in the Bou Inania Madrasa’s courtyard, Source (from Figure 5.24. A water-
left to right): (Latif, 2011) & tripadvisor.com. channel at the edge of
the Bou Inania
Madrasa’s courtyard,
Source: (Latif, 2011)
The vast interplay of architectural forms in the Bou Inania Madrasa, brought about by a
harmonious concurrence of pilasters and columns topped with muqarnas capitals and cusped
arches, imparts a rhythmic semblance to the facades (Latif, 2011). Also, the relationships of
the facades’ masses are emphasized by an ornamental complexity emerged from various
geometric permutations. To illustrate, the facade is modulated through intricately detailed
patterns carved in stucco with repetitive geometric and vegetal motifs (Fig. 5.25). Further, the
entire decorative scheme of the court facades is embellished with ornate calligraphic texts
86
(Fig. 5.26). These inscriptions form a significant component of the decorative palette of the
facade, in medallions which form ornamental motifs of carved stucco surfaces, and as bands
defining the upper edge of the zellige surfaces. In addition, there is a rich tapestry of zellige,
the colorful tile mosaics arranged as complex geometric motifs (Fig. 5.27). Thus, it can be
said that the hierarchy of geometric and vegetal motifs in the zellige work; carved reliefs in
the stuccoed panels; stylized calligraphic schemes; ornate woodwork; and muqarnas arches
are providing an outstanding visual record to the space (Fig. 5.28).
Figure 5.25. Facade with ornaments and arched Figure 5.26. Ornate inscriptional motifs in the Bou
frames with muqarnas in the Bou Inania Madrasa, Inania Madrasa, Source: (Latif, 2011)
Source: (Latif, 2011)
Figure 5.27. Detail of zellige in the Bou Figure 5.28. Ornamented court facades in the Bou Inania Madrasa,
Inania Madrasa, Source: tripadvisor.com Source: tripadvisor.com
In the Bou Inania Madrasa, the prayer-hall with its aisles are adorned by stucco-ornamented
horse-shoe arches, and the qibla portico accentuated by an ornate carved stucco mihrab (niche
facing Mecca); onyx marble columns; and stained-glass windows (Latif, 2011) (Fig. 5.29).
Additionally, muqarnas wooden ceiling and ribbed wooden domes could be observed in the
madrasa (Fig. 5.30). Besides, the madrasa’s court facade is topped with exquisitely carved
87
wooden lintels above the stuccoed muqarnas frames, as well as carved wooden brackets and
parapets supporting the roof (Fig. 5.31). Hence, the immaculate plasterwork and intricately
carved wooden ceilings, cornices and lintels might provide the madrasa with a distinct
architectural manifestation.
Figure 5.29. The ornate prayer-hall in the Bou Inania Madrasa, Source (from left to right & from above to
below): arabianwanderess.com; Bernard Gagnon; (Latif, 2011); tripadvisor.com; & tripadvisor.com.
Figure 5.30. Wooden ceilings in the Bou Inania Madrasa, Source Figure 5.31. Carved wooden frieze and
(from left to right): tripadvisor.com & Raffaele Nicolussi. brackets for a court facade in the Bou
Inania Madrasa, Source: (Latif, 2011)
The order and the composition of the facades in the Bou Inania Madrasa are governed by
topological relationships (Boussora, 2015). The representation of the facade into the form of a
diagram could reveal the structural topological arrangement. For example, the southwest
facade in the Bou Inania Madrasa is considered as an ordered spatial configuration; its
analysis might explain the relationships between different segments of the facade (Fig. 5.32).
In defining the facade as a complex system, it is supposed that the facade is decomposable
88
into different interrelated segments. This assumption considers the existence of topological
relationships between each two segments. Therefore, these topological relationships manifest
the relative position of each segment.
Moreover, the discontinuities through (Fig. 5.33) show the subdivision of the facade and
explore the arrangement of the different segments resulting from the decomposition, with an
assigned code to each segment (Boussora, 2015). Further, the topological analysis of the
facade can be conducted through centrality indices, which determine the structural importance
of each individual node according to its position on the network (Freeman, 1978) (Fig. 5.34).
In addition, the schemes of the facade’s structural arrangement demonstrate the existence of
different levels of hierarchy in the facade, nested together through global and local centers
(Fig. 5.35). Hence, the configuration of the southwest facade in the Bou Inania Madrasa
reveals the presence of order and hierarchy in its design.
On the other hand, the zellige panel in the Bou Inania Madrasa is extracted from an infinite
decagonal quasiperiodic pattern (Aboufadil et al, 2014) (Fig. 5.36). Consequently, the
juxtaposition of the zellige panels could lead to a harmonious model. Also, some styles on the
wooden gates in the madrasa show quasiperiodic patterns built from known periodic patterns
(Aboufadil et al, 2014). They have symmetry groups, and repeated units as 8- and 16-fold
rosettes, respectively (Fig. 5.37).
Figure 5.32. Diagram for the analyzed southwest facade in the

Bou Inania Madrasa, Source: (Boussora, 2015)
Figure 5.33. Diagram for the decomposition of the southwest

facade in the Bou Inania Madrasa, Source: (Boussora, 2015)
Figure 5.34. Structural graph for the southwest facade in the

Bou Inania Madrasa, Source: (Boussora, 2015)
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Third level of hierarchy

First level of hierarchy Second level of hierarchy
global, local centers and materials
global center global and local centers
discontinuities
Figure 5.35. Schemes of the southwest facade’s structural arrangement in the Bou Inania Madrasa, Source:
(Boussora, 2015)
Figure 5.36. Zellige panels in the Bou Inania Madrasa: (a) A panel in the Figure 5.37. Wooden gates at the
madrasa; (b) An infinite quasiperiodic pattern; & (c) A finite part of the Bou Inania Madrasa, Source:
quasiperiodic pattern., Source: (Aboufadil et al, 2014) (Aboufadil et al, 2014)
5.5 ROYAL MANSOUR MARRAKECH HOTEL, MOROCCO

The Royal Mansour Marrakech is a luxurious hotel located in Marrakech, Morocco. It was
commissioned by King Mohammed VI of Morocco and designed by OBM International
(Leach, 2017). Royal Mansour Marrakech was opened in 2010 having taken three years to
build. It is designed to celebrate architecture and ancestral knowledge as well as an innate
sense of beauty which is part of the architectural heritage in Morocco (TravellerMade, 2010).
In fact, the hotel is inspired by the North Africa and Spain’s Islamic architecture like the
Alhambra. Moreover, its design shows symmetry entwined with traditional Moorish forms
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(Royal Mansour Marrakech, 2015) (Fig. 5.38). On the other hand, Royal Mansour Marrakech
could be considered not just a hotel, but also a city within the city (Mcnicoll, 2018). It is
conceived as a small medina with 53 riads spread among fragrant Moorish gardens dotted
with palm trees, lily ponds and fountains (Tasker, 2017). The riad is a traditional Moroccan
house, something like a two-storey villa, with rooms arranged around a central courtyard
(Mcnicoll, 2018); each riad in the hotel contains a private roof terrace with views over the
medina (OBMI, 2016). Recently, Royal Mansour Marrakech was recognized and honored
with the World’s Best Boutique Hotel in 2015 (Boutique Hotel Awards, 2015).
Figure 5.38. Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel, Morocco; Source (from left to right): buro247.me &
royalmansour.com
The entrance to the Royal Mansour is situated down a long pathway, lined with olive trees,
palm trees and orange blossom. Also, the hotel has a verdant landscape: narrow, winding
alleyways meander around the elevated guest riads passing by brilliant cascades of violet
bougainvillea, along babbling fountains and brooks, up to a sunny clearing with old olive
trees and date palms that were transplanted from the nearby Agdal Gardens or the Agadir
region (Midulla, 2015) (Fig. 5.39).
Figure 5.39. Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel’s visual connection with nature, Source: royalmansour.com
91
Water is important in Moroccan culture, and throughout the Royal Mansour Marrakech it
trickles, cascades and tinkles in fountains and channels that run from riad to riad (Mcnicoll,
2018) (Fig. 5.40). Besides, there is a pool at the heart of the hotel, surrounded by luxury
poolside pavilions. The main courtyard of the hotel is stunningly ornate with water features. It
is set around a cruciform fountain, flowing from the center to each edge (Mcnicoll, 2018).
Moreover, in other courtyards, there are admirable porticoes with a sunken fountain that ebbs
and flows. In addition, the rooms of the riads in the hotel are built around a central patio and
its fountain. Within the hotel gardens, there is a glazed pavilion encircled by a moat contains
the massive spa facility. This spa has an indoor and outdoor pool and hammam.
Figure 5.40. Presence of water in Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel, Source (from lift to right & from above to
below): centurion-magazine.com; royalmansour.com; forbes.com; centurion-magazine.com; & dailymail.co.uk;
booking.com; & Robin Ball.
Royal Mansour Marrakech is adorned with intricate plasterwork, ornate zelij tiles and
woodwork (Fig. 5.41). Many courtyards in the hotel are surrounded by sumptuous rooms and
lounges with hand-painted arched doorways, beautiful stuccoed lacework and fabulous
92
arabesques. The lobby of the spa is a masterpiece: white sheets of intricate lacework envelop
its airy space, creating a stunning birdcage-like atrium (Travel+Style, 2015).
Figure 5.41. Biomorphic forms and patterns in Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel, Source (from lift to right & from above to below): forbes.com;
centurion-magazine.com; royalmansour.com; royalmansour.com; royalmansour.com; royalmansour.com; royalmansour.com; buro247.me;
obmi.com; & dailymail.co.uk.
93
Royal Mansour Marrakech is decorated with carved cedar-wood, inlaid marquetry and
dripping stuccowork (Hardy, 2015). Also, the multi-coloured delicate zellige and finely
carved stone make this place an architectural masterpiece (LuxuryDreamHotels, 2013) (Fig.
5.42). In addition, the spa of the hotel is adorned with the finesse of lacework and white
marble. Moreover, in the blue-themed courtyard of the hotel, the massive columns and walls
are all lined with beautiful hand-crafted tiles.
Figure 5.42. Representation of natural-source materials in Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel, Source (from lift to
right & from above to below): dailymail.co.uk; travellermade.com; tripadvisor.com; carlietasker.com;
ozbeautyexpert.com; martynwhitedesigns.com; & royalmansour.com.
The intricacy of the hotel’s interior design could be noticed clearly in the details of ceilings
and walls (Fig. 5.43).
94
Figure 5.43. Complexity and order in design of Royal Mansour Marrakech Hotel, Source:
martynwhitedesigns.com
5.6 PALACE OF THE OSWALDO CRUZ FOUNDATION, BRAZIL

The Palace of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, known as Fundação Oswaldo Cruz
(FIOCRUZ), is a scientific institution for research and development in biomedical sciences,
built from 1905 to 1918 in Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Presently, it has a broad range
of responsibilities towards the health and well-being of the Brazilian population (de Aguiar &
Martire, 2016). Its founder, Oswaldo Cruz, the physician, bacteriologist and epidemiologist,
commissioned the Portuguese architect Luiz de Moraes Júnior to design the palace (Coelho &
Carvalho, 2012).
The imposing palace is designed in the “Neo-Moorish” style, which is one of the few Neo-
Moorish buildings still standing in Rio de Janeiro (de Aguiar & Martire, 2016). This style was
adopted in the palace due to the admiration of Oswaldo Cruz for it, during his period of study
in Europe, when the fashion of medieval revival movements boomed (Harris & Monasterio,
2008). According to the architect Costa (2003), Oswaldo Cruz bought a famous book about
the architecture and decoration of the Alhambra at that time, authored by Calvert (1907), and
gave it to his architect while designing the palace. Thus, FIOCRUZ has a clear Islamic
architectural character, appears in many of its composite patterns, inspired by the Alhambra in
Granada, Spain (de Aguiar & Martire, 2016) (Fig. 5.44). In addition, the National Historic and
Artistic Heritage Institute (IPHAN) in Brazil listed the Palace of the Oswaldo Cruz
Foundation as a national landmark building in 1981 (de Aguiar & Martire, 2016).
95
Figure 5.44. Facade of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation Palace (FIOCRUZ), inspired by the Alhambra, Granada,
Spain, Source (from left to right): Karla Tauil & deviantart.com.
The Palace of the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation was set on one of the hills in its region, to be
seen from far away with large urban and landscape potential (de Aguiar & Martire, 2016)
(Fig. 5.45).
Figure 5.45. FIOCRUZ’s visual connection with nature, Source (from left to right): Leo Salo & (Harris &
Monasterio, 2008).
The Neo-Moorish ornamentation in FIOCRUZ comes in the form of decorative tiles,

horseshoe arches, lancet arched ceilings and muqarnas, or stalactite ornaments on ceilings and
descending from the crenellations of the roofs. These features are layered into the palace, with
every wall densely ornamented through carved floral arabesque and colorful heavily
geometric tile arrangements, calling further to Islamic roots (Sager & Kenyatta, 2015) (Fig.
5.46).
96
Figure 5.46. FIOCRUZ’s biomorphic forms and patterns, Source (from left to right & from above to below):
skyscrapercity.com; cosmopolitanurbanism.files.wordpress.com; & (Harris & Monasterio, 2008).
The Neo-Moorish style in FIOCRUZ shows material connection with nature through the
facades, walls, floors and internal lining. This could be observed in the bricks; masonry;
wooden doors and floor blocks; mosaic ceramic in walls and floors; copper domes; and
stained-glass windows in the palace (Harris & Monasterio, 2008) (Fig. 5.47).
97
Figure 5.47. Representation of natural-source materials in FIOCRUZ, Source: (Harris & Monasterio, 2008)
5.7 CONCLUSION
The analysis of the examples presented in this chapter deepens the development of
architectural descriptions by providing a structured and systematic way to depict and assess
five of the Alhambra’s historical and contemporary analogues around the world according to
the ruling biophilic design patterns in the Alhambra of Granada. It is worth mentioning that
these Alhambras share commonalities in respect to their architectural program. The
comparative analysis of these examples is illustrated in (Table 5.1).
As shown in the following table, in this study, Sa Bassa Blanca Museum and Royal
Mansour Marrakech Hotel represent the most influenced Alhambra’s analogues by the ruling
biophilic design patterns of the Alhambra in Granada. On the other hand, the Palace of the
Oswaldo Cruz Foundation is the least affected analogue by the ruling biophilic design
patterns of the Alhambra in Granada. Hence, the analogues of the Alhambra illustrated in this
chapter show how the biophilic essence of the Alhambra architecture in Granada possesses a
worldwide influence, which is considered as an evidence that the original Alhambra has an
exceptional architecture.
98
Table 5.1. Comparison between examples of the Alhambras according to the ruling biophilic design in the
Alhambra of Granada, Source: the researcher
RULING BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE
ALHAMBRA[S]
EXAMPLES OF THE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
ALHAMBRA[S] Visual Presence of Biomorphic Material Complexity
Connection Water Forms and Connection and Order
with Nature Patterns with Nature
1. The Gezira Palace    
2. Sa Bassa Blanca Museum     
3. Bou Inania Madrasa    
4. Royal Mansour Marrakech     

Hotel
5. Palace of the Oswaldo Cruz   
Foundation
99
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
CONTENTS
6.1 SUMMARY ................................................................. 101

6.2 THE RESEARCH MAIN FINDINGS ....................... 102
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................ 102
6.4 FURTHER RESEARCH ............................................ 103
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 SUMMARY
This thesis revisits the Alhambra architecture in the twenty-first century through examining
its possibility to manifest biophilic design. It emphasizes the foundation necessary for
thinking more critically about the human connection with nature and how biophilic design can
be used as a tool for improving human health and well-being in the built environment. Hence,
the aim of the thesis is to demonstrate that the architectural configuration of the Alhambra
indicates a successful biophilic design. Thus, the research domain of this thesis looks deeper
into the above-mentioned matters within four phases:
The first phase is involved in defining human-nature interdependent relationship;

examining the biophilia hypothesis and biophilic design; and providing some perspective on
the importance of biophilic design to human health and well-being. The second phase is
engaged with understanding the dialog between nature and the Alhambra architecture;
discussing the historical, structural and social aspects that describe the site and context of the
Alhambra in al-Andalus under the rule of Nasrid Sultanate. It further investigates the
relationship between the Alhambra architecture and concept of the earthy paradise. The third
phase is concerned with defining the 14 patterns of biophilic design; analyzing the
architectural configuration of the Alhambra through these 14 patterns; and recognizing the
influence of the Alhambra’s discovered architectural experiences on human health and well-
being. Lastly, the fourth phase offers an initial approach to the wealth of the global heritage
that was inspired by the Alhambra architecture in Granada, besides examining the disparity of
design within five examples of the Alhambras around the world, according to the ruling
biophilic design patterns in the original Alhambra.
To sum up, the thesis reveals that the pursuit of good health is a goal for people all over the
world. Therefore, in order to improve people’s health, biophilic design has provided enough
evidence on the link between nature and human well-being in the built environment.
However, tracking and measuring efficacy of biophilic design patterns could be challenging.
The framework of “14 patterns of biophilic design” might be seen as a clearly defined step
towards providing initial guidance for designers by focusing attention on the crucial aspects
of the nature-health relationship. In fact, health responses are of specific interest to the
designers, because such responses influence how an individual could experience their design,
and to planners and policy makers, because they influence human well-being and equitable
access to nature and its benefits. The application of this framework in the thesis has been
demonstrated for the case study of the Alhambra in Granada, and five of its analogues around
the world.
In the situation of the Alhambra, Granada, the complex connection of the elements which
create the dialog between nature and architecture are detected. An organized display of the
resulting data provided for analysis of the case study, serves as a way to develop
contemporary architectural proposals which reflect distinctive features of this historical
complex. Additionally, this thesis has identified gaps in nature of the architectural
descriptions of the Alhambra, including relating to the wider design intent and knowledge-
based factors. Hence, it assists to deepen the analysis of this living-heritage complex by
enriching its depictions using concepts and ideas mainly established in contemporary
practices.
101
6.2 THE RESEARCH MAIN FINDINGS

The results of the study show that the Alhambra architecture manifests a successful
biophilic design. It is found that the Alhambra in Granada is an excellent example for
fulfilling the 14 patterns of biophilic design. It addresses the direct, physical and ephemeral
presence of nature that contain plant life, water and animals, as well as breezes, sounds and
scents. Common examples of this include courtyard gardens, fragrant plants, fountains, water
features and natural ventilation. Besides, the Alhambra handles organic, non-living and
indirect evocations of nature. Forms, materials, colors, shapes and proportions found in
nature, appear in the Alhambra as geometric ornaments, epigraphs, stuccoed walls and
wooden ceilings; each provide an indirect connection with nature. Moreover, the Alhambra
treats spatial configurations in nature which includes humans’ innate and learned desire to be
able to see beyond their immediate surroundings, their fascination with the slightly dangerous
or unknown and obscured views and revelatory moments. In addition, the architecture of the
Alhambras around the world reveals how the biophilic essence of the Alhambra architecture
in Granada has a universal impact, which may evidence that the original Alhambra reflects
dynamic architectural heritage values that do not expire by the end of their historical period.
Hence, this thesis clarifies how biophilic design can be applied through real-world example
that has remarkable cultural and historical dimensions, as well as indicates the expected effect
of the Alhambra architecture on the health and well-being of its visitors. As a result, it might
contribute to the axis of Sustainability (Sostenibilidad) for the Master Plan of the Alhambra
and Generalife (El Plan Director de la Alhambra y el Generalife 2020-2033). Furthermore, the
analysis of the Alhambra architecture is meant to help designers, building owners, and
decision makers to understand how biophilic design can be successfully implemented to
maximize human health into the built environment, and to explore and learn from
architecturally significant buildings from the past, in order to produce a more responsible
architecture in terms of human health and well-being in contemporary projects.
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
A deeper understanding of the Alhambra architecture and rethinking other Moorish
architecture in North Africa and elsewhere inspired by the Alhambra, would help to develop
the conception of biophilic design fulfillment. The greater integration and streamlining of
administration, various bodies in societies and stakeholders concerned would also contribute
to a more focused biophilic effort, as would address the dilemma of providing the needs of
promoting people’s health and well-being which may positively affect the societies’ economy
too.
On the other hand, fading of the concepts and roots of Islamic architecture in the
contemporary architecture is an issue that has been observed in the Islamic world over recent
decades. Nevertheless, communication and familiarity with the architecture of the Andalusian
ancestors and the try to accept its moral virtues could astonish people today. Hence, the
cultural heritage of those ancestors should be revisited in the Muslims’ current cultural life,
especially in the light of architecture that has spread and impressed the East and West of the
world.
This return to the past with looking to the enduring values of the ancestors’ architecture
may encourage the architects of the new generations to rediscover their origins in heritage and
culture, thus to build their future identity. One can imagine how magnificent are the Islamic
102
art and ornamentation of the Alhambra. It is indeed a stimulating exercise for art and
architecture students to try understanding the harmonious proportions of the Alhambra tilings
and to learn the geometry required to reconstruct them. With the aid of modern tools, students
may gain further appreciation to what was accomplished by artists and geometers of the past
who possessed the simplest of tools. Then, they could attempt to keep this art going, with
their own invention and insight, to provide additional momentum which would save it from
disappearance.
6.4 FURTHER RESEARCH

The environmental and psychological benefits of biophilic design are still accumulating,
and research is continuously needed to update this emerging and broad field. The effect of the
biophilic design patterns in the Alhambra on people’s perception and experience of the
environment in relation to human well-being remains an open question for future research.
Hence, conducting social surveys on human responses to nature in the Alhambra could further
assist to understand the human-nature connection in general. In addition, architects and
designers beside psychologists and physiologists should recognize the frequency and duration
of exposure to the biophilic design patterns, persistence of health impact, and how big the
physical intervention needs to be to elicit a response. Equally important, more research is
necessary to explain how these patterns can help in the restoration process of abandoned
heritage buildings, that were historically famous for their connection with nature.
At the end of this thesis, it is worth mentioning that the Alhambra is and will continue to be
an exceptional paradigm of beauty. Its future might be shaped by the individuals and groups
involved in studying and reviving this admirable heritage shared by all mankind. It is not just
a result of the architectural and biophilic experience, but also a recurrent theme of
contemplation and illustration of emotions and thoughts by those who have sensed it and
revitalized it.
103
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A BIOPHILIA WITHIN CONCEPTS OF REGENERATION AND SUSTAINABILITY
APPENDIX A: BIOPHILIA WITHIN CONCEPTS OF REGENERATION AND SUSTAINABILITY
Fig. A.1. Biophilia within concepts of regeneration and sustainability, Source: (Jenkin et al, 2009)
APPENDIX B ILLUSTRATION OF “RANGE OF BIOPHILIC VALUES”
APPENDIX B: ILLUSTRATION OF “RANGE OF BIOPHILIC

VALUES”
Fig. B.1. Range of Biophilic Values, Source: (Kellert, 1997; 2005; Ojamaa, 2016)
APPENDIX C ILLUSTRATION OF “DIMENSIONS, ELEMENTS AND ATTRIBUTES OF BD”
APPENDIX C: ILLUSTRATION OF “DIMENSIONS, ELEMENTS AND

ATTRIBUTES OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN”
Fig. 6C.1. Dimensions, Elements and Attributes of Biophilic Design, Source: (Kellert et al, 2008; Ojamaa, 2016)
APPENDIX D ILLUSTRATION OF “GOALS, PRINCIPLES, EXPERIENCES AND ATTRIBUTES OF BD”
APPENDIX D: ILLUSTRATION OF “GOALS, PRINCIPLES,

EXPERIENCES AND ATTRIBUTES OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN”
Fig. D.1. Goals, Principles, Experiences and Attributes of Biophilic Design, Source: (Kellert & Calabrese, 2015;
Ojamaa, 2016)
APPENDIX E ILLUSTRATIONS OF “14 PATTERNS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN”
APPENDIX E: ILLUSTRATIONS OF “14 PATTERNS OF BIOPHILIC

DESIGN”
Fig. E.1. The 14 Patterns of Biophilic Design, Source: (Browning et al, 2014; Ojamaa, 2016)
Fig. E.2. Goals and design considerations of the “14 Patterns”, Source: (Browning et al, 2014; Ojamaa, 2016)
APPENDIX F ILLUSTRATIONS OF “CHARACTERISTICS OF BIOPHILIC BUILDINGS”
APPENDIX F: ILLUSTRATIONS OF “CHARACTERISTICS OF

BIOPHILIC BUILDINGS”
Fig. F.1. Characteristics of Biophilic Buildings, Source: (Heerwagen & Hase, 2001; Ojamaa, 2016)
Fig. 6.2. Evoking Qualities of Nature, Source: (Heerwagen & Gregory, 2008; Ojamaa, 2016)
APPENDIX G ILLUSTRATIONS OF “BIOPHILIC DESIGN STRATEGIES”
APPENDIX G: ILLUSTRATIONS OF “BIOPHILIC DESIGN

STRATEGIES”
Fig. G.1. Biophilic Design Strategies, Source: (Ojamaa, 2016; Wilson, 2006; 2008)
APPENDIX G ILLUSTRATIONS OF “BIOPHILIC DESIGN STRATEGIES”
Fig. G.2. Biophilic Design Strategies cont., Source: (Ojamaa, 2016; Wilson, 2006; 2008)
APPENDIX H ILLUSTRATION OF “QUALITIES AND ATTRIBUTES OF BIOPHILIC BUILDINGS”
APPENDIX H: ILLUSTRATION OF “QUALITIES AND ATTRIBUTES

OF BIOPHILIC BUILDINGS”
Fig. H.1. Qualities of Biophilic Buildings and Biophilic Design Attributes, Source: (Griffin, 2004; Lovins, 2004;
Ojamaa, 2016)
APPENDIX I HASSAN FATHY’S ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS FOR SA BASSA BLANCA
APPENDIX I: HASSAN FATHY’S ARCHITECTURAL DRAWINGS

FOR SA BASSA BLANCA, SPAIN
Fig. I.1. Elevations of Sa Bassa Blanca, at the time called Alpha Bianca, Source: archnet.org
Fig. I.2. Elevations and a section of Sa Bassa Blanca, at the time called Alpha Bianca, Source: archnet.org
Fig. I.3. Ground floor plan of Sa Bassa Blanca, at the time called Alpha Bianca, Source: archnet.org
Fig. I.4. Foundation plan and sections of Sa Bassa Blanca, at the time called Alpha Bianca, Source: archnet.org
Fig. I.5. Plans and sections of Sa Bassa Blanca, at the time called Alpha Bianca, Source: archnet.org
APPENDIX J THE RESEARCHER’S PAPER IN “HERITAGE 2018” CONFERENCE, GRANADA, SPAIN
APPENDIX J: THE RESEARCHER’S PAPER PUBLISHED IN

“HERITAGE 2018 – 6TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON HERITAGE
AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT” IN GRANADA, SPAIN
Fig. J.1. Best Paper Award in HERITAGE 2018 conferece

Fig. J.2. Certificate of participation in HERITAGE 2018 conferece

Revisiting the Alhambra architecture: Biophilic Design approach
A. al-Rhodesly, K. al-Hagla & T. Farghaly

Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
M. el-Gamal
Center for Islamic Civilization Studies, Bibliotheca Alexandrina (Library of Alexandria), Egypt
ABSTRACT: During the past few decades, researchers and designers have been working to
recognize aspects of nature that most affect human satisfaction within the built environment. As
new evidence arises, the connections between nature, science and the built environment are
becoming easier to comprehend old wisdom and new prospects. Thus, a set of distinctive
approaches emerging from diverse domains were integrated and formulated, initiating a new
space of research -the environmental psychology- into the fields of design, psychology and
anthropology. However, these approaches are not usually applied to understand historic
buildings from a broader architectural perspective. Hence, the paper attempts to rethink the
Alhambra architecture in Granada, Spain (a World Heritage site) by analyzing its composition
through an innovative concept mainly established from contemporary methodologies. This
emanates from the observation that abundant analyses have focused much attention on the
Alhambra’s historical, stylistic or constructional aspects without sufficient examination of its
relationship with the twenty-first century architecture. Accordingly, the aim of the paper is to
verify that the Alhambra architecture manifests a successful biophilic design, which may allow
for a positive impact on human health and well-being. Besides, the scope of the paper focuses
on analyzing the architectural configuration of the Alhambra through biophilic design patterns
by exploring the biophilia hypothesis and biophilic design; identifying six of the “14 Patterns of
Biophilic Design” proposed by Terrapin Bright Green consulting firm; highlighting the impacts
of these six patterns on human health and well-being; and observing their appearance in the
Alhambra.
1 INTRODUCTION
Nature themes can be found in the earliest human structures: stylized animals characteristic of
the Egyptian sphinx, or the acanthus leaves adorning Greek temples. Representations of
animals and plants have long been used for decorative and symbolic ornamentation. Beyond
representation, cultures around the world have long brought nature into homes and public
spaces. The consistency of natural themes in historic structures and places suggests that
biophilic design is not a new phenomenon; rather, it is the codification of history, human
intuition and neural sciences showing that contact with nature is crucial for maintaining a
healthful and vibrant existence as an urban species (Browning et al., 2014). As the International
Style took root, it spread glass buildings that are stripped of organic ornamentation; therefore,
the buildings increasingly disconnected people from nature. The sundry denotations -which
have evolved from within the fields biology and psychology, and been adapted to the field of
architecture- all relate back to the desire for a re-connection with nature and natural systems
(Ryan et al., 2014). During the last decade, it is observed that green building standards have
begun to incorporate biophilia, predominantly for its contribution to the environmental quality
and connection to place. Most recently, biophilic design is being championed as a

complementary strategy for addressing familiar challenges to health and overall well-being.
According to Vander Ryn and Cowan (2007), “In many ways, the environmental crisis is a
design crisis. It is a consequence of how things are made, buildings are constructed, and
landscapes are used. Design manifests culture, and culture rests firmly on the foundation of
what we believe to be true about the world” (p. 24). In fact, nature and design are both strong
parts of the cultural identity of the Alhambra. It is observed that the Alhambra architecture
offers a good precedent for understanding how design can functionally and beautifully connect
people with nature.
Historically, during the Golden Age of Islamic scholarship, it was believed that spiritual
knowledge was the highest aim of the individual, the most nourishing for any soul, achieved
through the use of the Active Intellect and therefore connecting with the Divine (Moustafa,
2008). This spiritual knowledge could be found within the close examination of nature and its
cosmos, represented in aesthetic features that people might see within the architecture of
Alhambra. For instance, in his contemplation on the cultural expression of the Alhambra
palaces, Darr (2006) observes the repeated use of the word “barakah” in hundreds of places
throughout the palaces. Barakah means manifestation of “blessing” or “divine grace” and is
coded as the pinecone, acorn, leaf sprout and seashell as naturalistic emblems.
The Alhambra is a palatine complex erected on the Sabika hill forming part of the city of
Granada, al-Andalus (Spain now) (Fig. 1). It is a walled community containing a military zone -
Alcazaba-, palaces of the rulers, a city proper and the surrounding area of gardens and orchards,
especially the Generalife. It was built by Muslims in al-Andalus from the 11th century onwards,
reaching its most splendid point during the 14th and 15th centuries under the reign of the Nasrid
dynasty (Delgado et al., 2007). After 1492 with the departure of the Nasrid rulers from Spain,
then the conflict of the Spanish Succession by the end of the 17th century; the Alhambra had
been exposed to neglect and abandonment until its rebirth at the turn of the 19 th century, but its
basic formal structure remains unchanged (Parker, 1994).
Figure 1. The Alhambra, Granda. Source: wikiwand.com
Currently, the Alhambra represents one of the most famous and admirable examples of
Islamic architectural heritage in Europe. Due to its cultural significance, it has been declared a
World Heritage Site by UNESCO since 1984 (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 1992).
Moreover, the Alhambra is the most visited monument in Spain, at the time of this writing,
according to the Spain’s official tourism portal (Turespaña, 2018); receiving nearly two and
half million visitors per year, according to the Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife (PAG)
(2015). It was classified among the “12 Treasures of Spain” that were selected through a
Spanish voting process in 2007.
2 BIOPHILIC DESIGN
Biophilia is defined at its simplest meaning as the love of life. Upon breaking down the word,
one arrives that bio- is “of or relating to life” and -philia is “denoting fondness, especially an
abnormal love for a specified thing” (Stevenson and Lindberg, 2013). The word was first used
by the social psychologist Erich Fromm (Young, 2008). He defines biophilia as a “tendency to
preserve life and to fight against death” (Fromm, 1964). Then, Edward O. Wilson takes the
word and develops it in the field of biology, particularly sociobiology (Young, 2008), defining
it as “the rich, natural pleasure that comes from being surrounded by living organisms, not just
other human beings but a diversity of plants and animals that live in gardens and woodlots, in
zoos, around the home, and in the wilderness” (Wilson, 1979).
The term “biophilic design” emerged from the translation of the concept of applying
biophilia into design and the built environment. It was coined by Stephen Kellert, Professor of
Social Ecology at Yale University. Kellert et al. (2008) define biophilic design as the
expression of the inherent human need to affiliate with nature in the design of the built
environment. Hence, the goal of biophilic design is to construct environments imbued with
positive experiences that can promote human health and well-being from the contact between
people and nature (Heerwagen, 2009, Kellert et al., 2008).
Over the years, designers and professionals has published several works that included unique
approaches to realize the transition of biophilia from a theory to application in the built
environment through biophilic design. Presently, there is no universally admitted definition of
the elements of biophilic design or established strategies as to how to achieve them; however,
architects often look for standards to follow as guidelines in order to properly implement and
evaluate its application (Ojamaa, 2016). Hence, this paper will utilize the framework of “14
Patterns of Biophilic Design” for analyzing the architectural configuration of the Alhambra.
3 BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA: NATURE IN THE SPACE
“…Biophilia is not a single instinct but a complex of learning rules that can be teased apart and
analyzed individually.” (Wilson, 1993, p. 31). As a result, Terrapin Bright Green, an
environmental consulting firm, has suggested “14 Patterns of Biophilic Design” to articulate the
relationships between nature, human biology and psychology, and the design of the built
environment which could help designers for successful implementation or evaluation of
biophilic design (Browning et al., 2014). This section and the following one attempt to analyze
the architectural configuration of the Alhambra according to six of the “14 Patterns of Biophilic
Design”, by defining these six patterns, recognizing their mind-body impacts and observing
their appearance in the Alhambra.
According to Browning et al. (2014), biophilic design can be organized into three categories
– Nature in the Space, Natural Analogues, and Nature of the Space. Initially, Nature in the
Space addresses the direct, physical and ephemeral presence of nature in a space or place. This
includes plant life, water and animals, as well as breezes, sounds, scents and other natural
elements. The strongest Nature in the Space experiences are achieved through the creation of
meaningful, direct connections with these natural elements, particularly through diversity,
movement and multi-sensory interactions (Browning et al., 2014). Nature in the Space
encompasses seven biophilic design patterns: Visual Connection with Nature; Non-Visual
Connection with Nature; Non-Rhythmic Sensory Stimuli; Thermal & Airflow Variability;
Presence of Water; Dynamic & Diffuse Light; and Connection with Natural Systems (Browning
et al., 2014). Three of these patterns will be discussed in this section.
3.1 Visual Connection with Nature

A Visual Connection with Nature is a view to elements of nature, living systems and natural
processes (Ryan et al., 2014). A space with a good Visual Connection with Nature makes one
feel whole, it grabs one’s attention and can be stimulating or calming. It can convey a sense of
time, weather and other living things (Browning et al., 2014).
The Visual Connection with Nature pattern has evolved from research on visual preference
and responses to views to nature showing reduced stress, more positive emotional functioning,
and improved concentration and recovery rates (Table 1). Stress recovery from visual
connections with nature have reportedly been realized through lowered blood pressure and
heart rate; reduced attentional fatigue, sadness, anger, and aggression; improved mental
engagement/attentiveness, attitude and overall happiness. There is also evidence for stress
reduction related to both experiencing real nature and seeing images of nature.
Table 1. Pattern of ‘Visual connection with Nature’ and mind-body responses,

Source: (Browning et al., 2014)
preference
Visual Lowered blood pressure Improved mental Positively impacted
connection and heart rate engagement/ attentiveness attitude and overall
with nature (Brown et al., 2013, Van (Biederman and Vessel, happiness
den Berg et al., 2007) 2006) (Barton and Pretty, 2010)
The Generalife Palace is framed by panoramic views of a natural landscape that extends out
to the horizon. It comprises a garden pavilion, terraces and rich diversity of spaces, including
courts filled with shrubs, flowers and plants in addition to oblong pools, fountains and
pathways (Fig. 2). The Court of the Water Channel (Patio de la Acequia) (Fig. 3) and the
Soultana’s Court (Patio de la Sultana) (Fig. 4) are two marvelous courtyards existing in the
palace.
Figure 3. The Court of the Water Channel,

Source: PAG
Figure 2. The Generalife Palace, Source: (Delgado et al., Figure 4. The Soultana’s Court, Source:
2007) PAG
3.2 Thermal and Airflow Variability

Thermal & Airflow Variability can be characterized as subtle changes in air temperature,
relative humidity, airflow across the skin, and surface temperatures that mimic natural
environments (Ryan et al., 2014). A space with good Thermal & Airflow Variability makes one
feel refreshing, active, alive, invigorating and comfortable. The space provides a feeling of both
flexibility and a sense of control (Browning et al., 2014).
The Thermal & Airflow Variability pattern has evolved from research measuring the effects
of natural ventilation, its resulting thermal variability, and worker comfort, well-being and
productivity; physiology and perception of temporal and spatial pleasure (alliesthesia); the
impact of nature in motion on concentration; and, generally speaking, a growing discontent
with the conventional approach to thermal design, which focuses on achieving a narrow target
area of temperature, humidity and air flow while minimizing variability (Table 2).
Table 2. Pattern of ‘Thermal and Airflow Variability’ and mind-body responses,

preference
Thermal & Positively impacted Positively impacted Improved perception of
airflow comfort, well-being and concentration temporal and spatial
variability productivity (Hartig et al., 2003, pleasure (alliesthesia)
(Tham and Willem, 2005, Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989) (Parkinson et al., 2012,
Wigö, 2005) Zhang et al., 2010, Arens
et al., 2006)
The natural process of cooling in architecture can be achieved in two different ways: by
preventing heat from penetrating the interior of the building, by means of direct protection
against the sun, or by eliminating excess temperature from the different areas to be cooled using
a series of combined physical mechanisms (Jiménez Alcalá, 1999).
Strong solar radiation was the main source of internal heat in the buildings developed in al-
Andalus and thus the Alhambra, so natural light was manipulated and intentionally controlled
in the architecture, providing protection from the rays of the sun primarily by preventing them
from entering directly (García-Pulido, 2012). The most common practice was to confine this
indirect illumination to the higher part of the rooms, which diffused the light from top to
bottom, making it somewhat hazy, giving a suggestive atmosphere to the interiors (García-
Pulido, 2012) (Fig. 5). As a consequence, the influx of sunlight and hot air is reduced to the
minimum, achieving the desired level of illumination and ventilation.
When there are larger openings, such as entrance or exit arches, they are protected by deep
porticos and pronounced eaves, always present in the sunniest wings of the patios. These
porticos are often made up of arcades where there is a gradual adjustment of light from the
entrance area to the latticed area in the upper parts of the walls (García-Pulido, 2016) (Fig. 6).
Moreover, temperature and humidity were adjusted and mitigated by the presence of water and
vegetation in the patios.
Further, the effective ventilation of a room depends on the distribution and shape of the
windows, with regard not only to their size, but also to their strategic placement with the aim of
obtaining suitable cross-ventilation (García-Pulido, 2012). According to García-Pulido (2016),
the “stack effect” is caused in the Alhambra by a difference of air density and pressure between
the heavier cold air and lighter warm inside a space, as in the Tower of the Princesses (Torre de
las Infantas) and the Tower of the Captive (Torre de la Cautiva) (Fig. 7). In addition, the
“Venturi effect” occurs when rapid air circulation causes a lowering of pressure. This takes
place in areas with cross-ventilation, where the draft induces air from other areas, thus creating
air convection as in the Hall of Comares (Fig. 8).
Figure 5. Natural light in some remarkable spaces of the Alhambra (from left to Figure 6. Adjustment and controlled inner
illumination in different porticos in the Alhambra
right and from above to below): Hall of the Two Sisters, Source: PAG; Tower of palaces, transition between the inside and outside of
the Princesses, Source: lugaresdegranada.blogspot.com; Hall of the different chambers (top left: the Golden room; centre
left: North Hall of the Generalife Palace; top right:
Abencerrages, Source: PAG; Hall of Comares (centre), Source: spain.info; Hall of the Muqarnas of the Palace of the Lions,
Balcony of Dar Aisha or Mirador de Daraxa, Source: PAG; and two Sources: PAG). Reflecting water surfaces in the
Alhambra (below left: pool of the Comares Palace,
photographs of the Baths of Comares, Source: culturamas.es & Source: PAG; below right: pool of the Partal Palace,
hammamalandalus.com. Source: spain.info).
Figure 7. Stack effect in the Princesses Figure 8. Venturi effect in the Hall of Comares, Source:
and Captive towers, Source: (García- (García-Pulido, 2016)
Pulido, 2016)
3.3 Presence of Water

Presence of Water is a condition that enhances the experience of a place through the seeing,
hearing or touching of water (Ryan et al., 2014). A space with a good Presence of Water
condition makes one feel compelling and captivating. Fluidity, sound, lighting, proximity and
accessibility each contribute to whether a space is stimulating, calming, or both (Browning et
al., 2014).
The Presence of Water pattern has evolved from research on visual preference for and
positive emotional responses to environments containing water elements; reduced stress,
increased feelings of tranquility, and lower heart rate and blood pressure from exposure to
water features; improved concentration and memory restoration induced by complex, naturally
fluctuating visual stimuli; and enhanced perception and psychological and physiological
responsiveness when multiple senses are stimulated simultaneously (Table 3).
Table 3. Pattern of ‘Presence of Water’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al., 2014)
preference
Presence of Reduced stress, increased Improved concentration Observed preferences and
water feelings of tranquility, and memory restoration positive emotional
lower heart rate and blood (Alvarsson et al., 2010, responses
pressure Biederman and Vessel, (White et al., 2010,
(Alvarsson et al., 2010, 2006) Biederman and Vessel,
Pheasant et al., 2010, Enhanced perception and 2006, Heerwagen and
Biederman and Vessel, psychological Orians, 1993, Ulrich,
2006) responsiveness 1983)
(Alvarsson et al., 2010,
Hunter et al., 2010)
Water is used in a variety of ways; flowing, reflective as a mirror and playful, with light. The
multitudinous watercourses in the Alhambra consisted of canals, pools, water stairs, water
bannisters, fountains and basins of varying geometric form (Baker, 1986). One of the most
unique elements of the Generalife is the Water Stairway (Escalera del Agua). Innovative
designs such as open water bannisters run to lower terraces inviting participation and offering
sights and sounds relieving intense summer heat (Fig. 9). In the Court of the Myrtles, the
reflecting pool with small circular pools at either end, gurgle water through small spouts (Fig.
10). The water sound in the court is calm and quiet which helps to create the wonderful sense.
Movement throughout the Court of the Lions involves the integration with water; stepping
over the small channels and addressing the pools and fountains creates a physical involvement
with the human body and the element of water (Torres, 1992) (Fig. 11). In the terraces of the
Partal Gardens, there is a sequence of paths which lead upwards by way of inclined ramps and
steps. The spaces are made up of a series of plantings, pools and fountains (Fig. 12). Hence,
water is an important element in the making of these spaces.
It has been “surprising” to touch the water and hear its sound in one of the fountains of the
Alhambra and contemplate how it flowed and became a subtle mirror of architecture (Fig. 13).
The surface of the pool of the Court of the Myrtles (Patio de los Arrayanes) works like a mirror
that reflects the architecture itself and what surrounds it; thus, an admirable visual effect can be
achieved (Fig. 14).
Figure 9. The Water Stairway in the Generalife, Source Figure 10. Court of the Myrtles, Source: PAG
(from left to right): PAG; estudi-arte.blogspot.com; &
Francisco Laguna.
Figure 11. Court Figure 12. The Partal Figure 13. Touching Figure 14. Reflection of the
of the Lions, Gardens, Source: water of a fountain in the Palace of Comares’ facade
Source: PAG alhambra-entradas.com Alhambra, Source: on the pool of Court of the
juntadeandalucia.es Myrtles, Source: PAG
4 BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA: NATURAL ANALOGUES
Natural Analogues addresses organic, non-living and indirect evocations of nature. Objects,
materials, colors, shapes, sequences and patterns found in nature, manifest as artwork,
ornamentation, decor, and textiles in the built environment. Mimicry of leaves, decoration with
organic shapes, and natural materials that have been processed or extensively altered, each
provide an indirect connection with nature; they are analogous of the items in their ‘natural’
state. The strongest Natural Analogue experiences are achieved by providing information
richness in an organized and sometimes evolving manner (Browning et al., 2014). Natural
Analogues encompasses three patterns of biophilic design: Biomorphic Forms & Patterns;
Material Connection with Nature; and Complexity & Order (Browning et al., 2014). These
three patterns will be investigated in this section.
4.1 Biomorphic Forms and Patterns

Biomorphic Forms & Patterns are symbolic references to contoured, patterned, textured or
numerical arrangements that persist in nature (Browning et al., 2014). A space with good
Biomorphic Forms & Patterns makes one feel interesting and comfortable, possibly captivating,
contemplative or even absorptive (Browning et al., 2014).
Biomorphic Forms & Patterns has evolved from research on view preferences, reduced stress
due to induced shift in focus, and enhanced concentration (Table 4). Nature abhors right angles
and straight lines (Thompson, 1917). People have a visual preference for organic and
biomorphic forms. While human brain knows that biomorphic forms and patterns are not living
things, people may describe them as symbolic representations of life (Vessel et al., 2012).
Table 4. Pattern of ‘Biomorphic Forms and Patterns’ and mind-body responses,

preference
Biomorphic Observed view preference
forms & (Vessel et al., 2012, Joye,
patterns 2007)
It may be closer to reality to interpret the Islamic decorative ornaments as something based
on the recurring reproduction of the beauty of the world, in three dimensions –the Universe,
Nature and the Human Being– which can only be represented on a flat surface by
superimposing the shapes (El-Gamal, 2004). Gómez (2016) believes that it is the reason for the
appearance and intermingling of the three architectural decorations of the Alhambra: geometric
decoration, as a representation of the order of the Universe, plant-based decoration, as
testimony of the beauty of the world in which we live, and epigraphic decoration, as a reference
to the human being.
The arabesque ornamentation found throughout the Alhambra is developed in an infinite
variety, however, is always expressed in two different ways: being woven from one single band
or radiating from many identical centres (Moustafa, 2008) (Fig. 15). Geometric roses or stars
continuously run into one another and develop out of each other. Each centre creates a cosmos
of its own creating an unending reflection of centres in each other.
The enclosed Balcony of Dar Aisha (Mirador de Daraxa/Lindaraja) is one of the most
beautiful corners of the Alhambra. Its represents spectacular decorations with various
geometric and epigraphic compositions and with delicate plasterwork that frames the front
window, under a curtain arch of muqarnas (Fig. 16). Besides, the dados of tiny tiles show a
simple but colorful succession of stars, topped by inscriptions with characters cut out in pieces
of black ceramic on a white background, arranged like a puzzle. In addition, the decoration of
the Hall of the Ambassadors, culminates in the exceptional ceiling. It is executed in seven
panels of superimposed panels; the geometric motif of its decoration consisting of successive
star wheels, that symbolize the cosmos (Fig. 17).
Ornamental epigraphs were interwoven with the surface decorations located above the
plaster panels and perforated screens. A common position of the epigraph is just above the tile
decoration found on the lower part of most walls at eye level so that epigraphs are visible for
the visitors to see and read them (Grabar, 1978), as in the porticos of the Court of the Myrtles
(Fig. 18).
Figure 15. Some Figure 16. The enclosed Figure 17. Ceiling of the Figure 18. Ornamental
arabesque ceramic tiles Balcony of Dar Aisha Hall of Ambassadors, epigraphs at eye level in
within the Alhambra, (Mirador de Source: PAG the Court of the Myrtles,
Source: Daraxa/Lindaraja) Sources (from above to
alhambradegranada.org Source: PAG below): Brigida Soriano
Caballero,
alhambradegranada.org
4.2 Material Connection with Nature
A Material Connection with Nature is material and elements from nature that, through minimal
processing, reflect the local ecology or geology to create a distinct sense of place (Browning et
al., 2014). A space with a good Material Connection with Nature makes one feel rich, warm
and authentic, and sometimes stimulating to the touch (Browning et al., 2014).
While scientific documentation on the health impact of natural materials is limited, available
research is beginning to shed light on opportunities for informed design. As such, the Material
Connection with Nature pattern has evolved from a limited body of scientific research on
physiological responses to variable quantities of natural materials, and the impact of natural
color palette, has on cognitive performance (Table 5).
Table 5. Pattern of ‘Material Connection with Nature’ and mind-body responses,

preference
Material Decreased diastolic blood Improved comfort
connection pressure (Tsunetsugu et al., 2007)
with nature (Tsunetsugu et al., 2007)
Improved creative
performance
(Lichtenfeld et al., 2012)
The basic technique for surface decoration of most walls in the Alhambra is to use dado
tiling at the bottom and cover the upper part of the wall with carved stucco, as in the south
facade at the Court of the Golden Room (Cardell-Fernández and Navarrete-Aguilera, 2007)
(Fig. 19). Stucco is essential to the Alhambra’s art; while woodwork is limited to ceilings,
doors or architectural elements such as girders and eaves.
Wood is a vital element in the architecture of the Alhambra that characterizes the coffered
ceiling of the Throne Room at the Tower of Comares (Fig. 20). In addition, the roof of the
Balcony of Dar Aisha (Mirador de Daraxa/Lindaraja) is made of colored crystals assembled in
a vaulted wooden structure (Fig. 21). On a stucco covering of muqarnas found in the Palace of
the Lions, the following colors are observed: white, red, different tones of green and blue and
gold (Cardell-Fernández and Navarrete-Aguilera, 2007) (Fig. 22).
Figure 19. South Figure 20. The ceiling of the Figure 21. The Figure 22. Colors on a
facade of the Court Throne Room, in the Tower of skylight of the stucco covering of
of the Golden Room Comares, Source: PAG enclosed Balcony of muqarnas found in the
showing the basic Dar Aisha (Mirador Palace of the Lions,
decoration materials de Source: PAG
used in the Daraxa/Lindaraja),
Alhambra, Source: Source: PAG
PAG
4.3 Complexity and Order

Complexity & Order is rich sensory information that adheres to a spatial hierarchy similar to
those encountered in nature (Ryan et al., 2014). A space with good complexity & order makes
one feel engaging and information-rich, as an intriguing balance between boring and
overwhelming (Browning et al., 2014).
The Complexity & Order pattern has evolved from research on fractal geometries and
preferred views; the perceptual and physiological responses to the complexity of fractals in
nature, art and architecture; and the predictability of the occurrence of design flows and
patterns in nature (Table 6). In such fractal environments, our body automatically dampens its
response to stress induced by intensive tasks and reaction to external forces (Salingaros, 2012).
This implies that spaces with convenient complexity & order are healing, or at least buffer us
from life’s stresses.
Table 6. Pattern of ‘Complexity and Order’ and mind-body responses, Source: (Browning et al., 2014)
preference
Complexity Positively impacted Observed view preference
& order perceptual and (Salingaros, 2012,
physiological stress Hagerhall et al., 2008,
responses Taylor, 2006)
(Salingaros, 2012, Joye,
2007, Taylor, 2006)
Throughout the Alhambra, builders and designers played with the ratios between irrational
numbers and whole numbers, such as the square roots of 2, 3, 5. The beauty of the Court of the
Lions is based upon proportion and upon abstract geometric designs of complexity (Irwin,
2011).
In the Court of the Lions such a ratio applied to the heights of the columns (Fig. 23), as well
as the lengths and widths of the courtyard. In order to understand the overall proportions of the
Court of the Lions, the size of the courtyard was fixed by creating a rectangle generated by
diagonals drawn from the corners of the eastern wall of the Hall of the Muqarnas, the inside
angle of each diagonal being 60 degrees and the outside one 30 degrees (Fig. 24). Similar
calculations, involving diagonals and square roots, fixed the size of pavilions on the west and
east of the courtyard (Fig. 25).
Figure 23. Proportional layout of the Figure 24. Proportional layout of Figure 25. Proportional
Elevation of the West Pavilion, Court of the Lions, Source: layout of columns within
Source: (Fernández-Puertas, 1997, (Fernández-Puertas, 1997, p. 56) the Court of Lions, Source:
p. 74) (Fernández-Puertas, 1997,
p. 68)
5 CONCLUSIONS
This paper revisits the Alhambra architecture in the twenty-first century through examining its
possibility to demonstrate biophilic design. Within this framework, the architectural
configuration of the Alhambra has been analyzed through biophilic design patterns, by defining
the biophilic design approach; recognizing six of the biophilic design patterns suggested by
Terrapin Bright Green consulting firm; realizing their impacts on human health and well-being;
and tracking their appearance in the Alhambra.
The results of this study show that the Alhambra architecture manifests a successful biophilic
design. It is found that the Alhambra is an excellent example for fulfilling six patterns of
biophilic design. The Alhambra architecture addresses the direct, physical and ephemeral
presence of nature that contains plant life and water, as well as breezes and sound. Common
examples of this include courtyard gardens, fountains, water features and natural ventilation.
Besides, the Alhambra handles organic, non-living and indirect evocations of nature. Forms,
materials, colors, shapes and proportions found in nature, manifest in the Alhambra as
geometric ornamentations, epigraphs, stuccoed walls and wooden ceilings; each provide an
indirect connection with nature.
This would clarify how biophilic design can be applied through real-world example that has
remarkable cultural and historical dimensions, as well as indicate the expected effect of the
Alhambra architecture on the health and well-being of its visitors. Hence, architects and
planners could benefit from this model, working on incorporating the biophilic design approach
into built environments, that could improve physical and psychological well-being, which is
essential to human survival.
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ARABIC SUMMARY
‫المدخل البيوفيلي للعمارة‪ :‬الحمراء باألندلس كحالة دراسية‬ ‫ملخص الرسالة باللغة العربية‬
‫تكشف نتائج الدراسة أن عمارة الحمراء أظهرت تصميما ً بيوفيليا ً ناجحاً‪ ،‬حيث ُوجد أن الحمراء مثال ممتاز لتلبية أنماط‬
‫التصميم البيوفيلي الـ ‪ ، 14‬فقد تعرضت للوجود المباشر و المادي و العابر للطبيعة الذي يشمل حياة النبات و المياه و‬
‫الحيوانات‪ ،‬و كذلك النسائم و األصوات و الروائح‪ ،‬و من األمثلة الشائعة ضمنها حدائق األفنية و النباتات العطرة و النوافير‬
‫و المسطحات المائية و التهوية الطبيعية‪ ،‬إلى جانب ذلك فقد استحضرت الحمراء الطبيعة بشكل عضوي و غير حي و غير‬
‫مباشر‪ ،‬فاألشكال و الخامات و األلوان و النسب وجدت في الحمراء كزخارف هندسية و كتابات منقوشة و حوائط مزينة‬
‫بالجص و أسقف خشبية‪ ،‬و كل منها يرتبط بالطبيعة ارتباطا ً غير مباشر‪ ،‬إضافة إلى ذلك فقد عالجت الحمراء التكوينات‬
‫الفراغية في الطبيعة التي تحفز رغبة اإلنسان الفطرية و المكتسبة للتمكن من رؤية ما هو أبعد من محيطه المباشر‪ ،‬و افتتانه‬
‫بالمناظر التي قد تُش ِعر بالخطورة بعض الشيء أو المجهولة و الغامضة أو الكاشفة ذات التعرض‪ ،‬عالوة على ذلك فإن‬
‫أمثلة الحمراوات حول العالم المتناولة في الرسالة تكشف كيف أن للجوهر البيوفيلي لعمارة الحمراء في غرناطة تأثير‬
‫عالمي‪ ،‬و هو ما يُثبت تعبير الحمراء األصلية عن قيم ديناميكية للتراث المعماري لم تندثر بانتهاء حقبتها التاريخية‪.‬‬
‫و من هنا توضّح هذه الرسالة كيف يمكن تطبيق التصميم البيوفيلي خالل مثال واقعي له أبعاد ثقافية و تاريخية فريدة‪،‬‬
‫باإلضافة إلى اإلشارة إلى التأثير المتوقع لعمارة الحمراء على صحة و رفاهية زوارها‪ ،‬و بالتالي يمكن للمعماريين و‬
‫المخططين االستفادة من هذا النموذج و العمل على دمج نهج التصميم البيوفيلي في البيئات المبنية و التي قد تعزز السالمة‬
‫البدنية و النفسية لإلنسان‪ ،‬و هو أمر حيوي لبقاء البشرية‪.‬‬
‫ج‬
‫المدخل البيوفيلي للعمارة‪ :‬الحمراء باألندلس كحالة دراسية‬ ‫ملخص الرسالة باللغة العربية‬
‫ملخص الرسالة‬
‫إن أشكال الطبيعة ُوجدت متأصلة في الهياكل األولية التي شيدها اإلنسان‪ :‬مثل المظهر ذي النسق الحيواني ألبي الهول‬
‫في مصر‪ ،‬و نقوش أوراق األقنثا المزيّنة للمعابد اليونانية‪ ،‬فقد است ُخدم تصوير الحيوانات و النباتات في التزيين الرمزي و‬
‫الزخرفي‪ ،‬و تجاوز األمر ذلك التصوير إلى أن أقحمت الثقافات حول العالم الطبيعة داخل المنازل و األماكن العامة‪ ،‬إن‬
‫توافق تلك األنماط الطبيعية في الكيانات و األماكن التاريخية يشير إلى أن التصميم البيوفيلي ليس بالظاهرة الحديثة‪ ،‬بل و‬
‫يُظهر تدوين التاريخ و الحدس البشري و علم األعصاب أن االرتباط بالطبيعة هام للحفاظ على الوجود الحيوي و الصحي‬
‫لإلنسان ككائن حضري‪.‬‬
‫و بترسخ الطراز العالمي للعمارة؛ أخذت المباني الزجاجية في االنتشار و التي ُج ّردت من الزخرفة العضوية‪ ،‬و من ثم‬
‫فقد فصلت الناس عن االتصال المباشر بالطبيعة على نحو متزايد‪ ،‬و تتوافق الدالالت المتنوعة ‪-‬التي تطورت ضمن‬
‫مجاالت علم األحياء وعلم النفس و تم تكييفها مع مجال الهندسة المعمارية‪ -‬إلى حقيقة الرغبة في إعادة االتصال بالطبيعة‬
‫واألنظمة الطبيعية‪ ،‬و خالل العقد الماضي؛ لوحظ أن معايير البناء المستدام بدأت في دمج مبدأ البيوفيليا لمساهمته بالدرجة‬
‫األول ى في تحسين جودة البيئة و االتصال بالمكان‪ ،‬و في اآلونة األخير؛ يتم دعم التصميم البيوفيلي كاستراتيجية تكميلية‬
‫لمواجهة التحديات الشائعة للصحة و الرفاهية العامة‪.‬‬
‫يصرح المعماري و الباحث الرائد في مجال العمارة المستدامة ”فان دِر رين“ ففي الكثير من النواحي تعتبر‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫و كما‬
‫األزمة البيئية أزمة تصميمية‪ ،‬فهي نتيجة لكيفية صنع األشياء؛ و بناء المباني؛ و استغالل المناظر الطبيعية‪ ،‬كما يُظ ِهر‬
‫التصميم الثقافة‪ ،‬و ترتكز الثقافة بثبات على أساس ما يؤمن الناس بكونه حقيقيا ً حول العالم‪ .‬و في الواقع‪ ،‬فالطبيعة والتصميم‬
‫كالهما مكونات قوية للهوية الثقافية للحمراء‪ ،‬و يُالحظ أن عمارة الحمراء تقدم سابقة مميزة لفهم كيف يمكن للتصميم أن‬
‫يربط األشخاص بالطبيعة بشكل جمالي و وظيفي في نفس الوقت‪.‬‬
‫تاريخيا ً خالل العصر الذهبي للحضارة اإلسالمية؛ كان و ال يزال يعتقد بأن المعرفة الروحية هي الغاية األسمى للفرد‬
‫‪-‬األكثر تغذية ألي روح‪ ،-‬و التي تتحقق من خالل استخدام الفكر الفعّال و من ثم االرتباط باإلله‪ ،‬هذه المعرفة الروحية‬
‫يمكن أن تتأتى بالفحص الدقيق للطبيعة و نظامها الكامل المتوافق؛ و المعبَّر عنها في المالمح الجمالية التي قد تظهر للعيان‬
‫في عمارة الحمراء‪ ،‬على سبيل المثال‪ ،‬خالل تأمل التعبير الثقافي لقصور الحمراء؛ يالحظ االستخدام المتكرر لعبارة‬
‫”بركة“ في مئات األماكن داخل القصور و قد تم نظ ُمها على أشكال كوز الصنوبر و جوز البلوط و براعم األوراق و كذلك‬
‫الصدف كرموز للطبيعة‪.‬‬
‫و الحمراء هي مجمع بالط ملكي ُمقام على تل السبيكة و يشكل جزءا ً من مدينة غرناطة في األندلس (إسبانيا حاليا)‪ ،‬و‬
‫مسورا ً يحتوي على منطقة عسكرية ‪-‬ت ُعرف بالقصبة‪-‬؛ و قصور الحكام؛ و مدينة الحمراء؛ و‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫تعتبر الحمراء مجتمعا ً‬
‫المنطقة المحيطة من حدائق و بساتين ‪-‬خاصة جنة العريف‪ ،-‬و قد بُنيت الحمراء من قبل المسلمين في األندلس من القرن‬
‫الحادي عشر الميالدي فصاعدا ً حتى بلغت أوج فتراتها بها ًء خالل القرنين الرابع عشر و الخامس عشر الميالدي تحت حكم‬
‫سالسة بني نصر‪ ،‬و بعد عام ‪1492‬م مع رحيل حكام بني نصر من األندلس‪ ،‬ثم حرب الخالفة اإلسبانية نهاية القرن السابع‬
‫عشر الميالدي؛ تعرضت الحمراء لإلهمال و الهجر حتى انبعاثها من جديد في مطلع القرن التاسع عشر الميالدي‪ ،‬و قد ب ِقي‬
‫هيكلها األساسي دون تغيير‪.‬‬
‫حاليا ً تعد الحمراء أحد أشهر و أروع معالم التراث المعماري اإلسالمي في أوروبا‪ ،‬و ألهميتها الثقافية أُع ِلنت كموقع‬
‫تراث عالمي من اليونسكو منذ عام ‪1984‬م‪ ،‬و هي المعلم األكثر زيارة في إسبانيا اليوم ‪-‬حسب البوابة الرسمية للسياحة في‬
‫إسبانيا‪ ،-‬كما أنها من كنوز إسبانيا اإلثني عشر‪.‬‬
‫و تهدف هذه الرسالة إلى التحقق من أن عمارة الحمراء تُبدي تصميما ً بيوفيليا ً ناجحاً‪ ،‬و الذي بدوره يُمكن أن يسمح‬
‫بإحداث تأثير إيجابي على صحة اإلنسان و رفاهيته‪ ،‬و لتحقيق هذا الهدف يُسعى إلنجاز األهداف الجزئية التالية‪ :‬تفحُّص‬
‫مبدأ البيوفيليا و التصميم البيوفيلي‪ ،‬و تسليط الضوء على أهمية التصميم البيوفيلي للصحة البشرية و الرفاهية؛ مناقشة‬
‫الجوانب التاريخية و البنيوية و االجتماعية للحمراء التي شكلت سياق عمارتها في األندلس تحت حكم بني نصر؛ تحليل‬
‫التكوين المعماري للحمراء من خالل أنماط التصميم البيوفيلي الـ ‪ 14‬المقترحة من قبل مؤسسة ”تِر ِبن برايت جرين“‬
‫الستشارات االستدامة؛ و تمييز التباين في التصميم لخمسة أمثلة من الحمراوات حول العالم وفق أنماط التصميم البيوفيلي‬
‫السائدة المكتشفة في الحمراء األصلية بغرناطة‪.‬‬
‫ب‬
‫مستخلص الرسالة‬
‫على مدار العقود القليلة الماضية عمل الباحثون و المصممون على تحديد جوانب الطبيعة التي تؤثر بشكل كبير على‬
‫االرتياح البشري في البيئة المبنية‪ ،‬و بظهور أدلة جديدة؛ س ّهلت االرتباطات بين الطبيعة و العلوم و البيئة المبنية فهم الحكمة‬
‫القديمة و الفرص الجديدة‪ ،‬و هكذا فقد اندمجت بصورة منهجية مجموعة من المقاربات المتميزة الناشئة من مجاالت مختلفة‬
‫لتصيغ األساس العلمي لمساحات بحثية جديدة ضمن حقول التصميم و علم النفس و علم اإلنسان‪ ،‬بيد أن هذه المداخل ال‬
‫تستخدم عادة لفهم و استبصار المباني التاريخية من منظور معماري أوسع‪ ،‬و من ثم فإن هذه الدراسة تحاول إعادة النظر‬
‫في عمارة الحمراء بغرناطة‪ ،‬األندلس (موقع تراث عالمي) بتحليل تكوينها من خالل مفهوم مبتكر أُسّس بناء على منهجيات‬
‫معاصرة‪ ،‬و هو ما ينبع من مالحظة الباحث أن الكثير من التحليالت ركزت باهتمام بالغ على جوانب التاريخ و الطراز و‬
‫البناء للحمراء دون فحص كافٍ لعالقتها بالمتطلبات العالمية الحالية في العمارة‪.‬‬
‫و هكذا فإن الهدف من هذه الرسالة هو إثبات أن عمارة الحمراء تُظ ِهر تصميما ً بيوفيليا ً ناجحاً‪ ،‬و الذي بدوره يُمكن أن‬
‫يسمح بإحداث تأثير إيجابي على صحة اإلنسان و رفاهيته‪ ،‬إن هذه الرسالة تسعى للربط بين التراث المعماري و علوم‬
‫الصحة في سياق التصميم البيوفيلي عن طريق استكشاف مفهوم البيوفيليا و التصميم البيوفيلي؛ و تفسير الحوار القائم بين‬
‫الطبيعة و سمات الحمراء الثقافية و البنيوية؛ و إدراك التأثيرات المحتملة لـ”أنماط التصميم البيوفيلي الـ ‪- “14‬المقترحة من‬
‫قبل مؤسسة ”تِربِن برايت جرين“ الستشارات االستدامة‪ -‬على صحة اإلنسان و رفاهيته؛ و التحقيق في وجود هذه األنماط‬
‫في عمارة الحمراء بغرناطة و خمسة أمثلة من نظائر الحمراء حول العالم‪.‬‬
‫أ‬


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Alexandria University

Biophilic Approach to Architecture:

Submitted to the Architectural Engineering Department

Ahmed Mohammed Mamdouh Abdul-Mohsen al-Rhodesly

B.Sc. in Architectural Engineering,

In addition, I am thankful to the librarians at Department of Architecture, Faculty of

Moreover, I am grateful to the administration of Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife

TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ V

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. X

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... XI

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................... XV

GLOSSARY OF FOREIGN WORDS............................................................................... XVI

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................... 1

CHAPTER 2: BIOPHILIA AS A DESIGN DEMAND ........................................................ 7

2.5 EFFECTS OF BIOPHILIC DESIGN ON HUMAN HEALTH AND

CHAPTER 3: THE ALHAMBRA ARCHITECTURE, GRANADA ................................ 21

CHAPTER 4: BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA

4.2.3.1 The Experience.................................................................................................. 46

CHAPTER 5: RULING BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS IN THE ALHAMBRA[S]

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................... 101

REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 105-114

APPENDIX D: ILLUSTRATION OF “GOALS, PRINCIPLES, EXPERIENCES AND ATTRIBUTES OF

ARABIC SUMMARY ........................................................................... ‫ملخص الرسالة باللغة العربية‬

Figure 1.1. Diagrammatic Representation of Thesis Structure .................................................. 5

Figure 5.2. Details of an arch in portico of the Court of Lions ................................................ 78

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

FIOCRUZ Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Foundation of Oswaldo Cruz)

FYBJ Fundación Yannick Vu Ben Jakober

IPHAN Instituto do Patrimônio Histórico e Artístico Nacional

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

LBC Living Building Challenge

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

MSBB Museum of Sa Bassa Blanca

OHE Optimal Healing Environments

PAG Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife

RMI Rocky Mountain Institute

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

USGBC United States Green Building Council

GLOSSARY OF FOREIGN WORDS

Alcazaba A fortified area within a walled city, used as a refuge for

Al-Ghibta al-Mutasilah Expression of joy, happiness and well-being

Alliesthesia Perception of temporal and spatial pleasure

Almohad The Muslim dynasty that governed al-Andalus and North

Amazighs The native population of North Africa, many of whom entered

Barakah Manifestation of blessing or divine grace

Calahorra Tower fortress used as miniature palace

Emirate/ Sultanate A state or country governed by an emir/ a sultan

Fundação Oswaldo Cruz Foundation of Oswaldo Cruz

Fundación Yannick Vu Ben Foundation of Yannick and Ben Jakober

Generalife Garden of the master builder/ architect

Hadith A narrative record of the sayings or customs of Prophet

Hammam/ Hamamat Arab bath/ baths

Hortus Conclusus Enclosed Garden

Madrasa Muslim university or school dedicated mainly to religious

Marinid Of or relating to the Muslim dynasty that ruled Morocco and

Mashrabiya(s) Type of enclosed balconies or windows decorated with carved