Behnam Arkan-Compressor Training Course

COMPRESSORS
Presented by:
Behnam Arkan
MSc in Mechanical Engineering, Senior Machinery Engineer
More than 6 years experience in oil and gas industry
Prepared by: irrotary technical team
(Behnam Arkan- Mohammadreza Tahan)

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Behnam Arkan-Mohammadreza Tahan
Chapter 1
Application

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Compressed Air
Instrument Air
 Clean and dry
 Runs a normal maximum of 20 psig at the drop, since the typical

pneumatic instrument is looking for 3-15 psig.
 A system may utilize instrument air for various types of

pneumatic equipment, valves & electrical controls.
Plant Air
 60 to 150 psig
 usually has considerable condensate and sometimes particulate.

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Refrigeration package

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Natural Gas Industry-Pipelines
Boosting the pressure of natural gas for transport.
Gas recompression unit- Gas transport line
4 sets of gas turbine driven compressor
(19 MW and 20 Milion m3/hr)

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Gas Injection

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Gas Injection

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Natural Gas Industry-Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Production
Compressor Application

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Leading manufacturer of reciprocating compressors
Swiss company
Irish-American company
American-Germany
German company
International (Scotland) company
Japanese company

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Leading manufacturer of rotary screw compressors
International (Scotland) company
German company
Italian company
Swedish company
Irish-American company
English company

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Leading manufacturer of centrifugal compressors
German company
German company
American company
Japanese company

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Chapter 2
Compressors Classification

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Compressor Function

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Compressor Types

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Intermittent mode compressors- Reciprocating
Main Features:
 The reciprocating compressor is probably the best known and the most widely
used of all compressors
 The displacing action of the piston, together with the inlet valve or valves, causes a
quantity of gas to enter the cylinder where it is in turn compressed and discharged.
Single Acting or Double Acting:

 The compressor is double-acting when compression takes place on each side of the
piston.

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Intermittent mode compressors- Reciprocating
Double Acting Compressor
Trunk Type or Single Acting Comp.

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Intermittent mode Compressors - Rotary Compressors
Main Features:
1. They impart energy to the gas being compressed by way of an input shaft moving a
single or multiple rotating element.
2. They perform the compression in an intermittent mode.
3. They do not use inlet and discharge valves.
Screw compressors Straight Lobe Vane Compressors

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Rotary Compressors –helical lobe or screw type
The helical-lobe compressor is the most sophisticated and versatile of the rotary
compressor group.
Dry or Flooded:
The dry form uses timing gears to hold a prescribed timing to the relative motion of the
rotors. The flooded form uses a liquid media to keep the rotors from touching.
Oil Injected
Oil Injected Prepared by: irrotary technical team

Oil Free
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Rotary Compressors-Straight lobe
The straight-lobe compressor is similar to the helical-lobe
machine but much less sophisticated.
 Normally, each rotor pair has a two-lobe rotor configuration,
although a three-lobe version is available.
 All versions of the straight-lobe compressor use timing gears
to phase the rotors.

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Rotary Compressors – Sliding Vane
Main Features:
 The sliding-vane compressor uses a

single rotating element.
 The rotor is mounted eccentric to the
center of the cylinder portion of the
casing and is slotted and fitted with
vanes.
 The vanes are free to move in and out
within the slots as the rotor revolves.
 Gas is trapped between a pair of vanes
as the vanes cross the inlet port. Gas is
moved and compressed
circumferentially as the vane pair moves
toward the discharge port.

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Sliding Vane Compressor- Rotor

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Continuous Flow - Ejectors
Main Features:
 The ejector can first be identified as having no moving parts.

 It is used primarily for that feature as it is not as efficient as most of the
mechanical compressors. Simplicity and the lack of wearing parts cause low
maintenance expenses.
 Air and steam are probably the two most common of the motive gases.
 The ejector uses a nozzle to accelerate the motive gas into the suction chamber.
 The mixture moves into a diffuser where the high velocity gas is gradually
decelerated and increased in pressure.
 The ejector is widely used as a vacuum pump, where it is staged when required to
achieve deeper vacuum levels.

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Continuous Flow - Dynamic Compressors
Main Features:
 In dynamic compressors, energy is transferred from a moving set of

blades to the gas.
 The energy takes the form of velocity and pressure in the rotating
element, with further pressure conversion taking place in the stationary
elements.
 Because of the dynamic nature of these compressors, the density and
molecular weight have an influence on the amount of pressure the
compressor can generate.
 The dynamic compressors are further subdivided into three categories,
based primarily on the direction of flow through the machine. These are
radial, axial, and mixed flow.

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Continuous Flow - Dynamic Compressors
The radial-flow, or centrifugal compressor is a widely used
compressor and is probably second only to the reciprocating
compressor in usage in the process industries.
The mixed-flow compressor is a relatively uncommon form.
Axial compressors are large-volume compressors.
Centrifugal Compressor Axial Compressor

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Dynamic Compressors-Single Stage Centrifugal Compressor

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Dynamic Compressors-Multi Stage Centrifugal Compressor
Centrifugal Compressor

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Dynamic Compressors-Centrifugal Compressor Rotor

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Dynamic Compressors-Centrifugal Compressor
High Speed
Integrally Geared Compressor
Single Stage
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Dynamic Compressors-Centrifugal Compressor
High Speed
Integrally Geared Compressor
Multi Stage

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Dynamic Compressors-Axial Compressor

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Dynamic Compressors-Combined Axial-Centrifugal Compressor
Combined axial-centrifugal compressor

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Dynamic Compressors-Application
Compressor Type Typical Applications
Centrifugal single stage Air blower, recycle
Centrifugal single stage

Low flow , medium to high molecular weight
Integrally geared
Centrifugal multi stage side

Propane, propylene, ethylene, Freon, mixed gas, refrigeration
load
Centrifugal multi stage Plant and instrument air, process applications needs proven field
integral gear experience
Axial compressor FFC blower, MTBE effluent, Gas turbine air

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General Performance Curves

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Typical Compressors Operating Region

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Chapter 3
Theory of compressors

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Pressure
1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

1 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 105 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃.
1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 14.7 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 14.5 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

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Temperature
Molecules move more rapidly the higher the temperature, and
movement completely ceases at a temperature of absolute zero.
T = t + 460
T = absolute temperature R
t = fahrenheit temperature (F)

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Thermal Capacity
The specific heat of a substance is

more commonly used, and refers to the
quantity of heat required to produce a
unit change of temperature (1K) in a
unit mass of substance (1 kg).
For liquids and solid substances

Cp ≈ Cv≈ C. To heat a mass flow (m)
from temperature T1 to T2 will then
require:

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Isentropic Exponent
The ratio between Cp and Cv is called the isentropic exponent

or adiabatic exponent, К, and is a function of the number of
atoms in the molecules of the substance.

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Work & Power
• The SI unit for work is the Joule: 1 J = 1Nm

• The SI unit for power is the Watt: 1 W = 1 J/s.

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Gas laws
The value n mw R is same for all

gases and is named Universal
Gas Constant (UGC).
In many sources, UGC is shown

as 𝑅𝑅�.
kJ
� = 8.314
R
kmol. K

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Gas laws (con.)
Another useful relationship:
I divide both sides by t, V becomes volumetric flow rate Q.

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Compressibility
In gas laws, a term (𝑧𝑧) may be added to correct it for deviation
from the ideal gas:

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Generalized Compressibility Chart

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Gas mixture

Behnam Arkan-Mohammadreza Tahan 45
Specific Gravity
The ratio of density of given gas to density of air
Air humidity
Relative Humidity (RH). Is a ratio, expressed in percent, of the amount of
atmospheric moisture present relative to the amount that would be present if the
air were saturated.
Specific humidity definition, the ratio of the mass of water vapor in air to the total
mass of the mixture of air and water vapor.

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Psychrometric charts

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Flowrate
 The volume of compressed air delivered by an air compressor at its discharge
pressure normally is stated in terms of prevailing atmospheric inlet conditions
(acfm).
 The corresponding flow rate in Standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) is
measured at 14.5 psi (1 bar,) 68˚F (20˚C) and 0% relative humidity. MMscfd is
also million standard cubic feet per day.

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Isochoric Compression
Isochoric change of state means that the pressure changes, while
the volume is constant.

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Isobaric Process
Isobaric change of state means that the volume changes, while the
pressure is constant.

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Isothermal Process
Isothermal change of state means that the pressure and volume are
changed while the temperature remains constant.

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Isentropic Process
 An isentropic process exists if a gas is compressed in a fully-insulated
cylinder without any heat exchange with the surroundings.
 It may also exist if a gas is expanded through a nozzle so quickly that no

heat exchange with the surroundings has time to occur.

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Polytropic process
 The isothermal process involves full heat exchange with the
surroundings and the isotropic process involves no heat exchange
whatsoever.
 In reality, all processes occur somewhere in between these extreme: the
polytropic process.
 The relation for such a process is:

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Compression in Several Stages
At an effective working pressure of 7 bar, isentropic compression theoretically

requires 37% higher energy than isothermal compression.
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Chapter 4
Reciprocating
Compressors

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Reciprocating Compressors Classification
Double Acting
Single Acting
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Cross Head Type
Trunk Type
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Oil Free Compressor
Lubricated Compressor
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Single Stage or Multistage
 When a single cylinder is used or when multiple cylinders on a common
frame are connected in parallel, the arrangement is referred to as a single-
stage compressor.
 When multiple cylinders on a common frame are connected in series, usually
through cooler, the arrangement is referred to as a multistage compressor.

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Compressor Cylinder Arrangement

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Compressor Cylinder Arrangement

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Reciprocating Compressors Application
 The most common application of piston-type compressors in the oilfield are those
of compressing gas prior to its entry into a pipeline and supplying high pressure
gas to a gas lift system.
 Instrument air compressors are also a common application of piston- type

compressors. These units often are the one-stroke types; they pump gas on the
outboard stroke only.
 Another frequent use of piston- type compressors is that of refrigeration service in

a gas processing plant. In this application, a refrigerant- usually propane or Freon-
is the gas compressed in the unit.
 In gas process plants, compressor cylinders on the same frame may be in entirely
different services. For example, a four cylinder machine may use two cylinders in
refrigeration service, a third cylinder compressing ethane for delivery into a
pipeline and the forth cylinder compressing process gas which enters other
equipment in the plant.
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Reciprocating Compressor Parts
There are six principal parts in a piston-type compressor cylinder:
A. Piston
B. Rod
C. Cylinder
D. Valves
E. Packing
F. Miscellaneous parts

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Crosshead Type Reciprocating Compressor

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Cross Head Type Reciprocating Compressor
Please see the attached file for more information

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Piston
Material: cast iron, aluminum, or forged steel, depending upon the size and operating
pressure.
Sealing:
• The piston has grooves or lands, which contain rings to seal pressure on one end of the
piston from the other.
• The rings can be single piece, or in 2 or 3 piece segments.
• An expander spring is sometimes installed behind them to push them against the
cylinder.
• The rings may be made of cast iron, brass, Teflon, carbon, or a variety of plastic
materials.
• The type of ring will depend upon the type and/or corrosiveness of the gas, and the
pressure difference from one side of the piston to the other.
Number of piston rings: Depend on pressure difference.
Attachment to rod: The piston is attached to the rod. It slips onto the rod until it butts
against a shoulder, which is machined on the rod. It is held on the rod by a bolt, or series of
bolts, as shown in the drawing.
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Piston

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Piston Rod
The piston rod is attached to the piston on one end, and the other end screws
into a crosshead, which is attached to the driver with a connecting rod.
Material: Steel or steel alloy, depending upon the pressure and the
corrosiveness of the gas. The section of the rod, which travels through the
packing often, is lined or coated with a hardened material to reduce wear at
that point.
Size of rod:
 If the diameter is too small, the rod may buckle during the outboard stroke,
or pull apart during the inboard stoke.
 The volume of the piston rod reduces the capacity of the compressor.
Consequently, a large rod reduces the volume of gas that the compressor
can handle.

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Piston Rod in Crosshead Type

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Piston Rod in Trunk Type

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Cylinder
The compressor cylinder is machined
to close tolerances, so that the piston
will not scrape it during its stroke.
Material:
 Cylinders operating at a pressure
below 7000 kPa [1,015 psi] are
often made of cast iron.
 Higher-pressure cylinders normally
are made of steel.
 Quite often a liner is inserted in the
cylinder, particularly if the gas is
corrosive. The liner can be replaced
rather easily if it corrodes or wears.
This prevents replacement of the
entire cylinder.
 The cylinder usually has passages
for cooling water to flow.

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Valves
 Compressor valves are the most critical part of a compressor; they generally
require the most maintenance of any part.
 They are sensitive both to liquids and solids in the gas stream, causing plate
and spring breakages.
 Compressor valves are a form of check valve.
 Suction and discharge valves are usually of the same type.
 Valve material usually is alloy steel

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Channel Valves

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Channel Valves

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Ring Valves

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Ring Valves

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Ring Valves

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Plate Valves

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Poppet Valves

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Packing
 The packing is used to seal the pressure inside the cylinder from pressure outside usually
atmospheric.
 The packing is contained in a packing cage or gland.
 The cage is made up of a series of cups. Each cup contains segmented packing rings.
 The packing material is usually the same as that used for piston rings – cast iron, brass,
Teflon, carbon, or a plastic material.
 The number of packing rings will depend upon the pressure difference between that
inside the cylinder and outside. More rings will be required for high-pressure
compressors.
 The packing continuously rubs against the rod. This
creates friction and heat. Lubricant is usually forced
into the packing to minimize this friction. In some
applications, water flows around the packing cage to
prevent it from overheating. The packing is mounted
on the crank end of the cylinder.

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Packing

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Packing

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Crosshead and Connecting Rod
The compressor piston rod attaches to one end of the crosshead. The
connecting rod is also attached to the crosshead and to the drive shaft.
The function of the crosshead and connecting rod is to convert circular

motion at the drive shaft into horizontal motion at the piston rod and
piston.
A variable length or double distance piece is used to keep crankcase

lubrication from being exposed to the process gas. This design has
obvious advantages for hazardous material.
The crosshead actually is a moving bearing. The upper and lower plates
or “shoes” are made of bearing material – usually babbitt.
The crosshead is lubricated by the same lubricating system that

supplies the crankshaft. This is a separate system from the compressor
cylinder lubrication system.
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Crosshead and Connecting Rod

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Crosshead

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Connecting Rod

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Compressor Frame
 The compressor cylinder can be mounted on a frame, or mounted directly
to an engine. When it is mounted on an engine, the drive shaft is an
integral part of the engine. When compressor cylinders are mounted on a
frame, the frame is part of the compressor unit.
 Frames come in a variety of sizes and power ratings. They vary from a low
power single cylinder type to ten cylinder frames in excess of 10 000 Kw
[15,000 hp].
 The crankshaft fits in the center of the frame. It is supported with bearing
on each end and at each throw.
 The bottom of the frame is an oil reservoir.
An oil pump usually is located on the
outboard end of the frame and is driven by
chain or gears from the crankshaft. The oil
pump circulates oil through each bearing
and crosshead.

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Performance of reciprocating compressors
 Compression – position 1
 Discharge valve opens- position 2
 End of compression stroke- position 3

 Suction valve opens- position 4

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Cylinder Displacement
There are Three options, which can be covered by three equations.
1- For a single-acting cylinder compressing at the outer end of the cylinder.

𝜋𝜋𝐷𝐷2
Pd = 𝑆𝑆𝑡𝑡 × 𝑁𝑁 ×
4
2- For a double-acting cylinder without a tail rod,

𝜋𝜋 2𝐷𝐷2 − 𝑑𝑑 2
4
3- For a double-acting cylinder with a tail rod,

2𝜋𝜋 𝐷𝐷2 − 𝑑𝑑 2
4

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Clearance
This space is called clearance. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the
total cylinder displacement, that is 2%, 4%, etc.
Clearance is a loss of compressor capacity, so it is usually less than 5% of

compressor displacement.

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Volumetric Efficiency
Volumetric efficiency depends on clearance and compression ratio across
the cylinder. It also depends on gas leakage from defective valves or from
worn piston rings.
Term L is added at the end to allow for gas slippage past the piston rings in the
various types of construction. If, in the course of making an estimate, a specific
value is desired, use .03 for lubricated compressors and .07 for no lubricated
machines. These are approximations, and the exact value may vary by as much as
an additional .02 to .03.
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Piston speed
 The piston speed can be calculated from below formula:
 The manufacturer like to keep the speed up to keep the size of the compressor
down, while the user would like to keep the speed down for reliability
purposes.
 An obvious reason to limit the speed is maintenance expenses.
 For horizontal compressors with lubricated cylinders, use 700 feet per minute
(fpm) and for non-lubricated cylinders use 600 fpm. For vertical compressors
with lubricated cylinders, use 800 fpm and for non-lubricated cylinders use 700
fpm.
 Another factor to consider is the compressor rotation speed relative to valve

wear. The lower the speed, the fewer the valve cycles, which contribute to
longer valve life. A desirable speed range is 300 to 600 rpm.
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Compression cycle
 Scrubber is provided on the inlet line to remove liquid and solid materials from
the gas.
 The compressed gas leaving the compressor is usually hot, and normally requires
cooling before continuing on its normal flow path. The cooler can be an aerial
type as shown on the drawing, or it can be a water-cooled exchanger.
 In either case, some hydrocarbon and water usually condense from the gas as it
is cooled. Consequently, a separator is required to remove liquid that condenses
in the cooler.
Double stage compression Single stage compressing

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Flow control in reciprocating compressors
The reciprocating compressor is a fixed displacement compressor in its
basic configuration; however, several methods are used to overcome this
limitation to permit running at multiple operating points.
 Capacity control using speed variation
 Capacity control using by-pass valve
 Capacity control using clearance pockets
 Capacity control using suction valve unloading

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Speed Control
 Adjusting the speed of the driver (and compressor cylinder) is the
preferred method of controlling suction pressure for 2 reasons:
1. The driver will operate at the lowest speed, so it will consume the
least fuel.
2. Less maintenance of the driver and compressor cylinders will be
required at lower operating speeds.
 The operating speed range of most drivers is 70-110% of rated speed.

This is the maximum speed control range available. If the volume of
gas is less than 70% of the compressor capacity, speed control alone
will not provide the ideal operating point.

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Capacity control using by-pass valve
 Of all available capacity control methods, this is the one with the worst
energy efficiency.
 The basic principle is to spill back any excess gas from the discharge side of a
compressor to the suction side via an intercooler and a control valve.
 The energy used to compress this excess gas is completely wasted.
 This method is normally used when for some reason other more energy
efficient methods cannot be applied.

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Capacity Control with Clearance Pockets
 Control of the pocket addition is by either a manual valve or by a remotely
operated valve. If multiple pockets are used, a step unloading system can be
designed.
 Clearance pockets are normally attached to the outboard head.
 Clearance pockets can be operated by hand, or they can be equipped with
actuators that open or close automatically from a suction pressure controller.

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Capacity Control with Clearance Pockets

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Capacity Control With Valve Unloaders
• A suction valve unloader operates by depressing the valve feathers or
plates to hold the valve open during both suction and compression strokes.
• The unloader can be operated either manually or by remote automatic
means.
• Capacity control options:
• In single acting single stage compressors, the control capacity is 0-
100%.
• In double acting single stage compressors, the control capacity is 0-50-
100%.
• In multistage compressors, different scenarios could be defined.
Valve lifters are most frequently used on
instrument air compressors to allow the
compressor to run in a non-compressing
mode rather than shut it down, and then
restart it a few minutes later when the
demand for air is present. Frequent starting
and stopping the unit can cause mechanical
failures. Prepared by: irrotary technical team
99
Chapter 4
Helical Screw Compressors

100
General
● The term rotary describes a class of compressors which operate on the
positive displacement principle and employ a predominately rotary
motion.
● They are limited to relatively low discharge pressures and low power
levels.
● Some types have distinctly lower maintenance requirements than
reciprocating compressors.
● API Std. 619 covers the technical requirements for this type of
compressor.

101
Operating principals
● A Power is applied to the male rotor and as a lobe of the male rotor
starts to move out of mesh with the female rotor a void is created and
gas is taken in at the inlet port.
● B As the rotor continues to turn, the intermesh space is increased and
gas compressor until the entire inter lobe space is filled.
● C Continued rotation brings a male lobe into the inter lobe space
compressing and moving the gas in the direction of the discharge port.

102


Basic construction
● The male and female rotors operate the process gas.
● The compressor inlet gas volume handling capability and compression

ratio are determined by rotor length, helix angle of the lobes, and the
location and shape of the discharge port.
● Each rotor is supported by two radial bearings, and a thrust bearing is

provided for each rotor.
● Four shaft seals, two per rotor, are required to prevent compressed gas
leakage to atmosphere.(in oil free type)

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Basic construction

106
Oil free screw compressor
● The oil free (dry) high-pressure screw compressor compresses gas without
lubricant being added to the compression chamber.
● In order to prevent rotor contact and wear between them, in the absence of
lubricant, the male and female rotors are prevented from contacting by
timing gears.
● This necessitates that oil lubricated bearings be located outside of the
compression chamber and seals be provided at both ends of each rotor.

107
Oil free screw compressor

108
Oil lubricated screw compressor
The oil injected screw compressor has oil injected into the compression
chamber. The provision of oil injection offers the following advantages:
1. Lubrication of the rotor surfaces allows rotor surface contact and timing
gears are eliminated. The female rotor is driven through the male rotor by
direct contact of the rotor surfaces.
2. Seals between the compression chamber and bearings are eliminated. This
allows bearing positioning close to the rotor body which increases rotor
stiffness and provides a greater differential pressure capability.
3. One seal, instead of four, is used.
4. Injected oil cools the compressed gas allowing increased pressure ratios
without exceeding casing discharge temperature limits. The oil also seals
the rotor tip to casing clearance and reduces slip of the gas stream allowing
higher pressure ratios with higher efficiency.

109
Oil lubricated screw compressor

110
Oil-free versus Oil-flooded
• With timing gears, the machine is defined as a dry-screw machine.
• Oil-free machines can be used in all processes that cannot tolerate
contamination of the compressed gas or in which the lubricating oil
would be contaminated by the gas.
• Oil-flooded machines can achieve slightly higher efficiencies than “dry-
screw” machines and can utilize the oil for cooling as well.
Oil-free compressor Oil-injected compressors

111
Oil-flooded and oil-free flow chart

112
Multistage screw compressors
• A stage of compression is the compressor casing region between the gas
inlet and gas exit nozzles.
• Discharge temperature and differential pressure limitations specifies need

of multistage compression.
• For oil lubed compressors, max allowable temp is 230 °C and for oil free
175°C.
• The pressure differential is also limited since pressure differences cause rotor
bending that can result in casing contact. A differential pressure 0.7 to 7.0
bar is readily obtained in a single stage.

113

114

115

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Main parts of Screw compressor-Rotor
• The rotor is the working portion of the compressor
and is machined to both generate the helix and form
the profile.
• Some dry compressors are furnished with hollow
rotors through which cooling fluid is circulated.
• Materials of construction are steel in most
applications. The material may be either a forging or
bar stock, based on size availability.
• On dry compressors where seal strip clearance is
0.0005 to .001 inch per inch of rotor diameter at
175°C.
• Normally there are four lobes on the male rotor and
six flutes on the female rotor. Consequently the male
rotor rotates 50% faster than the female rotor.
117
Main parts of Screw compressor-Rotor
Newer asymmetric rotor profile,

Circular rotor.
improved efficiency due to a lower
leakage in the discharge area

118
Main parts of Screw compressor-Casing
• Most casings on both flooded and dry compressors are cast, normally of grey
cast iron. API 619 limits the use of cast iron by specifying steel for services in
excess of 27.5barg, discharge temperatures in excess of 260°C, and for
flammable or toxic gases.
• On dry compressors, the casing includes a water jacket. While referred to as a
cooling jacket.
• Nozzle connections and allowable forces and moments are specified by the
API standard.
• Most casings are vertically split, using end closures. On the larger dry
machines, the casing is horizontally to facilitate the removal of the heavier
rotors.

119
Main parts of Screw compressor -Timing gear
• In screw compressors of the dry type, the rotors are synchronized by
timing gears.
• The gears are housed in a chamber outboard from the drive end and are
isolated from the gas being compressed.
• The gears are of the helical type, which also help control noise.

120
Sealing system for screw compressors
• Should be provided on both the suction and discharge sides of the
machine.
• To reduce gas leakage from compression chamber, and prevent lube oil
entering the compression chamber.
• Usually several floating rings (carbon or white metal seal rings) and
labyrinth in outboard side.

121
Dry Seal System
A) For clean, harmless gases, where

the leakage gas can be vented to
atmosphere
B) For those cases where process

gases cannot be vented to
atmosphere.
C) Same as B, with an additional gas

purge.

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Wet Seal System
D) Mechanical contact seal used in

combination with dry carbon ring
seal.
E) Labyrinth seal with liquid

injection.
F) Floating white-metal seal with

liquid injection.

123
Capacity Control Methods-Slide Valve
• Slide valve releases the gas drawn into the compressor and trapped
between the rotors and casing and return it to the inlet.
• Slide valve in effect reduces the rotor length.
• The capacity control range for the slide valve is approximately 10 to 100%
of normal capacity.
• To function properly, slide valves require lubrication by very clean oil, and
hence are applicable to oil-injected compressors.

124
Capacity Control Methods-Slide Valve

125
Capacity Control Methods-Variable Speed Drive
• The most advantageous method of

achieving volume control is that
obtained by varying the speed.
• Speed may be reduced to about 50%

of the maximum permissible speed.
• When using this method the quality

of lubrication may be decrease
because of decrease in rotational
speed.

126
Flow diagram in screw compressors

127
Chapter 5
Centrifugal Compressors

128
Dynamic compressors
 A centrifugal compressor increases the gas pressure by increasing and then
decreasing the velocity of the gas inside the compressor. Compressors which increase
the gas pressure in this manner are called “dynamic” compressors. A centrifugal
compressor is one type of dynamic compressor.
 Centrifugal compressors work on exactly the same principal of centrifugal pumps

except that the fluid is compressible. This complicates the conversion from head to
pressure, because the density of the gas changes across the compressor and you will
remember that in order to convert from potential energy to pressure you must know
the density of the fluid.

129
Energy transferred to centrifugal compressors
The amount of energy transferred to the gas across a compressor, head, is

directly related to the kinetic energy provided at the rotor. Furthermore, the
amount of kinetic energy provided at the rotor is directly related to the gas
leaving the tip of the impeller.
Only two factors determine the velocity of the gas, hence, the kinetic energy.
1. The tip speed of the rotor, and
2. The volume of gas through the compressor

130
Head of centrifugal compressor
Head is the amount of energy transferred to the fluid. It is usually expressed in
meters or feet. For centrifugal compressors the head per impeller may be estimated
from Equation.
𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑢2
𝐻𝐻 = 2𝑔𝑔
Where: H = head, meters [ft]

m = head coefficient, (0.8 to 1.1)
u = tip speed m/s [ft/sec]
g = gravitational force m/s [ft/sec]
Most multistage centrifugal compressors in natural gas service operate at impeller

tip speeds between 250-300 m/s [820-980 ft/sec].

131
Outlet pressure of centrifugal compressor
Pressure rise across a centrifugal compressor is related to gas density just as
pressure rise across a centrifugal pump is related to liquid density.
Gas density is directly related to pressure and molecular weight, but inversely
related to temperature.
For a compressor operating at a fixed speed and a fixed volume (constant head)
any rise in the suction pressure or gas molecular weight will increase the pressure
rise, ∆𝑃𝑃, across the compressor. A rise in suction temperature will decrease the
pressure rise. This is a very important concept in understanding centrifugal
compressors.

132
Centrifugal compressors performance curves

133
Defining the number of impellers:
 In many cases the amount of energy required to boost the gas from suction to
discharge conditions is greater than the amount of energy that can be transferred
to the gas across one impeller.
 This is because of limitations on the impeller speed. In light, sweet natural gas
compression, the maximum tip speed of the impeller is 250-300 m/sec [820-980
ft/sec]. At higher speed the forces acting on the impeller are so high that the
impeller may fly apart !
 In sour gas service the impeller tip speed is limited to less than around 250 m/sec
[820 ft/sec] due to the possibility of stress cracking.
 For light, sweet natural gas, the maximum head per impeller is about 3000-4000
m [10 000- 13 000 ft]. This is equivalent to a compression ratio of about 1,25-
1,35: 1 for typical natural gases.
134
Important phenomenon in centrifugal compressors
 Surge is without a doubt the most important boundary in natural gas
compression, surge represents the point at which the compressor can no longer
impart enough energy to the gas to push it out of the compressor and through the
check valve in the discharge piping.
 This usually happens somewhere between 50-80% of the design flow, depending
on the number of impellers in the case and the impeller design.
 Surge is an unstable operating condition. It must be avoided, as operation of the

compressor under surge conditions can damage the compressor and the auxiliary
equipment.
 Anti-surge control is accomplished by recycling gas from the discharge side of the
compressor back into the suction in order to keep the inlet flow above surge
conditions. Surge control will be discussed in more detail later in this section.

135
 A relationship that is useful in compressor and compressor systems the speed of
sound of the gas at the flowing conditions.
 The acoustic velocity, a, can be calculated using the following equation:

𝑎𝑎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
k = ratio of specific heats
R = specific gas constant
T = absolute temperature of the fluid
 The Mach number is given by:
Mach No.=V/a
 Choke occurs when the velocity of the gas inside the compressor approaches sonic
velocity (Mach 1). This sets up shock waves inside the compressor which
essentially limit the compressor capacity.
136
Compressor capacity
 The capacity of centrifugal compressors is stated in actual m3/sec, actual
m3/h or acfm.
 The compressor capacity sets the case or frame size of the compressor.
 The vendor manufactures compressors in certain frame sizes and selects the
appropriate size for you based on the inlet volume to the compressor.
 Once the frame size has been selected, the maximum impeller size which will
fit in the case is fixed.
 When the maximum impeller diameter is fixed, the rotational speed of the
compressor and number of impellers can be determined based on the total
head requirement and maximum tip speed constraint.

137
Discharge temperature
 The compressor discharge temperature depends on four factors:
1.Suction temperature
2.Compression ratio, P2/P1
3.Gas composition
4.Compressor efficiency
 Higher suction temperatures and compression ratio will increase the

compressor discharge temperature.
 Lighter gases tend to have higher discharge temperatures than heavier gases
for the same compression ratio and suction temperature.
 Finally, lower compressor efficiencies give higher discharge temperatures.

138
Capacity control in case of constant speed compressors
 We know that if the suction temperature and composition of the gas stream
stay relatively constant, the capacity of a centrifugal compressor depends
upon the suction pressure, discharge pressure, and speed of rotation. For
constant speed drivers, the speed of rotation is not a controllable variable.
 In case of constant speed suction throttling valve can be used for capacity
control.
 Also adjustable inlet guide vanes may also be used for capacity control.
These control the flow and rotation of gas into the first stage impeller.
 For all practical purposes inlet guide vanes act like a suction pressure
throttling valve, but they provide a wider and more stable range of control.

139
Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV)
When compression systems have a fixed discharge pressure with constant speed
drivers, the capacity control is almost always on the suction pressure. To a large
extent the compressor is self-controlling in this service.

140
Capacity control in constant speed compressors-Using suction throttling

141
Capacity control in case of constant speed compressors - Using IGV

142
Capacity control in case of variable speed compressors
 When a variable driver, such as a gas turbine, is used to drive a centrifugal

compressor, the compressor speed can be used to provide very efficient capacity
control over a wide range of operating conditions.
 Remember from the fan laws:
Compressor capacity is proportional to (Speed).
Compressor Head is proportional to (Speed)2.
Compressor power is proportional to (Speed)3.

143
Capacity control in case of variable speed compressors

144
Surge Control
 Surge results from a combination of low flow and high compression ratio.
 It can be avoided by maintaining the flow above the surge point. This is done by
recycling some discharge gas back to the suction side to maintain enough flow to
the unit so that the surge condition is avoided.
 The combination of flow and compression ratio that results in surge at each
different compressor speed is determined in shop tests by the vendor or in tests at
the time the unit is commissioned. This information is then used for subsequent
control of the surge system to prevent it from occurring during normal operation.
 Surge can also occur during startup and shutdown of a centrifugal compressor, so
surge protection must be provided during these operations, particularly on large
machines.
 Surge is avoided by recycling enough gas from the discharge side back to the
suction side so that the flow through the compressor is above the surge point. Since
discharge gas is hot, it must be cooled before it is recycled back to the suction side
of the machine.
145
Surge control Diagram

146
Compressor Arrangement - Single Stage Overhung Type
 Note that the flow enters axially and exits in a
tangential direction. The overhung style is, on
very rare occasions, constructed in the
multistage form, usually overhanging no more
than two impellers.
 The overhung compressor is generally more

competitively priced than the between-
bearing design.
 Careful application must be made because the

overhung impeller configuration is more
sensitive to unbalance than the between-
bearing design.
147
Compressor Arrangement - Beam type single stage
 In this form, the impeller is located
between two bearings, as is the
multistage. The flow enters and leaves in a
tangential direction with the nozzles
located in the horizontal plane.
 The between-bearing single stage is found
most commonly in pipe line booster service
where the inherent rigidity of the two
outboard bearings is desirable.

148
Compressor Arrangement – Integrally Geared Compressor
 - Integrally geared compressor consists of
three impellers, the first located on one
pinion, which would have a lower speed
than the other pinion that has mounted
the remaining two impellers.
 - This arrangement is common to the
plant air compressor. Configurations such
as this are used in process air and gas
services, with the number of stages set to
match the application.

149
Compressor Arrangement – Multistage Centrifugal
 The flow path is straight through the compressor, moving through each
impeller in turn.
 This type of centrifugal compressor is probably the most common of any
found in process service, with applications ranging from air to gas.
 The latter includes various process gases and basic refrigeration service.

150
Compressor Arrangement – Multistage Centrifugal with intercooling
 This arrangement is also referred to as a compound compressor.
 In these applications, the flow out of the compressor is taken through an
intercooler and back to the compressor.
 The arrangement is not limited to cooling because some services use this
arrangement to remove and scrub the gas stream at a particular pressure level.
151
Compressor Arrangement – Double Flow with Two Inlets
 In this type, the flow enters the case at two points, is compressed by one or
more stages at each end, and then enters the double-flow impeller.
 The flow passes through each individual section of the double-flow impeller
and joins at discharge.
152
Compressor Arrangement – Double Flow with Flow Split Integrally
 The advantage of the double-flow

arrangement is, of course, that in the
same casing size, it doubles the flow.
However, the realization of the
advantage is more complex.
 The losses in the flow paths through

the double flow impeller must, in
theory, be identical. In practice, of
course, this is not possible.
 If a number of options are open for a

given application, the double-flow
option should not be the first choice;

153
Compressor Arrangement – Multi Stage with Back to Back Impellers
 Back to back style is normally considered useful in solving difficult thrust

balance problems where the conventional thrust bearing and balance drum
size are inadequate.
 An evaluation of the cross leakage between the two discharge nozzles must
be made and compared to the balance drum leakage to determine the
desirability of the "back to back."
154
Compressor Arrangement – Side Stream Compressors
 In side stream compressor gas enters the first impeller and passes through two
impellers. As the main stream approaches the third impeller, it is joined by a
second stream of gas, mixed, and then sent through the third impeller.
 The properties of the gas stream are modified at the mixing point, as the side
stream is rarely at the same temperature as the stream from the second
impeller.
155
Mechanical Design- Key Parts

156
Mechanical Design- Key Parts

157
Mechanical Design- Casing
Horizontally split: Barrel compressor: Very high pressures.

Vertically split: Medium
Low and medium pressure, used when the gas contains hydrogen at
and high pressures
or above a partial pressure of 200 psig.
Easy maintenance.
Material:
 Casing materials are, in most cases, cast iron, nodular iron, or cast steel.
 Fabricated casings are generally made of carbon or alloy steel.
 Cast on occasion, made of austenitic stainless steel or one of the high

nickel alloys. For low temperature inlet conditions, a low nickel alloy may
be used.
158
Mechanical Design- Diaphragm
 The function of the diaphragm is to act as a diffuser for the impeller and a
channel to redirect the gas into the following stage.
 The diaphragm also acts as the carrier for the impeller eye seal and the
interstate shaft seal. Diaphragms are either cast or fabricated.
 Most cast diaphragms are made of iron. Fabricated diaphragms are steel
or composite steel and cast iron, with straightened or guide vanes of cast
iron.
 The diaphragms are split, located with matching grooves in the upper and
lower half casing and pinned to the upper half for maintenance ease. The
diaphragms are hand-fitted to center them to the rotating element.

159
Mechanical Design- Diaphragm
 The function of the diaphragm is to act as a diffuser for the impeller and a
channel to redirect the gas into the following stage.
 The diaphragm also acts as the carrier for the impeller eye seal and the
interstate shaft seal. Diaphragms are either cast or fabricated.
 Most cast diaphragms are made of iron. Fabricated diaphragms are steel
or composite steel and cast iron, with straightened or guide vanes of cast
iron.
 The diaphragms are split, located with matching grooves in the upper and
lower half casing and pinned to the upper half for maintenance ease. The
diaphragms are hand-fitted to center them to the rotating element.

160
Mechanical Design- Connecting Nozzles
 Casing inlet and outlet nozzles are normally flanged.
 Forces and moments which the compressor can accept without causing
misalignment to the machine are to be specified by the vendor.
End-Top Top-Top Side-Side

161
Mechanical Design- Impeller
 The impeller is the most highly stressed compressor component, and generally
becomes the limiting item when it comes to establishing the rotating element
performance limit.
 Impellers are made of low alloy steel for most compressors in process service,
either chrome-moly or chrome-moly-nickel.
 Open impellers: The advantage is their ability to operate at higher trip speed
and thus produce greater head than closed impellers. The disadvantage is their
lower efficiency due to increased shroud leakage and increased number of
blade natural frequencies resulting form the cantilevered attachment.
 Closed impellers: In most cases impeller of centrifugal pumps are closed type. In
Older design multistage centrifugal compressors frequently used open impellers
in the first stages since the high flow caused unacceptable side plate stress.

162
Chapter 6
Compressors sealing
system

163
Compressors sealing
PARTI:
Seal types
-Lip Oil Seal
-Labyrinth Seal
-Pickings
-Mechanical seal
Prepared by: irrotary technical team 164

164
‫‪Lip oil systems‬‬
‫• اﺻﻮﻻً از اﯾﻦ ﺳﯿﻠﻬﺎ در ﯾﺎﺗﺎﻗﺎﻫﺎ و ﺑﺮاي ﻧﮕﻬﺪاري رواﻧﮑﺎرﻫﺎ و ﺟﻠﻮﮔﯿﺮي از ورود ﮔﺮد و ﻏﺒﺎر اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻣﯿﺸﻮد‪.‬‬
‫• اﯾﻦ ﺳﯿﻠﻬﺎ ﺑﺮاي ﻣﻮاردي ﻣﺎﻧﻨﺪ ﻓﺸﺎر ﮐﻢ روﻏﻦ‪ ،‬ﺳﺮﻋﺘﻬﺎي ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ﻣﺤﻮر‪ ،‬ﺷﺮاﯾﻂ ﻣﺤﯿﻄﯽ ﭘﺎﯾﯿﻨﺘﺮ از ﺣﺪ ﺑﺤﺮاﻧﯽ و‬
‫ﻧﯿﺰ ﻣﺤﻠﻬﺎﯾﯽ ﮐﻪ ﻧﺸﺘﯽ ﻣﺠﺎز اﺳﺖ ﻣﻮرد اﺳﺘﻔﺎده ﻗﺮار ﻣﯿﮕﯿﺮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫• ﭘﻮﺷﺶ ﺧﺎرﺟﯽ آﻧﻬﺎ ﺑﺎ ﯾﮏ اﺗﺼﺎل ﺗﺪاﺧﻠﯽ در ﭘﻮﺳﺘﻪ ﯾﺎﺗﺎﻗﺎن ﻗﺮار ﻣﯿﮕﯿﺮد و ﻓﻨﺮ ﭘﯿﭽﺸﯽ‪ ،‬ﻧﯿﺮوي ﯾﮑﻨﻮاﺧﺘﯽ را اﯾﺠﺎد‬
‫ﻣﯿﮑﻨﺪ ﺗﺎ ﺗﻤﺎس ﺑﯿﻦ ﻟﺒﻪ ﻫﺎي ﻧﺸﺘﺒﻨﺪ ﮐﺸﺴﺎن و ﻣﺤﻮر ﺑﺮﻗﺮار ﺑﻤﺎﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪165‬‬
‫‪Prepared by: irrotary technical team‬‬
‫‪165‬‬
‫‪Behnam Arkan-Mohammadreza Tahan‬‬
‫‪Labyrinth seal:‬‬
‫• در اﯾﻦ ﻧﺸﺘﺒﻨﺪﻫﺎ ﺗﻤﺎس ﻓﯿﺰﯾﮑﯽ ﺑﯿﻦ اﺟﺰا ﺛﺎﺑﺖ و دوار ﺣﺬف ﺷﺪه اﺳﺖ‪ .‬ﺑﺪﯾﻦ دﻟﯿﻞ اﻓﺘﻬﺎي‬
‫اﺻﻄﮑﺎﮐﯽ ﮐﺎﻫﺶ ﻣﯽ ﯾﺎﺑﺪ‪.‬‬
‫• ﺑﺎﯾﺪ ﺗﻮﺟﻪ داﺷﺖ ﮐﻪ ﺑﺎ اﺳﺘﻔﺎده از اﯾﻦ ﻧﺸﺘﺒﻨﺪﻫﺎ ﻧﻤﯿﺘﻮان ﻧﺸﺘﯽ را ﺑﻄﻮر ﮐﺎﻣﻞ ﺣﺬف ﻧﻤﻮد وﻟﯽ‬
‫ﻣﯿﺘﻮان آﻧﺮا ﺗﺎ ﺣﺪود زﯾﺎدي ﮐﺎﻫﺶ داد‪.‬‬
‫‪Prepared by: irrotary technical team‬‬ ‫‪166‬‬

‫‪166‬‬
Labyrinth types:
1 2
- Labyrinth leakage rates are a function of the clearance, differential pressure, and the
geometry of the flow path .
- Stepped and interference labyrinth leakage rates are approximately 50-60% of those for
the straight labyrinth design. Prepared by: irrotary technical team
167 167
‫‪Packing‬‬
‫• ﭘﮑﯿﻨﮓ ﻫﺎي ﺗﺮاﮐﻤﯽ ﺑﺮاي ﻧﺸﺖ ﺑﻨﺪي ﺳﯿﺎﻻت ﺗﺤﺖ ﻓﺸﺎر در ﻣﺠﺎورت ﻣﺤﻮر ﻫﺎي دوار ﻣﻮرد اﺳﺘﻔﺎده‬
‫ﻗﺮار ﻣﯽ ﮔﯿﺮﻧﺪ‪.‬‬
‫• ﻫﻤﺎن ﻃﻮر ﮐﻪ در ﺷﮑﻞ ﻣﺸﺨﺺ اﺳﺖ ﺑﺎ ﻣﺤﮑﻢ ﮐﺮدن ﻣﻬﺮه و در ﻧﺘﯿﺠﻪ اﯾﺠﺎد ﺣﺮﮐﺖ ﻣﺤﻮري ﺑﺮاي‬
‫ﭘﮑﯿﻨﮓ ﻫﺎي ﻧﺸﺖ ﺑﻨﺪي در ﻓﻀﺎي ﺑﯿﻦ ﻣﺤﻮر و ﻣﺤﻔﻈﻪ ﻓﺸﺮده ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮﻧﺪ ‪ .‬اﯾﻦ ﻓﺸﺮدﮔﯽ ﺳﺒﺐ‬
‫ﺟﻠﻮﮔﯿﺮي از ﻧﺸﺖ ﺳﯿﺎل ﺗﺤﺖ ﻓﺸﺎر ﺑﻪ ﺑﯿﺮون ﺧﻮاﻫﺪ ﺷﺪ‪.‬‬
‫‪Prepared by: irrotary technical team‬‬ ‫‪168‬‬

‫‪168‬‬
‫‪Mechanical Seals:‬‬
‫ﻧﺸﺖ ﺑﻨﺪﻫﺎي ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ از ﻧﻮع ﺗﻤﺎﺳﯽ ﺑﻮده و در آﻧﻬﺎ دو ﺳﻄﺢ ﮐﻪ ﺑﻪ ﺳﻄﻮح ﺛﺎﺑﺖ و‬
‫ﻣﺘﺤﺮك ﺳﯿﻞ ﻫﺎي ﻣﮑﺎﻧﯿﮑﯽ ﻣﻌﺮوف ﻫﺴﺘﻨﺪ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮ روي ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ ﻣﯽ ﻟﻐﺰﻧﺪ ‪.‬اﯾﻦ ﺳﻄﻮح ﮐﻪ‬
‫ﺑﺎ ﮐﯿﻔﯿﺖ ﺑﺴﯿﺎر ﺑﺎﻻﯾﯽ ﭘﺮداﺧﺖ ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ‪ ،‬ﻋﻤﻮد ﺑﺮ ﻣﺤﻮر ﭼﺮﺧﺶ ﻗﺮار ﮔﺮﻓﺘﻪ اﻧﺪ ‪.‬‬
‫ﺳﻄﻮح ﺛﺎﺑﺖ و ﻣﺘﺤﺮك ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻧﯿﺮوﻫﺎي ﻣﺤﻮري ﮐﻪ ﻣﻨﺘﺞ ﭼﻨﺪ ﻧﯿﺮوي ﻣﺤﻮري ﻣﯽ ﺑﺎﺷﺪ‪،‬‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﯾﮑﺪﯾﮕﺮ ﻓﺸﺮده ﺷﺪه اﻧﺪ ‪.‬ﺟﻬﺖ ﺧﻨﮏ ﮐﺎري و رواﻧﮑﺎري آﻧﻬﺎ ﻫﻤﻮاره ﯾﮏ ﻻﯾﻪ ﻓﯿﻠﻢ‬
‫ﺳﯿﺎل ﺑﯿﻦ اﯾﻦ دو ﺳﻄﺢ وﺟﻮد دارد‪.‬‬
‫‪169 169‬‬
Mechanical Seals:
Liquid Lubricated and cooled seals

(Standard seals)
Gas Lubricated and cooled seals

(Dry gas seal)
170
Compressors sealing
PARTII:
Liquid type mechanically sealing

system for compressors.

171
Sealing system introduction
Regardless of type of seal used, the function of a critical equipment seal

system is as follows:
“To continuously supply clean fluid to each specified seal interface point
at the required differential pressure, temperature and flow rate.”
Compressor sealing systems can be divided into four major component:

A : The supply system
B: The seal housing system
C: The atmospheric drain system
D: The seal leakage system

172
The supply system
The purpose of this sub-system is:

“to continuously supply clean, cool sealing fluid to the seal interfaces
at the correct differential pressure”
This system consist of :

• Reservoir
• Pumping units
• Exchangers
• Transfer valves
• Temperature control valves
• filters 173
173
The seal housing system:
This system consist of two different seals:

• Gas side bushing
• Atmospheric bushing
The purpose of seal housing system is to:

Positively contain the fluid in the compressor and not allow leakage to
the atmosphere.
The purpose of Gas side seal is to :

Constantly contain the reference fluid and minimize sour oil leakage
The purpose of Atmospheric bushing:
To minimize the leakage of seal liquid to an minimum. The seal liquid
shall remove frictional heat from the seal.
174
174
The atmospheric draining system
The flow from the atmospheric bushing, if it does not directly enter the
bearing system, will return to the seal reservoir.
In addition, flow should be gas free since they should not come mixed
with process gas.

175
The leakage system
The fluid that enters the gas side bushing is controlled to a minimum
amount such that it can be either discarded or properly returned to the
reservoir after it is degassed.
This system consist of:
An automatic drainer
The drainer contains the oil-gas mixture from the gas side seal. The liquid
level is controlled by an internal float or external level control valve to drain
oil back to the reservoir or the de-gassing tank.
A vent system
The function of the oil drainer is to assure that all gas side seal oil leakage
is directed to the drainer. The drainer vent can be routed back to the
compressor suction, suction vessel or a lower pressure source.
Degassing tank
The tank is usually a heated tank to sufficiently de-gas all seal oil to meet
the seal oil specification. Prepared by: irrotary technical team 176
176
Liquid type mechanically sealing, Seal types
Traditionally the type of seal used in compressor service has been a liquid
seal. Since the media in sealing system shall remove the frictional heat, all
compressors liquid seal shall be of a double seal. Thus:
Liquid oil seals comprised of two seals with the sealing liquid introduced
between them
There are three major types of liquid bushing seals:
1) Liquid bushing seals

2) Contact seals
3) Restricted bushing seal

177
Liquid type mechanically sealing, Seal types:
1- Liquid bushing seals
A liquid bushing seal can be used for either a gas side or an atmospheric
side seal application.
The principle of a bushing seal is that of an orifice, that is a minimum
clearance between the shaft and bushing surface to minimize leakage.
The leakage rate will be significantly larger than that of a contact seal since
they are essentially an orifice.
To prohibit from process gas interface to the

supply system in a gas side bushing seal we
can use the following steps:
• Continuous buffer gas supply

• A check valve installed as close as possible to seals in the
seal oil supply header
• Rapid venting and isolation of the compressor case on seal
system failure

178
1- Liquid bushing seals (cont.)
Oil is injected into the cavity between the bushings at a pressure approximately
0.35 Bar.
There is a small flow of oil through the

inner bushing which prevents the gas from
flowing outwards. This oil flow exits the
seal housing via an oil drain and can either
be returned to the compressor seal oil
reservoir, or reclaimed, or discarded if
contaminated by the process gas. The flow
rate is typically 35-55 liters/day.
The majority of the seal oil flow is across the

outer bushing to atmosphere. This oil flow
cools the seal and is returned to the seal oil
reservoir. 179
179
2- Contact seal
This seal typically contains a pressure breakdown sleeve outboard and a
mechanical contact seal on the inboard or process gas side.
Seal face contact is maintained by hydraulic pressure and spring forces. Oil is
injected at a pressure of 2.5-3.5 bar above the internal gas pressure.

180
2- Contact seal
These seals are similar in design to pump seals. Leakage rates with a
properly installed seal can be more less than bushing seals.
A limitation in the use of

contact seals are shaft
speed, since the contact
seal operates on a
surface perpendicular to
the axis of rotation, the
rubbing speed of the seal
surface is critical. Typical
max. speed is 12000rpm.
As a result contact seals
are usually used for gas
side seal application.

181
3- Restricted ring seals
The restrictive ring seal operates on the same

principle as a labyrinth, with the labyrinth teeth
being replaced by carbon rings.
The rings are rub tolerant;

however, close clearances are
used and replacement due to wear
is more frequent than for labyrinth
seals. The close clearances
employed by the seal also make it
susceptible to fouling in dirt laden
services.
For this reason it should not be used on air

compressor duties. Leakage rates are approximately
20% of those for the straight labyrinth seal.
182
182
4- Restricted bushing seals
This particular type may utilizes a

small pumping ring in the
opposite direction of bushing
liquid flow to compensate for
relatively large leakage
experienced with bushing seals.
Seals of this type can be
designed for practically zero flow
leakages. But in variable speed
applications the pumping
capability of the trapped seal ring
must be calculated for both
minimum and maximum speeds.
A restricted bushing seal is used
exclusively for gas side services.

183
Compressors sealing
PARTIII:
Dry gas seal systems

184
Introduction
The self acting gas seal does not require any liquid for sealing, lubrication or
cooling as it uses the sealed gas to perform these functions. The gas can be
either the compressed process gas or an external gas supply.
A gas seal consists of a stationary face Rotating Seat

and a rotating seat etched with a spiral
grooved pattern. The rotating grooves
raise the pressure of the gas which
maintains a small gap between the seat
and face of 3 to 10 microns.
Stationary seat
Leakage rates across a single gas seal is very low, typically 2% of an

equivalent plain labyrinth seal.
185
Comparison of a liquid and gas sealing systems
It should be evident that a gas seal system is simplified in

compressor applications over a liquid seal systems merely because
the gas utilizes the process fluid.
By using the process fluid, and not a liquid, one can eliminate the
need to separate liquid from a gas, thereby totally eliminating the
need for a liquid supply system and the need for a contaminated
liquid, drain system.
Therefore the following major component are eliminated:

The seal oil reservoir The drain pot
The pumping units The degassing tank
The exchangers All control valves
The temperature control valves A significant amount of
instrumentation.
The overhead tank
186
Consideration for system design
As there are disadvantage to a gas seal system which must be

considered in the design of such a system.
Sensitivity to dirt:
Since clearance between seal faces are usually less than 0.001mm and
seal design is essential to proper operation, the fluid passing between the
faces must be clean.
Sensitivity to saturated gas:

Saturated fluids increase the possibility of groove blockage
Lift-off speed:
A minimum speed is required for operation. It is recommended that the
seal test be conducted for a period at turning gear speed to confirm
proper lift off followed by seal face operation.
187
Consideration for system design
Positive pretension of toxic gas leaks to a atmosphere:

Since all seals leak, the system must be designed to preclude the
possibility of toxic of flammable gas leak out of the system.
Possible oil injection from the lube system:

A suitable separation seal must be provided to eliminate the
possibility of oil ingestion from the bearing.
Lift-off speed:
Most seal vendors state that O-ring life is limited and should be
changed every fie years for operating seals as well as spare seals

188
Dry gas seal design
Principle of operation
In its basic design and mode of operation
is the same as a conventional mechanical
seal except for two differences:
a) The sliding faces are wider

b) They are lubricated by gas rather than
liquid.
This is assured in outstanding manner by

the sophisticated geometry of V and U
grooves in the sliding faces. Even at low
speeds a stable gas film develops in the
sealing gap to separate the sliding faces
and guarantee non-contacting, wear-free
operation, at a minimum level of power
consumption.

189
Dry gas seal design (Cont.)
Principle of operation (Cont.)
Elaborate buffer fluid oil systems for the lubrication and cooling of double seals
are superfluous. Gas pressurization at a level of around 5 to 10 % above
product pressure makes sure that no process medium can escape to the
atmosphere.
A small gap height of approximately 3 μm between the sliding faces results in

minimum consumption of buffer gas of a magnitude that depends largely on the
pressure, speed and seal diameter.

190
Single Gas Seals
Filtered gas, typically taken from
the compressor discharge line, is
injected into a cavity between the
The single seal seal and seal chamber labyrinth.
consists of one
seat and face
combination.
The majority of the filtered gas flows into the machine across the seal
chamber labyrinth, with the remainder leaking across the gas seal to
atmosphere.
191
Single Gas Seals

192
Double Gas Seal
The double seal consists of two seat An external supply of filtered gas is
and face combinations arranged back injected between the two seals at a
to back. pressure higher than compressor
sealing pressure. In most applications,
the external gas supply (buffer) is an
inert gas such as nitrogen.
The majority of the filtered gas

flows into the machine across
the seal chamber labyrinth, with
The filtered gas leaks inboard across the primary seal the remainder leaking across
and outboard across the secondary seal. There is no the gas seal to atmosphere.
process gas leakage to atmosphere as only buffer
gas leaks across the secondary seal.
193
Double Gas Seal

194
Plain Tandem Gas Seal
A small amount of the filtered process gas leaks across the primary seal into a cavity between the
primary and secondary seals. This cavity is normally connected to a flare or hydrocarbon vent
system which is maintained at a pressure that is typically just above atmospheric pressure. A typical
secondary seal leakage rate to atmosphere is approximately 14 Sl/min. The secondary seal leakage
is normally piped to the atmosphere at a safe location
There is some
leakage of the
process gas to the
atmosphere.
This seal has two seat and face

combinations arranged in series.
The primary seal is designed to seal against compressor

sealing pressure. The secondary seal normally operates with a
small differential pressure across it but is also designed for
compressor sealing pressure thus providing a backup in case
of a primary seal failure. 195
195
Plain Tandem Gas

196
Tandem Gas Seal With Intermediate
A small amount of the filtered gas
leaks across the primary seal into
An external supply of filtered
a cavity between the primary seal
buffer gas is injected into the
and an intermediate labyrinth.
cavity between the intermediate
labyrinth and the secondary seal
at a pressure that is higher than The primary seal is
the flare or vent system pressure. designed to operate with
compressor sealing
pressure. The secondary
seal normally operates
with a small differential
across it but is also
designed for compressor
sealing pressure to
The leakage across the
provide a backup in
secondary seal to
case of primary seal
atmosphere is just buffer
failure.
gas, which, if nitrogen is
used, makes this type of
gas seal a zero emissions
device.
This arrangement is a variation of the plain tandem design, having an intermediate labyrinth
installed in the cavity between the primary and secondary seals.

197
Tandem Gas Seal With Intermediate

198
Compressors sealing
PARTIV:
Shaft Seal Type Selection

199
Labyrinth and Restrictive Ring Seals
Labyrinths are recommended for all air services.
Labyrinth and restrictive ring seals may be used only for nitrogen or other
inert gas services.
For high sealing pressures and valuable gases, it may be possible to justify
with a single self acting dry gas seal.
Typically the maximum temperatures and pressures to which these seal

designs should be exposed are 175°C and 10 barg.
For other applications machinery specialists should be consulted.

200
Liquid Film and Mechanical (Contact) Oil Seals
Both of these seal types use oil injection to minimize leakage of process gas to
the atmosphere and are suitable for sealing gas streams.
For services with sealing pressures up to 45 barg and temperatures to 175°C,

both seal types are applicable and should be specified.
Liquid film oil seals have been applied at pressure of 345 barg.
The compressor vendor can then choose which to offer based on operating
experience.

201
Self Acting Gas Seals
Gas seals may be used for maximum dynamic sealing pressures up to 1450
psig (100 barg), maximum static sealing pressures to 1820 psig (125 barg)
and temperatures up to 500°F (260°C).
This is the current limit of operating experience for dual seal arrangements.
Above these pressures liquid film oil seals should be specified.
Gas Seals should only be specified above these pressures after consultation
with a machinery specialist for verification of experience at contract
conditions.
For pressures below these limits, the choice of oil or gas seals is one of
preference or economics.

202
When a gas seal system is preferable?
Apply gas seals in services If the increase in oil system weight and
that would require a separate required space is of concern when lube
lube and seal oil system. and seal systems are combined, e.g.,
offshore platforms, then gas seals should
be selected.
If oil contamination of the
gas stream is a major
concern.
Comparative economics :
Oil Seal Systems: power use for oil seals, seal system pump power, oil
reclamation cost (or consumption).
Gas Seal Systems: buffer gas reprocessing cost for oil seals, use of
nitrogen for separation gas and buffer gas on gas seals and the cost of
spare parts.
203
Which type of seal as per pressure
For services with sealing pressures of 300 psig (20 barg) to 1450 psig (100 barg),
specify double gas seals. Be careful to ensure that a reliable buffer gas source is
available before specifying the double gas seal.
For services with sealing pressures of 360 psig (25 barg) to 1450 psig (100 barg),
specify plain tandem seals.
For services with sealing pressures 435 psig (30 barg) to 1450 psig (100 barg)
specify tandem gas seals with an Intermediate labyrinth.
Specify the appropriate oil seal for services outside the above pressure ranges, or
specify both oil and gas seals and have the detailed engineering contractor perform
an economic analysis during bid review.

204
Chapter 6
Inspection and Test

Plans

205
Compressors Training Course
Chapter 1
General

206
General
S: Sub supplier
Inspection at the point of V: Vendor
manufacture is normally C: Customer or his reprehensive
done by: TP: Third party
• The equipment meets specification and order

The purpose of shop requirements,
inspection is to obtain
• Displays good workmanship
reasonable
assurance that: • Free of significant defects or damage before it
ships
207
207
General
Non-Witnessed, Witnessed, and Observed Tests (As per API)
R: Review (Non-Witnessed)
The manufacturer does the required test and certifies the results;
The test results are reviewed by the Purchaser’s inspector during other inspection visits.
O: Observed
The purchaser is notified of the timing of the inspection or test.
The inspection or test is performed, as scheduled, even if the purchaser or the
purchaser's representative is not present.
W: Witnessed
The purchaser is notified of the timing of the inspection or test
A hold is placed on the inspection or test until the purchaser or the purchaser's
representative is in attendance.
SW: Random Witnessed
208
208
General
Shop performance test
Selection of the test gas is an important consideration and the requirement for
accurate mixture control and availability of reliable thermodynamic data really narrows
the choice to industrial gases freely available in the market, for example, R22, carbon
dioxide, and nitrogen.
When compressors are designed for low molecular weight gases, helium nitrogen
mixture may have to be used.
Field performance test

A few reasons for field tests are:
• The process gas may be used.
• Side streams can all be working.
• Pressures and temperatures are the process values.
• Performance of existing compressors can be evaluated.
The field tests should be limited to only those units where performance is in doubt and
shop test correlation is just too difficult because it needs a lot of facilities and plans in
the site. 209
209
Chapter 2
Inspection

210
Centrifugal Compressor Inspections
Pre-Inspection Meeting
Held to review specifications and order requirements at the point of manufacture to

verify there will be compliance.
This visit should always be made at the compressor manufacturer’s plant and normally
at the manufacturing plants for:
• Lube- and seal-oil consoles
• Overhead seal oil tank (pressure vessel)
• Gear (speed changer)
• Driver (prime mover)
The Pre-inspection meetings will help resolve ambiguities that may delay final
shipment or result in equipment that is not what the user specified. They also verify
that manufacturers understand our inspection and testing requirements and are aware
of the required witness points. These meetings should be held for all except small
utility compressors.
211
211
Review of Compressor-Casing Fabrication Drawings
This visit should always be made for compressors with fabricated casings.
The casings are pressure containing parts, but compressor manufacturers

may use joint designs and materials that do not meet normal minimum
requirements for pressure vessels or pressure piping (required by API 617).
This Inspection will be held by Purchaser’s inspector prior to start of

fabrication
212
212
Visual Inspection of Fabricated or Cast Casings Before Machining
This visit should always be made for fabricated casings, even when sound
joint designs are on the fabrication drawings.
Actual weldments frequently have major flaws that can be found visually;
weld repairs must be made before machining since some distortion from
welding is inevitable.
Cast casings should be visually examined prior to machining to verify that

they do not have significant visible defects.
213
213
Non-Destructive Examination of Fabricated or Cast Casings
liquid penetrate magnetic particle radiographic ultrasonic
Compressor specifications will usually require some degree of NDE in addition

to visual examination and a successful hydrostatic test.
NDE in itself is frequently inexpensive; it is the resulting repairs to upgrade

castings which have been subjected to NDE that can be very expensive.
When some form of supplementary NDE is specified, an acceptance

standard must always be specified as well.
Whenever NDE is specified, it should always be witnessed.
214
214
‫‪Centrifugal Compressor Inspections‬‬
‫‪Non-Destructive Examination of Fabricated or Cast Casings‬‬
‫‪liquid penetrate‬‬ ‫‪magnetic particle‬‬ ‫‪radiographic‬‬ ‫‪ultrasonic‬‬
‫در اﯾﻦ روش‪ ،‬ﺳﻄﺢ ﻣﻮرد ﻧﻈﺮ ﮐﺎﻣﻼً ﭘﺎك ﺷﺪه و ﻣﺎده ﻧﺎﻓﺬ رﻧﮕﯽ روي آن ﭘﺎﺷﯿﺪه ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪.‬‬
‫ﺑﻌﺪ از ‪ 10‬ﺗﺎ ‪ 15‬دﻗﯿﻘﻪ‪ ،‬روي ﺳﻄﺢ ﺑﺎ آب ﺳﺮد و ﺑﺪون ﻓﺸﺎر‪ ،‬ﺗﻤﯿﺰ ﺷﺪه و ﺑﻪ دﺳﺘﻤﺎل ﺧﺸﮏ‬
‫ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪ .‬ﺳﭙﺲ ﺑﺎ ﭘﺎﺷﺶ ﻇﺎﻫﺮﮐﻨﻨﺪة ﻣﻨﺎﺳﺐ‪ ،‬روي ﺳﻄﺢ‪ ،‬ﻗﺸﺮ ﻧﺎزﮐﯽ از ﭘﻮدر ﺳﻔﯿﺪ‬
‫ﺗﺸﮑﯿﻞ ﻣﯽ ﺷﻮد‪ .‬ﻣﺎدة ﻧﺎﻓﺬ رﻧﮕﯽ‪ ،‬ﺟﺬب ﻇﺎﻫﺮ ﮐﻨﻨﺪه ﺷﺪه و روي زﻣﯿﻨﮥ ﺳﻔﯿﺪ‪ ،‬ﻋﻼﺋﻢ رﻧﮕﯽ‬
‫ﺑﻪ ﺷﮑﻞ ﻋﯿﺐ‪ ،‬ﻧﻤﻮدار ﻣﯿﺸﻮد‪.‬‬
‫‪ASTM practice E165‬‬
‫‪215‬‬
‫‪215‬‬
‫ اﺑﺘﺪا ﻗﻄﻌﻪ را ﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﯿﺴﯽ ﮐﺮده و ﺑﻌﺪ ذرات رﯾﺰ ﻣﻮاد‬،‫در اﯾﻦ روش‬
‫ﻣﻐﻨﺎﻃﯿﺲ ﺷﻮﻧﺪه را ﺑﺼﻮرت ﺧﺸﮏ ﯾﺎ ﻣﻌﻠﻖ در ﻣﺎﯾﻊ ﺑﺮ روي ﺳﻄﺢ ﻗﻄﻌﻪ‬
‫ اﯾﻦ ذرات در ﻣﺤﻞ وﺟﻮد ﻋﯿﺐ ﺗﺠﻤﻊ ﮐﺮده و وﺟﻮد ﻋﯿﺐ را‬.‫ﻣﯽ ﭘﺎﺷﻨﺪ‬
.‫ﻧﺸﺎن ﻣﯽ دﻫﻨﺪ‬
ASTM practice E709
216
216
‫دراﯾﻦ روش اﺷﻌﮥ را ﺑﻪ ﯾﮏ ﻃﺮف درز ﺟﻮش ﺗﺎﺑﺎﻧﯿﺪه و درﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ‬

.‫ ﻓﯿﻠﻢ را ﻗﺮار ﻣﯿﺪﻫﻨﺪ و ﻣﻮارد ﺛﺒﺖ ﻣﯽ ﮔﺮدد‬،‫ﺟﻮش‬
ASTM practice E709
217
217
‫‪Centrifugal Compressor Inspections‬‬
‫‪Non-Destructive Examination of Fabricated or Cast Casings‬‬
‫‪liquid penetrate‬‬ ‫‪magnetic particle‬‬ ‫‪radiographic‬‬ ‫‪ultrasonic‬‬
‫در اﯾﻦ روش‪ ،‬ﺿﺮﺑﺎﻧﻬﺎي ﻣﺎﻓﻮق ﺻﻮﺗﯽ ﺗﻮﺳﻂ ﻓﺮﺳﺘﻨﺪه اي ﺑﺼﻮرت ﻋﻤﻮدي‬
‫ﯾﺎ ﺑﺎ زاوﯾﻪ وارد ﺟﺴﻢ ﻣﻮرد آزﻣﺎﯾﺶ ﺷﺪه و در ﻗﻄﻌﮥ ﺳﺎﻟﻢ ﺑﻪ ﻃﺮف دﯾﮕﺮ‬
‫رﺳﯿﺪه و ﻣﻨﻌﮑﺲ ﻣﯽ ﮔﺮدد و ﯾﺎ در ﻗﻄﻌﮥ ﻣﻌﯿﻮب ﭘﺲ از ﺑﺮﺧﻮرد ﺑﻪ ﻋﯿﺐ‪،‬‬
‫اﻧﻌﮑﺎس ﻣﯽ ﯾﺎﺑﺪ‪ .‬ﺿﺮﺑﺎﻧﻬﺎي ﻣﻨﻌﮑﺲ ﺷﺪه‪ ،‬ﺗﺒﺪﯾﻞ ﺑﻪ ﻋﻼﺋﻢ ﺷﺪه و روي‬
‫ﺻﻔﺤﮥ دﺳﺘﮕﺎه ﻇﺎﻫﺮ ﻣﯿﮕﺮدد‪ .‬از روي آن ﻋﻼﺋﻢ‪ ،‬ﻣﻮﻗﻌﯿﺖ ﻋﯿﺐ‪ ،‬ﻣﺸﺨﺺ‬
‫ﻣﯿﮕﺮدد‪.‬‬
‫‪ASTM practice E709‬‬

‫‪218‬‬
‫‪218‬‬
Visual Inspection of Welded Baseplates Before Machining
This visit should always be made for large, or critical compressor base
plates. Weld quality and inadequate weld size have been problems on
large base plates.
219
219
Visual Inspection of Welded or Cast Impellers Before Heat Treatment and

Machining.
This is warranted in most cases. Welding the impellers is difficult.
The customer does not specify a quality standard, and the compressor
manufacturer will not be likely to initiate weld repairs on completed
impellers since another round of heat treatment and machining would be
required.
Cast compressor impellers frequently have significant defects but the

compressor manufacturer may be inclined to use them anyway.
220
220
Chapter 3
Testing of Centrifugal
Compressors

221
Hydrostatic Test.
A casing hydrostatic test is always performed. Witnessing the test is

always warranted.
Test pressure shall be at least 1.5 times the maximum working gas
pressure, but not less than 20 psig for rotary and dynamic compressors
and no less than 115 psig for reciprocating compressors.
The duration of the test pressure in most cases is 30 minutes minimum;

however, the test must be held for long enough beyond that time to
permit a thorough examination for porosity and casing wall leakage.
Interpretation of joint leakage is somewhat more complicated
222
222
Overspend Test and Subsequent NDE of Impellers.
Both should always be witnessed to check for cracks and distortion.
Impellers are made from high strength alloys and often have hub stresses
close to the material yield point.
Incremental Balancing of Rotor
This is usually non-witnessed.

It can require days of inspector time since the rotor is balanced several
times during the course of assembly. If witnessing incremental balancing
is being considered, consult a machinery specialist.
223
223
Final Balancing of Rotor.
This should normally be witnessed along with dial indicator measurement of

run outs at bearing journals, thrust bearing faces, and all points along the
rotor with close clearances.
Runout Checks for Proximity Probes.
This should be done before the compressor is assembled and should be

witnessed.
Its purpose is to verify that mechanical and electrical run outs of the
rotor surfaces are low enough for the vibration monitoring system to
operate satisfactorily without electronic compensation.
224
224
Final Assembly of Compressor.
This should usually be witnessed to verify internal clearances are correct,

parts do not have significant visible flaws, and internal damage is not done
during assembly.
This will require a resident inspector for one week or more.
225
225
Lube and Seal Oil Consoles.
The following are usually witness points:
1. Visual inspection of components prior to assembly for weld quality and

cleanliness.
2. Pressure tests of completed systems.
3. Operational and cleanliness tests per API 614.
4. Final inspection before finish painting.
226
226
Centrifugal Compressor Tests
Assembled Compressor Gas Leakage Test
This test comes after the four-hour run test, and is conducted at maximum seal
design pressure (usually settling-out pressure) at zero speed. If the rotating
speed be at least 1000 rpm, test will provide more meaningful seal leakage
rates.
The purpose is to check for gas leaks at all joints and connections. Also, the
test is applied to compressors handling hazardous or flammable gases.
Test gas mole weight should approximate or be less than contract gas mole
weight. Helium for low mole weight contract gas, and nitrogen or refrigerant gas
for high mole weight should be considered.

227
Performance Test
Aerodynamic performance refers to the shape of the head-versus-capacity

characteristic curve.
The APIstd617 test is conducted to determine whether the compressor meets

the quoted power and head at 5 point as minimum including surge and
overload at normal speed.
This point is usually the normal operating point, but can be any other point as
specified.
Note that some vendors use the term “head rise-to-surge (head RTS),”. RTS
is an important factor as it can have a major influence on the operating
stability of the machine, and on the design of the anti-surge system.

228
Performance Test
RTS tends to become a problem with gases that are heavier than air and
have relatively low acoustic velocities.
Propane and propylene are examples of gases that can have a very flat
characteristic from the normal operating point to the surge point. Accordingly,
a small change in the system resistance would effect a major change in
capacity causing a potentially unstable situation.

229
Performance Test, Class I

The test gas used is the same as the actual gas specified. The pressures are
essentially the same as those specified.
In general, this class of test can be applied only to air compressors with an
atmospheric suction for strict conformance.
The test piping would be an open loop with an atmospheric inlet and the
discharge vented to atmosphere downstream of a control valve.
Performance Test, Class 2
The test gas is different than the specified gas, and in the reduction of test
data it is assumed that the test gas and the specified gas behave in
accordance with perfect gas laws.
The test piping is a closed loop.

230
Performance Test, Class III
This test is the same as Class II except that compressibility factors are
applied along with changes in “k” value from suction to discharge.
Class III tests are the most common. Test gases for Class III tests
include carbon dioxide, nitrogen, Refrigerant 12 or 22, and mixtures of
helium and nitrogen.
Generally, it is preferred to run the test with a pure unmixed gas. With a
mixture of helium and nitrogen, it is sometimes difficult to maintain a
constant gas composition for the duration of the test.

231
Performance Test, Class III

Typical Test Gases and Equivalence Values

232
Complete-Unit Test
The complete-unit test is also called a “String” test. It consists of coupling up

all the components and auxiliaries of a compressor train, and running them
together in a mechanical spin test.
This test is strictly mechanical, and can be performed in place of or in addition

to separate mechanical tests of individual components. The purpose of the test
is to confirm the mechanical compatibility of the components and auxiliaries.
The auxiliaries can include the

• Couplings,
• The lube oil system,
• The seal oil system
• Instrument and control
• Gearbox (if any)

233
Dismantling After Test.
As a minimum the bearings and seals are removed and inspected when
the mechanical run or performance test is completed.
Inspection is done by the machinery engineer or mechanical specialist who

witnessed the mechanical run or performance test.
234
234
Four-Hour Mechanical Test
The test is usually conducted with the compressor operating in a closed piping
loop at a relatively low pressure (100-200 psi discharge is common).
An open piping loop could also be used.
Although tests with the rotor running in a vacuum in its casing are sometimes
proposed. Vacuum-type tests are disallowed because:
1. The lack of significant gas density inside the casing can have an influence on
rotor dynamics.
2. The casing heats up abnormally from the churning of residual gas in casing
(vacuum is not perfect).
3. The operation of oil-film type seals cannot be tested concurrently with the
vacuum-type spin test.

235
Full-load, Full-pressure, Full-speed Test (FLFPFS)
A full-load, full-pressure, full-speed test is often called for when the compressor
train is in gas injection service or other services where the discharge pressure
exceeds 2000 or 3000 psi.
Other Tests
The helium test, sound-level test, auxiliary-equipment test, and other

optional tests listed in API 617 are self-explanatory. Refer to CMP-MS-1876
for other requirements.

236
Chapter 4
Testing of Reciprocating
Compressors

237
Reciprocating Compressor Inspections
The following Inspections are same as centrifugal inspection:
1- Pre-Inspection Meeting.
2- Non-Destructive Examination of Cylinders
3- Hydrostatic Tests
4- Mechanical Run Test
5- Lube-Oil System
6- Final Inspection.
238
238
Final Inspection.
This is always done after compressor, driver, piping, and instrumentation

are installed on the baseplate, but before painting is finished.
Final inspection includes but is not limited to:
1. Review of equipment against specifications and data sheets line by line.

2. Dimensional check against reviewed outline drawings.
3. Verification that all required piping and appurtenances are present.
4. Visual inspection for defects or damage.
239
239
Helium or Air Pressure Test.
API 618 or the job specification may require helium or air pressure tests in
addition to the hydrostatic tests.
Gas tests are more likely to find small leaks than hydrostatic tests; gas
tests are made with the cylinder submerged in water.
Since compressed gas has a great deal of stored energy, high-pressure

gas tests should always be preceded by a successful hydrostatic test for
safety.
When a helium or air test is required, it should always be witnessed.
240
240
Compressor Valve Leak Test

This test measures the amount of time for a fixed volume of gas behind a
valve to drop from one defined pressure to another.
Special fixtures are required for this test which is sometimes specified for
all of the compressor valves. If the test is required, it should be witnessed.
Alignment of Cylinders to Frame

Concentric and axial alignment of frame, crosshead guide, distance piece, and
cylinder are carefully measured. Witnessing the alignment check should be
considered for large machines;
Note that if these alignments are not done correctly in the shop, then field
alignment will be much more difficult.
241
241
Reciprocating Compressor Tests
Mechanical Running Tests
API 618 reciprocating compressors are almost never run at full speed in
the factory.
Alarms, shutdowns, gages, lube systems, and overspends may be

functionally tested at this time to avoid problems in the field.
The mechanical running test is not as meaningful for the reciprocating

machine as it is for the centrifugal compressor.
Although the running test would check mechanical compatibility and the
workability and heat loads of the lube system, generally the test is not
cost-effective.
242
242
Reciprocating Compressor Tests
Bar-over Test
The bar-over test is usually a manufacturer’s standard test.
Its purpose is to check the end clearances of the pistons, and to

measure the cold vertical and horizontal piston rod runout.
A complete description of rod runout is included in the Appendix

of API 618.
243
243
Thank You

244

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COMPRESSORS

More than 6 years experience in oil and gas industry

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 Clean and dry

 Runs a normal maximum of 20 psig at the drop, since the typical

 A system may utilize instrument air for various types of

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 The ejector can first be identified as having no moving parts.

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Combined axial-centrifugal compressor

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Compressor Type Typical Applications

Centrifugal single stage Air blower, recycle

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Centrifugal multi stage side

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1 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃

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The specific heat of a substance is

For liquids and solid substances

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The ratio between Cp and Cv is called the isentropic exponent