DYNAMICS OF FIXED MARINE

STRUCTURES

Third edition
N. D. P. Barltrop
A. J. Adams
Atkins Oil & Gas Engineering Limited, Epsom, UK

UTTERWORTH THE MARINE TECHNOLOGY DIRECTORATE LIMITED

E I N E M A N N
Contents

Foreword xvi
Preface xviii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Outline of the contents 1

1.2 Layout 2

with the selection of analysis strategy 2

1.3 Sections which help
1.4 Use of the book as a technical reference 2

1.5 Use of the book as an introductory text

7
2 Dynamics with deterministic loading
Linear of freedom systems: SDOF 7
2.1 single degree
2.1.1 Units 8

2.2 Oscillation of an SDOF with neither

forcing nor damping 10

2.3 Steady state oscillation of an SDOF with forcing and viscous damping 12

real algebra 13
2.3.1 Steady state solution using
2.3.2 factor 14
Dynamic amplification
2.3.3 Significance of forcing and natural frequencies 15
2.3.4 Steady state solution using complex algebra 18

2.3.5 Complex number representation of response 21

2.3.6 state response of non-linear SDOF 21

Steady a

build-up
and of oscillation 22
2.4 Damped decay
2.4.1 Viscous, damped decay of oscillation 23

2.4.2 Damping ratio and logarithmic decrement 25

25
2.4.3 Response to an impulse
2.4.4 Viscous damped build-up of natural frequency oscillation 26

2.5 28
Damping
28
2.5.1 Hysteretic damping
29
2.5.2 Friction damping
31
2.5.3 Typical structural damping
MDOFs 31
2.6 Modelling multidegree of freedom structures:

2.6.1 Natural frequencies of a 2 degree of freedom system 32

frame structures 34
2.6.2 Modelling
2.6.3 Beam element stiffness 34

2.6.4 Global axes

35

2.6.5 Axis transformation 36

37
2.6.6 Assembly of global stiffness matrix
37
2.6.7 Damping
2.6.8 Mass 38

2.6.9 38
Supports
2.6.10 Forces applied at nodes 39

2.6.11 Forces applied to members 39

2.6.12 Constraints 41

2.6.13 Joints 42

2.6.14 Geometric stiffness 44

stiffness and effective tension 45

2.6.15 Hydrostatic
2.6.16 Modelling continuous structures using plate, shell
and brick elements 46
47
2.6.17 Substructures
47
2.7 Static analysis of MDOF structures
48
2.7.1 Quasi-static analysis
49
2.8 Steady state solution using complex matrix algebra
 of fixed marine structures
vi Dynamics

MDOFs 49
2.9 Natural frequencies of
50
2.9.1 Eigenvalue form
2.9.2 Jacobi method 51

2.9.3 Householder QR/QL method 52

2.9.4 Polynomial solution 53
2.9.5 Vector iteration methods 53
2.9.6 More complicated methods 54
2.9.7 frequency/mode shape calculation method
Selection of 54
2.9.8 Some frequencies of commonly used structural elements 55
2.10 Normal mode (or principal or generalised) coordinates 57
2.10.1 Forced vibration of MDOF systems 57

2.10.2 Other uses of principal/generalised coordinates 59

2.11 Time history solution methods 59

2.11.1 Convolution integral 61

2.11.2 Time stepping methods 63
2.11.3 Central (explicit)
difference method 64

2.11.4 Runge-Kutta (explicit) method 66

2.11.5 Newmark ft (implicit) method 68

2.12 Economic solution of large dynamic problems 68

2.12.1 Separate, simpler model 69

2.12.2 Guyan reduction or static condensation 70

2.12.3 Static improvement 71

Notation 72

Bibliography 74
References 74

3 Statistical and spectral description of random loading and response 77

3.1 Short term, frequency and sequence independent properties of y(t) 82

3.1.1 Measures of location 82

3.1.2 Measures of spread 83

3.1.3 Probability density function (PDF) 84
3.1.4 Cummulative distribution function (CDF) 85
3.1.5 Moments of a PDF 86
3.1.6 Gaussian (normal distribution) 87
3.1.7 Non-Gaussian distributions 88
3.2 Sequence dependent properties of a time history y(t) 88
3.2.1 Autocovariance 89
3.2.2 Autocorrelation function Ryy(x) 89
3.2.3 Autocorrelation coefficient or normalised autocovariance 90
3.2.4 Time scale 91
3.3 Fourier analysis and spectra of y(t) 92
3.3.1 Fourier series 92
3.3.2 Fourier transform representation of a random time history 94
3.3.3 Alternative forms of the Fourier transform 96
3.3.4 The discrete Fourier transform 97
3.3.5 The Fourier transform
pair 97
3.3.6 Integral form of the Fourier transform pair 98
3.3.7 Spectral density 98
3.3.8 Spectral analysis of a dynamic system subject to loading
defined by one variable 101
3.4 Relationship between autocovariance and the energy spectrum 103
3.5 Short term frequency and sequence independent statistics of
simultaneous samples from several time histories: y^t), y2(t) ...
105
3.5.1 Covariance of yt(t) and y2(t) 105
3.5.2 Correlation coefficient or normalised covariance 105
3.5.3 Statistical properties of a +byt(t) cy2(t)
+ 106
3.5.4 Statistical properties of yt(t) x y2(t) 107
3.5.5 Joint probability of n random variables 108
 Contents vll

3.5.6 Gaussian multivariate distribution 109

3.6 Sequence dependent properties of samples from several time histories 109
3.6.1 Cross-covariance 109
3.6.2 Cross-correlation coefficient or normalised cross-covariance 111
3.6.3 Cross-correlation function 111
3.6.4 Nomenclature 111
3.7 Cross spectral density and coherence 111
3.7.1 Cross spectral density 111
3.7.2 Single-sided cross spectral density 112
3.7.3 Co- and quad-spectral density 113
3.7.4 Coherence 114
3.7.5 Spectral analysis of the response to a summation of
random signals 114
3.8 Relationship between the cross-covariance and the cross-spectrum 114
3.9 Some further derivations based on spectral properties 116
3.9.1 Velocity and acceleration spectra 117
3.9.2 Spectral moments 117
3.9.3 Bandwidth 118
3.9.4 Crossing periods and peak distributions 118
3.9.5 Level crossing periods and the zero crossing period Tz 119
3.9.6 The crest frequency fc and period Tc 122
3.9.7 Distribution of amplitudes in a narrow banded spectrum 122
3.9.8 Rayleigh distribution 124
3.9.9 Predicting the amplitude exceeded with a given probability
or in a given number of cycles 124
3.9.10 Distribution of the extreme values of a Rayleigh distribution 127
3.10 Extreme value distributions for environmental data 131
3.10.1 Types of extreme value distribution 131
3.10.2 Selection of extreme value distribution 134
3.10.3 Return period 134
Notation 136
Commonly used symbols 136

Summary 137

Bibliography 143
References 144

4 Structural response to random loading 147

4.1 Wave, wind and earthquake -

differences leading to different
analysis methods 148
4.2 Structural response in waves, wind and earthquake 150

4.2.1 Structural response to a unidirectional sea 150

4.2.2 Structural response to wind turbulence 152

4.2.3 Structural response to earthquakes 155

4.2.4 Structural response to waves, wind and earthquake: summary 156

4.3 Examples of non-linearities 156

4.3.1 The effect of non-linear drag loading 157

4.3.2 The effect of intermittent loading in the splash zone 157

4.3.3 The effect of non-linear drag for a structure in the wind 161

4.3.4 The effect of non-linear guy wire behaviour on a structure

in the wind 162

4.3.5 The effect of yielding on a structure in an earthquake 162

4.4 Time history analysis methods 163
4.4.1 Time history analysis of a structure in a unidirectional sea 164

4.4.2 Time history analysis of a structure in a spread sea 166

4.4.3 Time history analysis of a structure in a turbulent wind 166

4.5 Conclusion 167

Notation 167

References 168
 of fixed marine structures
viii Dynamics

Foundations 171

5.1 Introduction 171

5.1.1 Safety factors for foundations 173

5.2 Introduction to soil behaviour 174

5.2.1 174
Permeability
5.2.2 Effective stress 174

5.2.3 Failure of soils 175

5.2.4 Mohr's circle 176

5.2.5 Application of Mohr's circle in conjunction with the

soil failure criterion 178

5.2.6 Drained and undrained loading and liquefaction of sands 181

5.2.7 Consolidation of clays 181

5.2.8 Soil structure, relative density and clay remoulding 182

5.2.9 Stiffness of soils 184

5.2.10 Soil damping 186

5.2.11 Indicative soil properties 187

5.3 Site investigation and testing 188

5.3.1 In-situ measurements 188

5.3.2 Laboratory tests for soil strength 190

5.3.3 Consolidated-drained (CD) triaxial test 191

5.3.4 Consolidated-undrained (CU) triaxial test 192

5.3.5 Unconsolidated-undrained (UU) triaxial test 192

5.3.6 Unconfined compression test 193

5.3.7 Differences between soil properties estimated from drained

and undrained tests 193

5.4 Stability of the seabed surface 194

5.4.1 Scour 194

5.4.2 Mudslides 195

5.4.3 Sand waves, dunes, banks, etc. 196

5.4.4 Subsidence 196

5.5 Gravity structures 196

5.5.1 Finite element (FE) methods 200

5.5.2 Half-space theory 201

5.5.3 Ultimate capacity of gravity foundations 203

5.5.4 Piping 205
5.5.5 Effect of consolidation
bearing capacity on 206
5.5.6 Bearing capacity from published factors 206
5.5.7 Bearing capacity calculated by the method of slices 208
5.5.8 More advanced analysis of foundation capacity 209
5.5.9 Jack-up platforms 209
5.6 Single piles 209
5.6.1 Development of lateral force-deflection (p-y) curves 211
5.6.2 Calculation ofPu 211
5.6.3 p-y curve for clay 213
5.6.4 p-y behaviour in clay under cyclic conditions 215
5.6.5 p-y curve for sand 216
5.6.6 Compression capacity of piled foundations 217
5.6.7 Tension capacity 218
5.6.8 Scour and cavities 219
5.6.9 Shaft resistance in sand 219
5.6.10 Shaft resistance clayin 219
5.6.11 Shaft resistance displacement (t-z)
-

curves 220
5.6.12 End bearing capacity of piles 220
5.6.13 Axial end bearing -

displacement (q-z) curves 221

5.6.14 Torsional moment-rotation curves 222
5.6.15 Piles in calcareous soils 222
 Contents lx

5.7 Including foundation behaviour in global structural analysis 222

5.7.1 The use of
substructuring for the
quasi-static analysis
of on piled foundations
structures 223
5.7.2 Linearised foundation tangent stiffness for quasi-static

analysis of structures on piled foundations 229

5.7.3 Linearised foundation secant stiffness for dynamic analysis

of structures on piled foundations 236

5.8 Pile groups 240

5.8.1 Pile group axial capacity 240

5.8.2 Pile group lateral capacity 241

5.8.3 Force-deflection analysis of piles in groups 241

Notation 242

Ref erences 244

6 Vaves and wave loading 249

6.1 Introduction 249

6.2 Waves and currents 249
6.2.1 Regular waves 249
6.2.2 Particle motions 252

6.2.3 Mass transport 253

6.2.4 Group velocity Q 253

6.2.5 Ocean waves 255
6.2.6 Sea 255
6.2.7 Swell 255
6.2.8 Significant wave height and mean zero crossing period 256
6.2.9 Spectrum 257
6.2.10 Scatter diagrams 257

6.2.11 Persistence diagrams 258

6.2.12 Sea-state cycles 259
6.2.13 Effect of the seabed on wave characteristics 260

6.2.14 261
Shoaling
6.2.15 Diffraction 261

6.2.16 Refraction 261

6.2.17 Reflection 262

6.2.18 Absorption 262
6.2.19 Wave breaking 262
6.2.20 Currents 263
6.3 Measurement 265
6.3.1 Water surface elevation 265
6.3.2 Water particle velocities 266
6.4 Forecasting 267
6.4.1 General 267
6.4.2 Extrapolation to extreme values from measurements 267
6.4.3 Obtaining a long term description of the sea from measurements 269
6.4.4 Forecasting wave height and period from wind and fetch 269
6.4.5 Forecasting long term statistics of wave height and period 270
271
6.4.6 Forecasting currents
271
6.4.7 Computer modelling
6.4.8 Joint probability 271

6.5 Water surface elevation spectra 272

6.5.1 Introduction 272

6.5.2 Bretschneider and Pierson-Moscowitz spectra 275

6.5.3 JONSWAP spectra 276

Effect of alternative units 278

6.5.4 frequency
6.5.5 Directional spectra 279

Selection of 282
6.5.6 spectral shape
283
6.6 Individual wave scatter diagrams
Introduction 283
6.6.1
 of fixed marine structures
x Dynamics

6.6.2 The wave height exceedence method 283

6.6.3 Individual wave height period joint probability diagrams

-
284

6.7 Wave modelling 285

6.7.1 Introduction 285

6.7.2 Basic physics 286

6.7.3 Mathematical manipulations 288

6.7.4 Wave theories 293

6.7.5 Regular wave theories 293

6.7.6 Linear wave theory 293

6.7.7 Stokes' wave theories 296
6.7.8 Cnoidal regular theory 298

6.7.9 Stream function wave theories 299

6.7.10 Other regular wave theories 299

6.7.11 Selection of suitable regular wave theory 300

6.7.12 Irregular (but specified profile) wave theories 304

6.7.13 Random wave theories 304

6.7.14 Breaking waves 305

6.7.15 Wave current interaction 306

6.8 Hydrodynamic loading 307

6.8.1 Introduction 307

6.8.2 Morison's equation 308
6.8.3 Selection of Cd and C,,, 308
6.8.4 Diffraction 321
6.8.5 Interference 321
6.8.6 Wave slam and
slap 323
6.8.7 Structural motion, hydrodynamic added mass and damping 327
6.9 Analysis of structures subject to extreme and fatigue hydrodynamic
loading 328
6.9.1 Discussion of wave loading on offshore structures 328
6.9.2 Sine wave fitting and complex number methods 329
6.9.3 Analysis of wave frequency loading and structural response 330
6.9.4 Deterministic analysis 330
6.9.5 Frequency domain spectral analysis 334
6.9.6 Time domain spectral analysis with linear random wave theory 336
6.9.7 Time domain spectral analysis -

non-linear random wave theory 337

Notation 337
References 339

7 Vortex-induced forces 345

7.1 The forces on stationary circular cylinders 347

7.2 Flow speeds for response of cylinders in steady flow 353
7.2.1 Critical velocities for cross-flow motion 353
7.2.2 Critical velocities for in-line motion 354
7.3 Structural response in steady flow 356
7.3.1 Harmonic model 356
7.3.2 Effective mass per unit length: me 360
7.3.3 Criteria for vortex-induced response 361
7.3.4 Predictions of amplitude of response of risers 363
7.4 Vortex shedding in waves 364
7.4.1 Introduction 364
7.4.2 A stationary cylinder in waves 365
7.4.3 Effects of irregular waves, cylinder
orientation, wave
directionality, currents, roughness and interference 369
7.4.4 A compliant cylinder in waves 370
7.5 Devices for preventing vortex-induced oscillations 372
7.5.1 Strakes 373
7.5.2 Shrouds 375
7.5.3 Fairings 375
 Contents xl

7.5.4 Air bubbles 378

7.5.5 Structural damping devices 378
7.6 The effect of other flow and structural properties 378
7.7 Flow calculations 382
7.7.1 Hydrodynamic damping 382
7.7.2 Computational flow techniques 384
7.8 Analysis sequence 385
Notation 388
Ref erences 389

8 Wind turbulence 395

8.1 Introduction 395

8.2 The structure of strong winds 398
8.2.1 Origin of the wind 398
8.2.2 Weather systems 398
8.2.3 The
atmospheric boundary layer 399
8.2.4 Atmospheric stability 400
8.2.5 Equilibrium 402
8.2.6 Summary 403
8.3 Statistical description of turbulence 403
8.3.1 Turbulence statistics 403
8.3.2 Turbulence -

single point statistics 406

8.3.3 Turbulence -

two point statistics 413

8.4 Wind data 418
8.4.1 The mean wind 419
8.4.2 The turbulent gusts 427
8.4.3 Non-neutral wind conditions 443
8.5 Turbulence loads 444
8.5.1 Aerodynamic loading 444
8.5.2 Aerodynamic damping 448
8.6 Calculation of response 451
8.6.1 Theory 451
8.6.2 Calculation of response -

lattice structures 452

8.6.3 Calculation of response -

single members 454

8.6.4 Extreme value analysis 461
8.6.5 Fatigue life analysis 462
8.7 Choice of method 463
8.7.1 Comparison of methods 463
8.7.2 Analysis hints 465
Notation 466
Bibliography 468
Ref erences 469
Annex 8A ESDU data items 471
Annex 8B Derivation of theory 471
8.B. 1 Turbulence loads (direct method, ESDU method) 471
8.B.2 Single-member methods 479
8.B.3 General methods 491

9 Installation 503

9.1 Introduction 503

9.2 Transportation 503
9.2.1 Barge motions 503
9.2.2 Cargo loading and response 505
9.2.3 Barge flexibility 507
9.2.4 Slam 508
9.2.5 Self-floating substructures 510
9.3 Launch and up-ending 511
9.3.1 Jacket launch analysis 512
 of fixed marine structures
xli Dynamics

513
9.3.2 Analysis method
514
9.4 Lift
lift 516
9.4.1 Single degree of freedom analysis
517
9.4.2 Computer analysis of crane dynamic response
9.4.3 Selection of load conditions for analysis 518
518
9.5 Docking over a template
518
9.6 On-bottom stability
9.7 Pile driving 520
523
9.7.1 Mathematical analysis
9.8 Installation of gravity structures 527

Notation 528

Ref erences 529

10 Earthquakes 531

10.1 Introduction 531

for earthquake loads 531

10.2 Design philosophy
534
10.3 Theory
10.3.1 The response spectrum method -
overview 534

10.3.2 SDOF lumped-mass system 536

10.3.3 Derivation of response spectra 537
10.3.4 Use of response spectra -
SDOF structure 538

10.3.5 MDOF lumped-mass system 539

10.4 Design data 544

10.4.1 Accelerograms 544

10.4.2 Response spectra 546

10.4.3 Directionality of loading 547

10.5 Specification of design earthquakes 548

10.5.1 Earthquake magnitude and intensity 548
10.5.2 Source evaluation 550

10.5.3 Source-to-site attenuation 552

10.5.4 Construction of the response spectrum 554

10.5.5 Site response analysis 556

10.5.6 Design data for North Sea sites 559

10.6 Calculation of structural response 561

10.6.1 Foundation model 562

10.6.2 Structure model 566

10.6.3 Analysis methods 569

10.6.4 Choice of analysis 578
10.6.5 Analysis of
secondary systems 580
10.7 Structural configuration for seismic resistance 580

10.7.1 Global configuration (jacket structures) 583

10.7.2 Joint detailing (jacket structures) 583
10.7.3 Gravity structures 584
Annex 10A Sources of accelerogram data 585
Notation 586
Bibliography 587
Ref erences 587

11 Strength and fatigue 593

11.1 Introduction 593

11.1.1 Limit states 593
11.1.2 Safety factors 594
11.1.3 Unity checks 596
11.1.4 Non-linear complications with dynamic analysis 597
11.2 Strength assessment 598
11.2.1 Local modes of failure (yield, fracture, buckling) 598
11.2.2 Yield 598
11.2.3 Buckling 599
 Contents xill

11.2.4 Beam columns 601

11.2.5 Joint strength 602
11.2.6 Deterministic quasi-static strength analysis 602
11.2.7 Frequency domain 'spectral' analysis 603
11.2.8 Response spectra analysis 606
11.2.9 Avoiding non-linearities in frequency domain analysis 606
11.2.10 Possible methods of linearisation 607
11.2.11 Time history analysis 608
11.3 Fatigue assessment 609
11.3.1 S-N curves 609
11.3.2 Miner's rule 610
11.3.3 Deterministic fatigue analysis 611
11.3.4 Spectral fatigue analysis 6i3
11.3.5 Narrow band spectra 613

11.3.6 Broad band spectra 616

11.3.7 Stress concentration factors 622

11.3.8 Non-linearities which affect spectral fatigue analysis 623

11.4 Fracture assessment 625

11.4.1 Brittle fracture 626

11.4.2 Application of fracture mechanics to fast fracture 628

11.4.3 Crack propagation 634

11.5 Overall analysis methods 636

11.5.1 Dynamic characteristics of environmental loading 636
11.5.2 Methods of handling the frequency content 637
11.5.3 Methods of structural analysis 638
11.5.4 Wave frequency loading 638

11.5.5 Wave slam and slap 640

11.5.6 Vortex shedding loading 640

11.5.7 Wind loading 640

11.5.8 Earthquake loading 641

Notation 642

References 644

12 Examples 649

12.1 Analyses of a single pile platform 650

12.1.1 Modelling method 651

12.1.2 Preliminary estimate of natural period 652

12.1.3 Foundation model: p-y curves 652

12.1.4 Time history dynamic analysis 653

12.1.5 Secant stiffness, linearised foundation, for frequency domain

dynamic analysis 657

12.1.6 Linear frequency domain analysis 660

12.1.7 Comparison of time and frequency domain analysis 661

12.1.8 Fatigue analysis 662

662
12.1.9 Semi-probabilistic fatigue analysis
666
12.1.10 Spectral fatigue analysis
12.1.11 The 2.5 second rule 667
669
12.1.12Comparison of fatigue analysis methods
670
12.2 Dynamic response of a jack-up platform
12.2.1 Problem definition 670

12.2.2 Outline methodology 670

12.2.3 Estimation of natural period 672

12.2.4 Selection of extreme regular wave 675

12.2.5 Wave theory 676

loading 676
12.2.6 Regular wave

12.2.7 Structural analysis of static response to regular wave

current 677
plus
Results of analysis 678
12.2.8 regular wave
xlv Dynamics of fixed marine structures

12.2.9 Spectrum for frequency domain, spectral analysis

random wave, 678
12.2.10 Selection of linearwave theory 679

12.2.11 Calculation of wave particle kinematics at a range of depths

and wave periods 679

12.2.12 Combination of particle velocities with spectrum to determine

the rms velocity and linearised drag force equation at any
location 681

12.2.13 Mode shape and the consistentperiod natural 683

12.2.14 Hydrodynamic and structural

damping 685

12.2.15 Spectral calculation of additional dynamic response to loading

in the vicinity of the structural natural period 686

12.2.16 Frequency multiplying effects 690

12.2.17 Wind force on the structure 690
12.2.18 Summation of the separately calculated deflections 690
12.3 Vortex shedding example 691
12.3.1 Basic data 692
12.3.2 Calculation of mode 1 frequency and mode shape 693
12.3.3 Calculation of mode 1 reduced velocity, stability parameter and

response 695
12.3.4 Calculation of mode 2 frequency and mode shape 696
12.3.5 Calculation of mode 2 reduced velocity, stability parameter

and response 697

12.3.6 Calculation of mode 3 frequency and mode shape 698
12.3.7 Combination of in-line and cross-flow response 699
12.3.8 Vortex shedding in waves 699
12.3.9 Wave synchronised vortex shedding 701
References 701
12.4 Wind turbulence example 702
12.4.1 Extreme response analysis 702
Static design 702
Direct method 703
ESDU method 715
WINDSPEC method 721
Summary 721
12.4.2 Fatigue life
analysis 722
Omnidirectional analysis (u-component only) 722
Directional analysis (u-component only) 723
Directional analysis (u and v-components) 724
Summary 725
12.5 Earthquake example 727
12.5.1 Modelling 727
12.5.2 Member stiffness matrix 729
12.5.3 Formation of global stiffness matrix 730
12.5.4 Deflection under a static horizontal force 730
12.5.5 Mass matrix 731
12.5.6 Polynomial method for the calculation of natural 731
frequencies
12.5.7 Vector iteration method for the calculation of mode shapes 735
12.5.8 Generalised mass for each mode 736
12.5.9 Spectral displacement and acceleration for each natural
frequency 738
12.5.10 Response to horizontal ground acceleration 739
12.5.11 Response to vertical ground motion 741
12.5.12 Summation of directions 743
12.5.13 Static coefficient method 743
References 744

Appendix A Complex number representation of amplitude and phase 745

A. 1 Plotting on the complex phase -

phasor diagrams 745

 Contents xv

A. 2 Calculations using 0° and -90° loading and response as real and

imaginary parts 746

A. 3 e<x+iy> 747
A. 4 Negative frequencies 747
A.5 Complex number multiplication and division 748
A. 6 Complex number inversion: 1/Z 748
A.7 Phase lead and lag 749

Appendix B The Gamma Function 750

Appendix C Consistent units 751

Appendix D Stiffness matrix of a 3-d beam element 752

Appendix E Useful data and formulae 754

Index 757