ADDITIONAL READINGS

Grammatical Competence (Michael Canale & Merrill Swain)

Edit 0 16…
Grammatical Competence (Michael Canale & Merrill Swain)

Definition
Schmeller, Mirna E.
According to Díaz-Rico and Weed (2010), communicative competence is a feature of a language user’s
knowledge of the language that allows the user to know “when, where, and how to use language
appropriately” (p. 58). Grammatical competence is one of four areas of the communicative competence
theory put forward by Canale and Swain (Gao, 2001). The four areas function together in language
production (Lyster, 1996).

Grammatical competence focuses on command of the language code, including such things as the rules of
word and sentence formation, meanings, spelling and pronunciation (Gao, 2001). The goal is to acquire
knowledge of, and ability to use, forms of expression that are grammatically correct and accurate (Díaz-Rico
& Weed, 2010; Gao, 2001). Grammatical competence acts to promote accuracy and fluency in second
language production (Gao, 2001), and increases in importance as the learner advances in proficiency (Díaz-
Rico & Weed, 2010).

References

Díaz-Rico, L. T. & Weed, K. Z. (2010). The crosscultural, language, and academic development handbook:
A complete K-12 reference guide (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Gao, C. Z. (2001). Second language learning and the teaching of grammar. Education, 2, 326- 336.

Lyster, R. (1996). Question forms, conditionals, and second-person pronouns used by adolescent native
speakers across two levels of formality in written and spoken French.
The Modern Language Journal, 80, 165-182.

Critique/Classroom Implications
Gaard, Erik D.

Diaz-Rico and Weed imply “this type of competence focuses on the skills and knowledge necessary to
speak and write accurately, and becomes increasingly important to the English learner in more advanced
stages of proficiency,” (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010, pg.58). As students travel through the stages of language
proficiency, grammatical competence becomes more important. Freeman and Freeman suggest grammar is
“a set of prescriptive rules they were taught in school” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, pg. 217). Herrera and
Murry state “grammatical competence “calls for curriculum and instruction that prepares the CLD student to
incorporate and apply the language code” (Herrera & Murry, 2005,p.64). Grammar is the glue that binds the
English language together.
Teachers need to realize that grammatical forms need to be explicitly taught for students to reach higher
levels of academic language proficiency. However, grammar needs to be taught in context. As Larsen-
Freeman (2001) points out, we need to pay attention to the three dimensions of grammar: form, meaning
and use. Simply teaching grammar rules and/or having student memorize verb conjugations will not help
students acquire grammatical competence.

References

Larsen-Freeman, D. (2001). Teaching grammar. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or

foreign language (pp. 251-266). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Díaz-Rico, L. T. & Weed, K. Z. (2010). The crosscultural, language, and academic development handbook:
A complete K-12 reference guide (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Freeman, D. E., & Yvonee, S. Freeman. (2004). Essential Linguistics What You Need to Know to Teach.
Portsmouth: Heinemann.

Herrera, S. G. & Murry, K, G. (2005). Mastering ESL and bilingual methods, Differentiated instruction for
culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students.Boston: Pearson Education Inc.
Sociolinguistic Competence (Michael Canale & Merrill Swain)

Sociolinguistic Competence (Michael Canale & Merrill Swain)

Definition
Schroeder, Courtney M.

Sociolinguistic Competence can be defined quite simply as: knowing and understanding how to speak given
the circumstances you are in. To go into more detail, when we speak in our native language, we don’t have
to think about who we are talking to, or how we should say something. Our words typically come naturally,
and we don’t even realize all the complexities that go into the process. Although we often do not actively
think about this process, it is a essential part of effective communication.

Second language learners, on the other hand, must learn how “to produce and understand language in
different sociolinguistic contexts, taking into consideration such factors as the status of participants, the
purposes of interactions, and the norms or conventions of interactions.” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004) This is
something that language learners must be taught and given opportunities practice. This includes, but is not
limited to: expressing attitude or emotion, understanding formal vs. informal, and knowing/recognizing
common slang or idiomatic expressions.

(Please provide an in-text citation for Canale & Swain, 1980)

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language
teaching and testing, Applied linguistics, 1, p.1
Freeman, D. E. & Freeman, Y. S. (2004). Essential linguistics: What you need to know to teach reading,
ESL, spelling, phonics, and grammar. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Critique/Classroom Implications
Facha, Elizabeth G.

Classroom Implications

Canale and Swain (1980) hypothesizes about “four components that make up the structure of
communicative competence” with the third being sociolinguistic competence (Asghari, n.d.). Here language
competence depends on the speaker’s ability to “produce and understand language in different
sociolinguistic contexts” ” (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010, p. 58).
One way that teachers can develop this competence is to “help learners use both the appropriate forms and
appropriate meanings when interacting in the classroom” ” (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2010, p. 58). All students
need to be seen as “legitimate participants in order to access” language through authentic learning
experiences (Swain & Deters, 2007, p. 824). Here, students learn the appropriate language to use in
different social situations.
Sentence walls, if used for this purpose, can foster developing sociolinguistic competence. This teaching
strategy allows ELL students the opportunity to “participate immediately in the classroom learning activity
and interact with their English-speaking peers (Carrier &Tatum, 2006, p.286). They can use language to
accurate communicate academic concepts.
Reciprocal teaching also develops sociolinguistic competence. Here, students assume the role of the
teacher. They ask questions, and scaffold “that help students understand what they are reading” (Freeman
& Freeman, 2001, p. 50). This support provides “a structure they can rely on to build their competence
(Freeman & Freeman, 2001, p. 82).
To develop sociolinguistic competence, teachers need to make sure that language experiences are
meaningful for students. This will help develop competence “because it is very difficult for students to learn
when content is not meaningful (Freeman & Freeman, 2001, p. 117).

Reference:
Asghari, H. (n.d.) Communicative approach to language teaching in general, and teaching reading, in
particular. Retrieved from: http://eslarticle.com/pub/articles/english-language-teaching-elt/communicative-
approach-to-language-teaching-in-general-and-teaching-reading-in-particular-525.htm

Carrier, K., & Tatum, A. W. (2006). Creating sentence walls to help English-language learners develop
content literacy. The Reading Teacher, 60(3), 285-288.

Freeman, D. E. & Freeman, Y. S. (2001). Between Worlds Access to Second Language Acquististion. .
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Swain, M., & Deters, P. (2007). “New” Mainstream SLA Theory: Expanded and Enriched. Modern Language
Journal, 91, 820–836.
 Discourse Competence (Michael Canale & Merrill Swain)

Discourse Competence (Michael Canale & Merrill Swain)

Definition
Schroeder, Erica K.

Discourse competence is defined as the ability to understand and produce the range of spoken, written and
visual texts that are characteristics of a language. These texts are to be well formed and clear. This also
includes the ability to convey information appropriately and coherently to those who are listening to, or
viewing one's texts. Basically discourse competence is knowing how to interpret the larger content and how
to construct longer stretches of language, so that the parts together make up a whole coherent unit.
Discourse competence differs from the norm, by asking how words, phrases, sentences, (etc.) are put
together to create understandable conversations and other units of language. This term also refers to a
speaker's knowledge of the rules governing a language. The term was coined because the combination of
utterances and communicative functions are discourse, and this is a component of communicative
competence.

The basic framework for communicative competence is as follows:

1. Grammatical Competence; this is the knowledge of lexical items and rules of morphology, syntax,
semantics and phonology. "Sentence Structure"
2. Sociolinguistic Competence; this is the knowledge of sociocultural rules and the use of rules of discourse,
cohesion and coherence.
3. Strategic Competence; this is the knowledge of both verbal and nonverbal communication strategies.
These three pieces, combined with Discourse Competence, work together to complete the cohesive theory
of Communicative Competence.

Resources:

 (2009). Discourse Competence. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/languagelearning/otherresources/gudlnsfralnggandcltrlrnngprgrm/whatisdi
scoursecompetencetextu.htm
 (2003). National Capital Language Resource Center. Retrieved
from http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/goalsmethods/goal.ht
 Swain, M. Deters, P. (2007). "New" Mainstream SLA Theory: Expanded and Enriched. Toronto, CA: The
Ontario Institue for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto.

Critique/Classroom Implications
DeVargas, Ronny L.

The definition of discourse competence alone would probably intimidate most ELL's given in its true context.
The basic framework of grammatical, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence necessary to complete the
theory of cohesiveness would be unobtainable to many English only speaking individuals, and would
certainly require rigorous effort and time to achieve this level of skill. Discourse that would be initiated in the
classroom can be introduced into ones classroom by means of organized ways that involve children and
adults in ways that are culturally compatible. If the teacher acted as a central director, students often
responded with silence (Tharp, 1989a).

There are also issues of discourse styles. Cultures may differ in ways that influence conversations: the way
conversations open and close, the way people take turns, the way messages are repaired to make them
understandable, and the way in which parts of the text are set aside (Diaz-Rico & Weed, p. 285). This level
of competence would require many years of practice at both the academic and social aspects, a very high
goal to aspire to indeed.

References: (Where is the reference for Tharp, 1989a ?)

Diaz-Rico, L. T. & Weed, K. Z. (2010). The crosscultural, language, and academic handbook. Boston, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
Strategic Competence (Michael Canale & Merrill Swain)

Strategic Competence (Michael Canale & Merrill Swain)

Definition
Short, David J.

One of three components necessary for successful communication through language. Strategic competence
refers to a speaker’s ability to adapt their use of verbal and nonverbal language to compensate for
communication problems caused by the speaker’s lack of understanding of proper grammar use and/or
insufficient knowledge of social behavioral and communication norms. Strategic competence, along with
grammatical competence and sociolinguistic competence constitute a framework for determining a language
learner’s proficiency in communication as posited by Michael Canale and Merrill Swain in 1980 (Canale &
Swain, 1980). A fourth component, discourse competence, was later added by Canale in 1983 (Canale,
1983). Together, these four competencies are considered mainstays of modern theory on second-language
acquisition. (Diaz-Rico & Weed, 2006).

Essentially, any speaker using techniques intended to preserve communication, repair breakdowns in
communication, or prevent miscommunication can be considered to be demonstrating strategic
competence. Some examples of behaviors demonstrating strategic competence include using synonyms to
substitute for words the speaker cannot recall or has not yet learned, resorting to physical gestures to
convey meaning, asking for clarification from the listener, raising one's voice in order to be heard, and
feigning comprehension in order to listen for context clues.

References:
Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In Richards, J.
C., & Schmidt, R. W. (Eds.), Language and Communication, 2-27. London: Longman.

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language
teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics,1, 1-47.

Diaz-Rico, L., Weed, K. (2006). The Crosscultural, Language, and Academic Development Handbook (3rd
ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.

Critique/Classroom Implications
Davis, Rebecca L.

Maleki (2010) asserted that communication strategies help in conveying unknown language between
communication partners and assist in maintaining conversational flow (p. 642). The teaching of
communication strategies is beneficial and leads to strategic competence in language learning (p. 641).
Strategic competence is best gained through the use of games focusing on communication (with or without
visual support), jigsaws, monologues, and other activities that allow for language interaction (p. 642).

There are four aspects to learning language: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. It is this order that
constitutes the traditional top-to-bottom approach to language learning; however, Maleki suggested that a
bottom-up approach to language learning, which gives an emphasis to writing, is best suited for teaching
strategic competence. This provides learners with time to process their ideas and language use, before
being asked to use it orally. This is thought to increase learners’ motivation (pp. 642-643).

Reference: Maleki, A. (2010). Techniques to teach communication strategies [Electronic version]. Journal of
Language Teaching and Research, 1(5), 640-646.