Coconut oil

A cracked coconut and a bottle of coconut oil

Coconut oil, or copra oil, is an edible oil

extracted from the kernel or meat of
mature coconuts harvested from the
coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). It has
various applications. Because of its high
saturated fat content, it is slow to oxidize
and, thus, resistant to rancidification,
lasting up to six months at 24 °C (75 °F)
without spoiling.[1]

Due to its high levels of saturated fat, the

World Health Organization, the United
States Department of Health and Human
Services, United States Food and Drug
Administration, American Heart
Association, American Dietetic
Association, British National Health
Service, British Nutrition Foundation, and
Dietitians of Canada advise that coconut
oil consumption should be limited or
avoided.

Production
Coconut oil can be extracted through dry
or wet processing.

Dry process

Traditional way of making coconut oil using an ox-

powered mill in Seychelles
Dry processing requires that the meat be
extracted from the shell and dried using
fire, sunlight, or kilns to create copra.[2]
The copra is pressed or dissolved with
solvents, producing the coconut oil and a
high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is
of poor quality for human consumption
and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no
process to extract protein from the mash.

Wet process

The all-wet process uses coconut milk

extracted from raw coconut rather than
dried copra. The proteins in the coconut
milk create an emulsion of oil and water.
The more problematic step is breaking up
the emulsion to recover the oil. This used
to be done by prolonged boiling, but this
produces a discolored oil and is not
economical. Modern techniques use
centrifuges and pre-treatments including
cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes,
electrolysis, shock waves, steam
distillation, or some combination thereof.
Despite numerous variations and
technologies, wet processing is less viable
than dry processing due to a 10–15%
lower yield, even taking into account the
losses due to spoilage and pests with dry
processing. Wet processes also require
investment of equipment and energy,
incurring high capital and operating
costs.[3]

Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age

of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when
picked) makes a significant difference in
the efficacy of the oil-making process.
Copra made from immature nuts is more
difficult to work with and produces an
inferior product with lower yields.[4]

Conventional coconut oil processors use

hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10%
more oil than produced with just rotary
mills and expellers. They then refine the oil
to remove certain free fatty acids to
reduce susceptibility to rancidification.
Other processes to increase shelf life
include using copra with a moisture
content below 6%, keeping the moisture
content of the oil below 0.2%, heating the
oil to 130–150 °C (266–302 °F) and
adding salt or citric acid.[5]

Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced

from fresh coconut milk, meat, or residue.
Producing it from the fresh meat involves
either wet-milling or drying the residue,
and using a screw press to extract the oil.
VCO can also be extracted from fresh
meat by grating and drying it to a moisture
content of 10–12%, then using a manual
press to extract the oil. Producing it from
coconut milk involves grating the coconut
and mixing it with water, then squeezing
out the oil. The milk can also be fermented
for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the
cream heated to remove any remaining oil.
A third option involves using a centrifuge
to separate the oil from the other liquids.
Coconut oil can also be extracted from the
dry residue left over from the production of
coconut milk.[5]

A thousand mature coconuts weighing

approximately 1,440 kilograms (3,170 lb)
yield around 170 kilograms (370 lb) of
copra from which around 70 litres
(15 imp gal) of coconut oil can be
extracted.[6]

Refined oil

Refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD)

oil is usually made from copra, dried
coconut kernel, which is pressed in a
heated hydraulic press to extract the oil.
This yields practically all the oil present,
amounting to more than 60% of the dry
weight of the coconut. This crude coconut
oil is not suitable for consumption
because it contains contaminants and
must be refined with further heating and
filtering.[7]

Another method for extraction of coconut

oil involves the enzymatic action of alpha-
amylase, polygalacturonases, and
proteases on diluted coconut paste.[8]

Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut

oil has no coconut taste or aroma. RBD oil
is used for home cooking, commercial
food processing, and cosmetic, industrial,
and pharmaceutical purposes.
Coconut oil on a wooden spoon

Hydrogenation

RBD coconut oil can be processed further

into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to
increase its melting point. Since virgin and
RBD coconut oils melt at 24 °C (76 °F),
foods containing coconut oil tend to melt
in warm climates. A higher melting point is
desirable in these warm climates, so the
oil is hydrogenated. The melting point of
hydrogenated coconut oil is 36–40 °C
(97–104 °F).

In the process of hydrogenation,

unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids) are combined
with hydrogen in a catalytic process to
make them more saturated. Coconut oil
contains only 6% monounsaturated and
2% polyunsaturated fatty acids. In the
partial hydrogenation process, some of
these are transformed into trans fatty
acids.[9]

Fractionation
Fractionated coconut oil provides fractions
of the whole oil so that its different fatty
acids can be separated for specific uses.
Lauric acid, a 12-carbon chain fatty acid, is
often removed because of its high value
for industrial and medical purposes.[10]
The fractionation of coconut oil can also
be used to isolate caprylic acid and capric
acid, which are medium-chain
triglycerides, as these are used for medical
applications, special diets and cosmetics,
sometimes also being used as a carrier oil
for fragrances.[11]

Figures
The United States Department of
Agriculture has published estimated
production figures for coconut oil as
follows; tabulated years are from October
1 through September 30:[12]

World coconut oil production (million tonnes)[12]

2005– 2006– 2007– 2008– 2009– 2010– 2011– 2012– 2013– 2014– 2015–
Year
06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Total
5.84 5.47 5.85 5.62 6.66 6.11 6.01 6.13 5.55 5.46 5.40
Supply

Coconut oil makes up around 2.5% of the

world vegetable oil production.

Standards

The World Health Organization's Codex

Alimentarius guidelines on food, food
production, and food safety, published by
the Food and Agriculture Organization,
includes standards for commercial
partners who produce coconut oil for
human consumption.[13]

The Asian and Pacific Coconut Community

(APCC), whose 18 members produce
about 90 per cent of the coconut sold
commercially,[14] has published its
standards for virgin coconut oil (VCO),
defining virgin coconut oil as obtained
from fresh, mature coconut kernels
through means that do not "lead to
alteration of the oil."[15]
Composition and comparison
The approximate concentration of fatty
acids in coconut oil (midpoint of range in
source):
 Fatty acid content of
coconut oil
Type of fatty acid pct
Caprylic
7%
saturated C8
Decanoic
8%
saturated C10
Lauric saturated
  48%
C12
Myristic saturated
16%
C14
Palmitic
9.5%
saturated C16
Oleic
monounsaturated 6.5%
C18:1
Other 5%
 black: Saturated;
grey: Monounsaturated;
blue: Polyunsaturated

The following table provides information

about the composition of coconut oil and
how it compares with other vegetable oils.
 Vegetable oils[16][17]

Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated fatty

fatty acids acids
Saturated
Processing α-
Type fatty Oleic Linoleic
treatment Total Total Linolenic
acids acid acid
mono[16] poly[16] acid
(ω-9) (ω-6)
(ω-3)

Avocado[18] 11.6 70.6 13.5 1 12.5

(5

Brazil nut[20] 24.8 32.7 31.3 42.0 0.1 41.9

(4

Canola[22] 7.4 63.3 61.8 28.1 9.1 18.6

(4

Coconut[23] 82.5 6.3 6 1.7

(3

Corn[24] 12.9 27.6 27.3 54.7 1 58

(4

Cottonseed[26] 25.9 17.8 19 51.9 1 54

(4

Flaxseed/Linseed[27] 9.0 18.4 18 67.8 53 13

Grape seed   10.5 14.3 14.3   74.7 - 74.7

(4

Hemp seed[29] 7.0 9.0 9.0 82.0 22.0 54.0

(3

Olive[31] 13.8 73.0 71.3 10.5 0.7 9.8

(3

Palm[32] 49.3 37.0 40 9.3 0.2 9.1

Peanut[33] 20.3 48.1 46.5 31.5 31.4

 (4

Safflower[34] 7.5 75.2 75.2 12.8 0 12.8

(4

Soybean[35] 15.6 22.8 22.6 57.7 7 51

(4

Sunflower
(standard, 65% 10.3 19.5 19.5 65.7 0 65.7
(4
linoleic)[36]

Sunflower (< 60%

10.1 45.4 45.3 40.1 0.2 39.8
linoleic)[37]

Sunflower (> 70%

9.9 83.7 82.6 3.8 0.2 3.6
oleic)[38] (4

Cottonseed[40] Hydrogenated 93.6 1.5 0.6 0.3

Palm[41] Hydrogenated 88.2 5.7 0

Partially
Soybean[42] 14.9 43.0 42.5 37.6 2.6 34.9
hydrogenated

Values as percent (%) by weight of total fat.

Health concerns
Many health organizations advise against
the consumption of coconut oil due to its
high levels of saturated fat, including the
United States Food and Drug
Administration,[43] World Health
Organization,[44] the United States
Department of Health and Human
Services,[45] American Dietetic
Association,[46] American Heart
Association,[47][48] British National Health
Service,[49] British Nutrition
Foundation,[50][51] and Dietitians of
Canada.[52]

Marketing of coconut oil has created the

inaccurate belief that it is a "healthy food".
Instead, studies have found that coconut
oil consumption has health effects similar
to those of other unhealthy fats, including
butter, beef fat and palm oil.[53] Coconut
oil contains a high amount of lauric acid, a
saturated fat that raises total blood
cholesterol levels by increasing both the
amount of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein
(LDL) cholesterol.[54] Although lauric acid
consumption may create a more favorable
total blood cholesterol profile, this does
not exclude the possibility that persistent
consumption of coconut oil may actually
increase the risk of cardiovascular disease
through other mechanisms, particularly via
the marked increase in total blood
cholesterol induced by lauric acid.[54][55]
Because the majority of saturated fat in
coconut oil is lauric acid,[54][55] coconut oil
may be preferred over partially
hydrogenated vegetable oil when solid fats
are used in the diet.[56] However, the
weight of evidence to date indicates that
consuming polyunsaturated fats instead
of coconut oil would reduce the risk of
cardiovascular diseases.[54] Due to its high
content of saturated fat with
corresponding high caloric burden, regular
use of coconut oil in food preparation may
promote weight gain.[51]

Uses
 Coconut oil

Nutritional value per 100 g

Energy 3,730 kJ (890 kcal)

Fat 99 g
Saturated 82.5 g
Monounsaturated 6.3 g
Polyunsaturated 1.7 g

Vitamins Quantity %DV†

Vitamin E 0.11 mg 1%
Vitamin K 0.6 μg 1%

Minerals Quantity %DV†

Iron 0.05 mg 0%

Other constituents Quantity

phytosterols 86 mg

Full link to USDA National Nutrient Database

Units
 μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†Percentages are roughly approximated using

US recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Nutrition and fat composition

Coconut oil is 99% fat, composed mainly

of saturated fats (82% of total; table). In a
100 gram reference amount, coconut oil
supplies 890 Calories. Half of the
saturated fat content of coconut oil is
lauric acid (41.8 grams per 100 grams of
total composition), while other significant
saturated fats are myristic acid (16.7
grams), palmitic acid (8.6 grams), and
caprylic acid (6.8 grams).[57]
Monounsaturated fats are 6% of total
composition, and polyunsaturated fats are
2% (table). Coconut oil contains
phytosterols, whereas there are no
micronutrients in significant content
(table).

In food

Solidified "coconut fat"

Despite its high saturated fat content,
coconut oil is commonly used in baked
goods, pastries, and sautés, having a nut-
like quality with some sweetness.[58] Used
by movie theatre chains to pop popcorn,
coconut oil adds considerable saturated
fat and calories to the snackfood while
enhancing flavor, possibly a factor
increasing further consumption of high-
calorie snackfoods, energy balance, and
weight gain.[51][58][59]

Other culinary uses include replacing solid

fats produced through hydrogenation in
baked and confectionery goods.[56]
Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated
coconut oil is often used in non-dairy
creamers and snack foods. In frying, the
smoke point of coconut oil is 177 °C
(351 °F).

Hair

Coconut oil has been used for hair

grooming, and has been found to reduce
protein loss in hair.[60]

Industry

Coconut oil has been tested for use as a

feedstock for biodiesel to use as a diesel
engine fuel. In this manner, it can be
applied to power generators and transport
using diesel engines. Since straight
coconut oil has a high gelling temperature
(22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a
minimum combustion chamber
temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) (to avoid
polymerization of the fuel), coconut oil
typically is transesterified to make
biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is
possible only in temperate climates, as the
gel point is approximately 10 °C (50 °F).
The oil must meet the Weihenstephan
standard[61] to use pure vegetable oil as a
fuel. Moderate to severe damage from
carbonisation and clogging would occur in
an unmodified engine.
Homemade coconut oil

The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and

several other tropical island countries use
coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to
run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to
power generators.[62] Biodiesel fuel
derived from coconut oil is currently used
as a fuel for transport in the
Philippines.[63][64] Further research into the
potential of coconut oil as a fuel for
electricity generation is being carried out
in the islands of the Pacific, although to
date it appears that it is not useful as a
fuel source due to the cost of labour and
supply constraints.[65]

Coconut oil has been tested for use as an

engine lubricant[66] and as a transformer
oil.[67] Coconut oil (and derivatives, such
as coconut fatty acid) are used as raw
materials in the manufacture of
surfactants such as cocamidopropyl
betaine, cocamide MEA, and cocamide
DEA.

Acids derived from coconut oil can be

used as herbicides.[68] Before the advent
of electrical lighting, coconut oil was the
primary oil used for illumination in India
and was exported as cochin oil.[69]

Coconut oil is an important base

ingredient for the manufacture of soap.
Soap made with coconut oil tends to be
hard, though it retains more water than
soap made with other oils and therefore
increases manufacturer yields. It is more
soluble in hard water and salt water than
other soaps allowing it to lather more
easily.[70] A basic coconut oil soap is clear
when melted and a bright white when
hardened.[71]
See also
Saturated fat and cardiovascular
disease
KERAFED

References
1. "Coconut oil" . Transport Information
Service, German Insurance
Association, Berlin. 2015.
2. Grimwood, BE; Ashman F; Dendy DAV;
Jarman CG; Little ECS; Timmins WH
(1975). Coconut Palm Products –
Their processing in developing
countries . Rome: FAO. pp. 49–56.
ISBN 978-92-5-100853-9.
3. Grimwood et al., 1975, pp. 193–210 .
4. Grimwood et al., 1975, p. 29 .
5. Kurian; Peter KV (2007). Commercial
Crops Technology: Vol.08. Horticulture
Science Series . New India Publishing.
pp. 202–6. ISBN 978-81-89422-52-3.
6. Bourke, RM; Harwood T (2009). Food
and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea .
Australian National University. p. 327.
ISBN 978-1-921536-60-1.
7. Foale, M. (2003). "The Coconut
Odyssey: The Bounteous Possibilities
of the Tree of Life" (PDF). Canberra:
Australian Centre for International
Agricultural Research. pp. 115–116.
Archived from the original (PDF) on
2017-07-21. Retrieved 2011-02-06.
8. McGlone OC, Canales A, Carter JV
(1986). "Coconut oil extraction by a
new enzymatic process". J Food Sci.
51 (3): 695–697. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2621.1986.tb13914.x .
 9. Foster, R., Williamson, C.S. and Lunn,
J. (2009). "BRIEFING PAPER: Culinary
Oils And Their Health Effects".
Nutrition Bulletin. 34 (1): 4–47.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-
3010.2008.01738.x .
10. Gervajio, G. C. (2005). "Fatty Acids and
Derivatives from Coconut Oil". Bailey's
Industrial Oil and Fat Products.
doi:10.1002/047167849X.bio039 .
ISBN 978-0471678496.
11. Emil Raymond Riegel; James Albert
Kent (2003). Riegel's Handbook of
Industrial Chemistry . Springer.
pp. 1100–1117. ISBN 978-0-306-
47411-8. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
12. "Table 19: World: Palm Oil, Coconut Oil,
and Fish Meal Supply and
Distribution" (PDF). United States
Department of Agriculture. 2011-04-
08. Retrieved 2011-04-14.
13. "Codex Standard for Named Vegetable
Oils (Codex Stan 210-1999, Revision
3)" (PDF). Codex Alimentarius. Food
and Agriculture Organization. 2009.
Retrieved 2011-08-09.
14. "About us" . Asian and Pacific Coconut
Community. Archived from the
original on 2011-08-29. Retrieved
2011-08-09.
15. "APCC Standards for Virgin Coconut
Oil" (PDF). Jakarta, Indonesia: Asian
and Pacific Coconut Community.
2003. Archived from the original (PDF)
on 2011-08-12. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
16. "US National Nutrient Database,
Release 28" . United States
Department of Agriculture. May 2016.
All values in this column are from the
USDA Nutrient database unless
otherwise cited.
17. "Fats and fatty acids contents per 100
g (click for "more details") example:
avocado oil; user can search for other
oils" . Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast
for the USDA National Nutrient
Database, Standard Release 21. 2014.
Retrieved 7 September 2017. Values
from Nutritiondata.com (SR 21) may
need to be reconciled with most recent
release from the USDA SR 28 as of
Sept 2017.
18. "Avocado oil, fat composition, 100 g" .
US National Nutrient Database,
Release 28, United States Department
of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved
6 September 2017.
19. What is unrefined, extra virgin cold-
pressed avocado oil? , The American
Oil Chemists’ Society
20. "Brazil nut oil, fat composition, 100 g" .
US National Nutrient Database,
Release 28, United States Department
of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved
6 September 2017.
21. Katragadda, H. R.; Fullana, A. S.; Sidhu,
S.; Carbonell-Barrachina, Á. A. (2010).
"Emissions of volatile aldehydes from
heated cooking oils" . Food Chemistry.
120: 59.
doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.070 .
22. "Canola oil, fat composition, 100 g" .
US National Nutrient Database,
Release 28, United States Department
of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved
6 September 2017.
23. "Coconut oil, fat composition, 100 g" .
US National Nutrient Database,
Release 28, United States Department
of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved
6 September 2017.
24. "Corn oil, industrial and retail, all
purpose salad or cooking, fat
composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
25. Wolke, Robert L. (May 16, 2007).
"Where There's Smoke, There's a
Fryer" . The Washington Post.
Retrieved March 5, 2011.
26. "Cottonseed oil, salad or cooking, fat
composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
27. "Linseed/Flaxseed oil, cold pressed,
fat composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
28. Garavaglia J, Markoski MM, Oliveira A,
Marcadenti A (2016). "Grape Seed Oil
Compounds: Biological and Chemical
Actions for Health" . Nutr Metab
Insights. 9: 59–64.
doi:10.4137/NMI.S32910 .
PMC 4988453 . PMID 27559299 .
29. "Efficacy of dietary hempseed oil in
patients with atopic dermatitis" .
Journal of Dermatological Treatment.
2005. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
30. https://www.veghealth.com/nutrition-
tables/Smoke-Points-of-Oils-table.pdf
31. "Olive oil, salad or cooking, fat
composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
32. "Palm oil, fat composition, 100 g" . US
National Nutrient Database, Release
28, United States Department of
Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved
6 September 2017.
33. Vegetable Oils in Food Technology
(2011), p. 61.
34. "Safflower oil, salad or cooking, high
oleic, primary commerce, fat
composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
35. "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, fat
composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
36. "Sunflower oil, 65% linoleic, fat
composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 15 November 2018.
37. "Sunflower oil, less than 60% of total
fats as linoleic acid, fat composition,
100 g" . US National Nutrient
Database, Release 28, United States
Department of Agriculture. May 2016.
Retrieved 6 September 2017.
38. "Sunflower oil, high oleic - 70% or more
as oleic acid, fat composition, 100 g" .
US National Nutrient Database,
Release 28, United States Department
of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved
6 September 2017.
39. "Smoke Point of Oils" . Baseline of
Health. Jonbarron.org. 2012-04-17.
Retrieved 2016-05-28.
40. "Cottonseed oil, industrial, fully
hydrogenated, fat composition, 100
g" . US National Nutrient Database,
Release 28, United States Department
of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved
6 September 2017.
41. "Palm oil, industrial, fully
hydrogenated, filling fat, fat
composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
42. "Soybean oil, salad or cooking,
(partially hydrogenated), fat
composition, 100 g" . US National
Nutrient Database, Release 28, United
States Department of Agriculture. May
2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
43. "Around the Block Nutrition Facts at a
Glance: More on Nutrients to Get Less
Of" . Food and Drug Administration.
2012-09-05. Archived from the
original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved
2014-01-25.
44. "Avoiding Heart Attacks and Strokes"
(PDF). World Health Organization.
Retrieved 2011-04-06.
45. "Dietary Guidelines for Americans
2010" (PDF). Department of Health
and Human Services. Retrieved
17 March 2011.
46. "American Dietetic Association and
Dietitians of Canada Offer Up-to-Date
Guidance on Dietary Fat" . American
Dietetic Association. Archived from
the original on 2012-03-19. Retrieved
2011-03-16.
47. "Tropical Oils" . American Heart
Association. Archived from the
original on 2011-06-02. Retrieved
2011-03-16.
48. Sacks, Frank M.; Lichtenstein, Alice H.;
Wu, Jason H.Y.; Appel, Lawrence J.;
Creager, Mark A.; Kris-Etherton, Penny
M.; Miller, Michael; Rimm, Eric B.;
Rudel, Lawrence L.; Robinson, Jennifer
G.; Stone, Neil J.; Van Horn, Linda V.
(2017). "Dietary Fats and
Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential
Advisory from the American Heart
Association" (PDF). Circulation. 136
(3): e1–e23.
doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510 .
PMID 28620111 .
Media summary: "Coconut oil 'as
unhealthy as beef fat and butter' " .
 BBC News. June 16, 2017. Retrieved
June 18, 2017.
49. "Lower your cholesterol" . National
Health Service. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
50. Foster R, Williamson CS, Lunn J
(2009). "Culinary oils and their health
effects" (PDF). British Nutrition
Foundation, Nutrition Bulletin. 34: 4–
47. doi:10.1111/j.1467-
3010.2008.01738.x .
51. Lockyer S, Stanner S (2016). "Coconut
oil – a nutty idea?". Nutrition Bulletin.
41 (1): 42–54.
doi:10.1111/nbu.12188 .
52. "Heart Healthy Eating: Cholesterol" .
Dietitians of Canada. 2010-09-01.
Archived from the original on 2013-
09-21. Retrieved 2013-07-05.
53. Sacks, Frank M.; Lichtenstein, Alice H.;
Wu, Jason H.Y.; Appel, Lawrence J.;
Creager, Mark A.; Kris-Etherton, Penny
M.; Miller, Michael; Rimm, Eric B.;
Rudel, Lawrence L.; Robinson, Jennifer
G.; Stone, Neil J.; Van Horn, Linda V.;
American Heart Association (2017).
"Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular
Disease: A Presidential Advisory from
the American Heart Association".
Circulation. 136 (3): e1–e23.
doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510 .
PMID 28620111 .
54. Eyres, L; Eyres, MF; Chisholm, A;
Brown, RC (April 2016). "Coconut oil
consumption and cardiovascular risk
factors in humans" . Nutrition
Reviews. 74 (4): 267–80.
doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuw002 .
PMC 4892314 . PMID 26946252 .
55. Mensink RP, Zock PL, Kester AD, Katan
MB (May 2003). "Effects of dietary
fatty acids and carbohydrates on the
ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol
and on serum lipids and
apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60
controlled trials" (PDF). Am J Clin
Nutr. 77 (5): 1146–55.
doi:10.1093/ajcn/77.5.1146 .
PMID 12716665 .
56. Tarrago-Trani, MT; Phillips, KM; Lemar,
LE; Holden, JM (2006). "New and
existing oils and fats used in products
with reduced trans-fatty acid content"
(PDF). Journal of the American Dietetic
Association. 106 (6): 867–880.
doi:10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010 .
PMID 16720128 .
57. "Coconut oil; Nutrient content per 100
g" . USDA National Nutrient Database,
Standard Release 28. May 2016.
Retrieved 1 September 2017.
58. Clark, M (2011-03-01). "Once a Villain,
Coconut Oil Charms the Health Food
World" . The New York Times.
Retrieved 2011-03-02.
59. "Two Thumbs Down' for Movie Theater
Popcorn" . Center for Science in the
Public Interest. 2009-11-18. Retrieved
2011-04-24.
60. Gavazzoni Dias, Maria Fernanda Reis
(2015). "Hair Cosmetics: An
Overview" . International Journal of
Trichology. 7 (1): 2–15.
doi:10.4103/0974-7753.153450 .
ISSN 0974-7753 . PMC 4387693 .
PMID 25878443 .
61. "Weihenstephan vegetable oil fuel
standard (German Rapeseed Fuel
Standard)" . Retrieved 2011-08-09.
62. "In Vanuatu, A Proving Ground for
Coconut Oil As An Alternative Fuel" .
One Country. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
63. "Coconut fuel" . The World. Public
Radio International. Retrieved
2011-08-09.
64. Watson, Todd (1 August 2013).
"Coconut biodiesel drives the
Philippines" . Inside Investor. Retrieved
11 August 2013.
65. Koo, Sung Mo (July 6, 2018). "Coconut
Oil : Spotlight Fades Away" . Tridge.
Retrieved July 6, 2018.
66. Romares-Sevilla, J (2008-01-17).
"Davao-based firm sees expansion of
bio-tech oil market" . Sun.Star
Superbalita Davao. Archived from the
original on 2008-01-21. Retrieved
2008-07-14.
67. DC, Abeysundara; Weerakoon, C;
Lucas, JR; Gunatunga, KAI; Obadagee,
KC (2001). "Coconut Oil As An
Alternative To Transformer Oil" (PDF).
ERU Symposium.
68. James, TK; Rahman A (2005). "Efficacy
of several organic herbicides and
glyphosate formulations under
simulated rainfall" (PDF). New
Zealand Plant Protection. 58: 157–
163.
69. Brady, GS; Clauser, HR; Vaccari, JA
(2002). Materials Handbook – An
encyclopedia for managers, technical
professionals, purchasing and
production managers, technicians, and
supervisors (15 ed.). McGraw-Hill.
pp. 250–251. ISBN 978-0-07-136076-
0.
70. Alsberg, CL; Taylor AE (1928). The Fats
and Oils – A General Overview (Fats
and Oils Studies No. 1). Stanford
University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-
8047-0330-7.
71. Browning, M (2003). 300 Handcrafted
Soaps – Great Melt & Pour Projects .
Sterling Publishing. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-
4027-0797-1.

Further reading
Adkins SW; Foale M; Samosir YMS, eds.
(2006). Coconut revival – new
possibilities for the 'tree of life'.
Proceedings of the International Coconut
Forum, 22–24 November 2005 (PDF).
 Cairns, Australia: ACIAR Proceedings.
ISBN 978-1-86320-515-3. Archived from
the original (PDF) on 15 April 2016.
Retrieved 13 March 2011.
Salunkhe, D.K., J.K. Chavan, R.N. Adsule,
and S.S. Kadam. (1992). World Oilseeds:
Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization.
Springer. ISBN 978-0-442-00112-4.

External links
Media related to Coconut oil at
Wikimedia Commons

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Coconut_oil&oldid=923419349"

Last edited 14 days ago by K6ka

Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless

otherwise noted.