Chapter 4: EQUATIONS OF FLOW RESISTANCE

INTRODUCTION

In an open channel flow, if the resistive force is more than

the weight component then the flow velocity decreases and
flow depth increases. However, if the weight component is
more than the resistive force, then the flow velocity
increases and flow depth decrease. Thus if the channel is
long and prismatic, the flow, either accelerates or retards
for some distance until the accelerating and resisting forces
are equal. From that point on, the flow velocity and flow
depth remain constant as shown in the following figure.
Such a flow in which the flow depth does not change with
distance is called uniform flow and the corresponding flow
depth is called normal depth.

FLOW RESISTANCE

The effect of flow resistance is that flow velocity reduces

towards sides and bottom of the channel because air being
lighter than water has little resistance. Because of the
variation in resistance along the wetted perimeter and
because of the shape of the channel cross section,
secondary currents are usually set up in the free surface
flows even if the channel is straight. In addition, the shear
resistance offered to flow at the channel boundaries is not
uniform. However, to simplify the analysis, the flow will be
assumed as one dimensional, i.e., there are no secondary
currents in the flow and the shear resistance to flow at the
boundaries is uniform.

EQUATIONS OF FLOW RESISTANCE

The equation relating various flow variables to the channel

resistance is initially derived for non-uniform flow and then
converted for uniform flow.

CHEZY EQUATION

Chezy equation is based on the following assumptions:

1. The flow is steady.

2. The slope of the channel bottom is small.
3. The channel is prismatic.
Consider a control volume of length x as shown in the
following figure. On the U/S side of this control volume, let
the distance be x, flow velocity be V, and the flow depth be
y.
Then the values of these variable at the D/S side will be
x + x, V + (dV/dx) x, and y + (dy/dx) x.

The following forces are acting on the control volume:

pressure force on the U/S side, F1; pressure force on the
D/S side, F2 and F3; a component of the weight of water in
the control volume in the D/S direction, Wx; and the shear
force, Ff acting on the channel bottom and the sides.
From the figure it is clear that
Pressure Force, F  A z  (1)1

Where
z  Depth of the centroid of flow area A below the water

surface
  Specific weight of water
Weight component in D/S direction,
W  Ax sin   ( 2)
x

If θ is small then sin   tan   dz / dx (negative sign shows that

z decreases as x increases), hence we may write Eq. (2)
dz
W  A x  (3)
x dx
 The pressure force acting on the D/S side of the control
volume may be divided into two parts as shown in the
above figure. F2 is the pressure force due to flow depth y
and F3 is the pressure force for the increase in depth in
distance, ∆x. Now
F2  A z
dy
And F  A
dx
x  (4) 3

Shearing force at the channel bottom=

F   o Px  (5)
f

Where τo is average shearing stress, and P = wetted

perimeter.
Now the resultant force, Fr acting on the control volume in
the D/S direction is
Fr  F  F1   F2  F3   W  F  (6)
x f

Substituting the values in Eq. (6), we get

 dy   dz 
F  A z   A z  A x     A x    o Px
r  dx   dx 
dy dz
F  A z  A z  A x  A x   o Px
r dx dx
 dy dz P 
F  Ax   o   (7)
r  dx dx A 
Applying Reynolds transport theorem

 F  xx  x VAdx  ( AV ) 2  ( AV )1  (8)
2 2
t
since the flow is assumed to be steady; the first term on the
RHS of this equation is zero.

Substituting Eq. (7) in Eq. (8)

 dy dz P 
V   AV  x  x   AV  x   Ax    o

 dx dx A 
V   AV  x  x   AV  x   dy dz P 
   
 dx  o

Ax  dx A 
 
V  x  x  x  A dV 
dx   dy  dz  P o 
gAx  dx dx A 
 
On simplifying, we get
V dV  dy dz P 
    o   (9)
g dx  dx dx A 
dy dz V dV
Or   R (  
dx dx g
o
dx
)  (10)

Where R = A/P
Eq. (10) may be simplified as
d V2
 o  R (y  z  )
dx 2g
dH
 o  R  (11)
dx
 o  RS f

Where S f is slope of energy grade line =  dH dx

For steady uniform flow, we have dV dx  0 and dy dx  0 also
s   dz dx
 therefore Eq. (11) may be written as
 o  RS o  (12)
Based on dimensional analysis, we may write
 o  kV 2  (13)

k is a dimensionless constant which depends on Reynolds

number and roughness of the channel bottom and sides.
g
V RS  (14)
k f

This equation may be written as

V C RS
f

Where C is called Chezy constant, this equation is valid for

non-uniform steady flow. For uniform flow we get
V  C RS o  (15)

MANNING EQUATION
Several researchers tried to develop a relationship for
estimating the value of the Chezy constant C. Ganguillet
and Kutter proposed a complex formula for C. Later, based
on field observations, Gauckler and Hagen showed that
C  R1 / 6  (1)

An Irish engineer, R. Manning proposed the followed

following for estimating velocity in open channels.
1
V  ( R) 2 / 3 ( S )1 / 2  (2)
n f
Where n is called Manning coefficient and its value
depends on surface roughness, amount of vegetation.
Values of for different channels are given in the following
table.

COMPUTATION OF NORMAL DEPTH

The Manning formula for uniform flow in FPS system is

given by
 Co
Q  VA  A( R) 2 / 3 ( S o )1 / 2  (4  29)
n
Where Co = 1.49

For a specified channel section and for given depth of flow,

we may write
Q  K ( S o )1 / 2  ( 4  30)

Where
Co
K AR 2 / 3  (4  31)
n
K is called conveyance factor for the channel section.
Manning equation can be written as
nQ
AR 2 / 3   (4  32)
Co S o1 / 2

The L.H.S is called section factor. Thus, for the specified

values of n, Q, and So, we solve this equation to determine
the normal depth in a given channel. Design curves are
available for trapezoidal and circular section to determine
the RHS.

DESIGN CURVES
Design curves are presented in Fig. 4-5 for a trapezoidal
and for a circular channel section. If we want to determine
the normal depth for a specified discharge in a given
channel section, then we know Q, n, and So. Therefore, we
can compute the right hand side of Eq. 4-32. Let us divide
this computed value by Bo8/3 if the channel section is
trapezoidal and by Do8/3 if the channel cross section is
circular. The resulting value is then equal to AR2.3 /Bo8/3 for
a trapezoidal section and equal to AR2/3/Do8/3 for a circular
cross section. Now, y B or y D corresponding to the
n  n 

value of AR2/3/Bo8/3or AR2/3/Do8/3 may be read directly from

Fig. 4-5.
TRIAL-AND-ERROR PROCEDURE
Substitute expressions for the flow area, A, and hydraulic
radius, R, and the values of n, Q, and So into Eq. 4-32 and
then solve the resulting equation by a trial-and-error
procedure.
NUMERICAL METHODS
Several methods, such as the bisection method, method of
successive approximations, and Newton method, are
available (McCracken and Dorn 1964) for solving Eq. 4-32,
we discuss only the Newton method.
To determine yn by this method, we write Eq 4-32 as
2 nQ
F ( y )  AR 3  0
n 1
C S 2
 
For the Newton method, we need the first derivative of
function F. An expression for this derivative may be
obtained as follows:
 
 
dF d  53  23 nQ 
 A P 
dy dy  1 
n n C S 2 
 o  
Since dA / dyn  B For a trapezoidal section having side slopes
of s horizontal to 1 vertical, dP dy  2 1  s 2
n similar
expressions for other channel sections may be obtained.
The following example will help in understanding these
procedures for determining the normal depth. The computer
programs included in Appendix C illustrate the application
of the Newton and bisection methods.

Figure 4-5 Curves for computation of normal depth (After

Chow, Open-Channel Hydraulics 1959).
Example 4-1
Compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel
having a bottom width of 10 m and side slopes of 2H to
1V and carrying a flow of 30m3/sec. The slope of the
channel bottom is 0.001 and n = 0.013
Given
Q = 30 m3/s
N = 0.013
Bo = 10 m
S=2
So = 0.001
Co = 1.0
Determine
yn =?
Solution
We use the given procedures one by one to determine yn.

Design curves
By substituting the values of n, Q and So into RHS of
above equation we get
nQ 0.013  30

12 12
C S 1 (0.001)
o o

Hence AR 2 / 3  12.33

AR 2 / 3 12.33
Now B 8/3
o

(10)8 / 3
 0.026

For s = 2 and AR2/3/Bo8/3 = 0.026, it can be seen in the

design curves that yn/Bo = 0.11
Hence yn = 0.11 x 10 =1.1 m
Trial and Error Procedure
By using the data for the channel, we obtain the
following expression for A and R.
 A
1

y 10  10  2sy
2 n n 
A  y (10  2 y )
n n

PB2 s 2  1y
n
P  10  4.47 y
n
y (10  2 y )
R n n
10  4.47 y
n

Now substituting these expressions for A and R into

AR2/3 = 12.33 and simplifying the resulting equation, we
obtain
 yn (10  2 yn )5 / 3  12.33(10  4.47 yn )2 / 3  0
A trial and error solution of this equation yields
yn = 1.09 m

Numerical Method

To compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel,

the computer program of Appendix C-1 uses the Newton
method and the computer program of Appendix C-2
uses the bisection method.
COMPOUND CROSS SECTION

A compound cross section may be defined as a section in

which various sub areas have different flow properties, e.g.,
surface roughness, etc. A natural stream having over bank
flow during a flood is a typical example of a compound
section. The roughness of the over banks is usually higher
than that of the main channel; and, therefore, the flow
velocity in the main channel is higher than that in the over
bank flow.

The analysis of flow in a compound section becomes

complex if the flow in each sub area is considered
separately. This requires the use of a two- or three
dimensional models or to apply a one-dimensional model
separately to each sub area by considering the flow in each
sub-area as parallel flow and allowing for the exchange of
mass and momentum between the adjacent sub areas.
In a straight channel, the water surface should be level over
the entire cross section, since the pressure along any
horizontal line must be constant although the flow velocity
may vary from one sub area to the next. Due to different
flow velocity, the level of the energy grade line is different
in each sub area. Thus, there is no common level for the
energy grade line for the entire section. To avoid this
complexity, we derive in this section expression for the
energy coefficient, α, and for Sf in terms of the conveyance
factor, K, of the sub areas. With these expressions, the flow
in a compound section may be computed without knowing
the individual flows in each sub area.
Let us subdivide the compound section into N sub areas.
We want to derive an expression for the energy coefficient,
α, such that the velocity head for the entire section =
 2 / 2g 
 Vm  , in which Vm = mean flow velocity in the
 
compound section. In Chapter 1, we derived the following
expression

3
 iN Vi Ai
  (4 39)
V 3  iN A
m i
In which N= number of sub areas. By substituting

 Vi Ai
V   (4  40)
m  Ai
Q
And V  i
i A into Eq. 4-39 and simplifying the
i
resulting equation, we obtain
  3 
 Q 
 i  2
 2 

 A
i


 A 
  i   (4  41)
 3
 Q 
 i
Now the flow in sub area i may be written as

1
Q  K S 2  (4  42)
i fi
1 Q
S 2  i  (4  43)
fi K
i
Let us assume that Sf has the same value for all sub
areas.i.e. Sfi=Sf (i=1, 2, 3... N).
Then on the basis of Eq.4-43, we may write the following
for each sub area:

1 Q
S 2  i  (4  43)
fi K
i
Q Q
1 N
K K
1 N
Q Q
2 N
K K
2 N
.
.
 .
Q Q
i N
K K
i N
Q Q
N  N
K K
N N
It follows from this equation that
Q
Q K N
1 1K
N
Q
Q K N
2 2K
N
.
.
.
Q
Q K N
N N K
N
The addition of the preceding equation yields
Q
Q Q  N  K
i K i
N
By substituting this expression for  Q i and
Q 
 
Q K  N  into Eq. 4-41and simplifying the
i i K 
 N 
resulting equation, we obtain
  
 K3 

2


i
  A 

2
A  i
  i   (4  47)
 3
 K 
 i
Q
The elimination of N from Esq. 4-44 and 4-46 and
K
N
squaring both sides give
 2
 Q 
S   i 
f K


 i 

Q2
  (4  48)
 2
 K 
 i
Now we have expressions for both α and S f such that we
do not have to know the flow in each sub area,
Qi (i=1, 2, 3…N), to compute α and S f .
Problem 4-1
A 5-m wide rectangular channel is carrying a flow of 5
m3/s, If the Manning n= 0.013 and the bottom slope,
So= 0.001, determine the normal depth.
Solution
Given
B=5m
Q=5m3/s
n=0.013
So= 0.001
a) design curves method

nQ 0.0135 2
  2. 055  AR 3
Section factor:
S
1
2  
0.001 2
1

2
AR 3 2.055
8
 8
 0.028
B 3 5 3
2
AR 3
For a rectangular channel and
8
 0.028 figure.4.5
B 3
gives
y
n  0.128
B
y  0.1285  0.64m
n

b) trial and error method

 We know that the area of a rectangle
A  By  5 y
n n
Wetted perimeter
P 2 y  B 2 y 5
n n
A 5y
R  n
P 2 y 5
n
Therefore:
2
  3
 5y
2
AR  5 y 
3 n   2.055
n 2 y  5 
 n 
Or
5 2
14.62 y 3  2.055 2 y  5 3
 0  (1)
n  n 
Substituting values in equation (1) we get
y f(y)
0.6 -0.69
0.7 0.984
0.64 -0.05
0.645 0.037

yn = 0.64 m

Problem 4-14
An 8-ft diameter concrete-lined sewer is laid at a bottom
slope of 1 ft/mile. Find the flow depth for a flow of 30
ft3/sec.
Solution
Assume steady- uniform flow therefore y  y n
1
S   0.000189
5280
From table 4.1 n  0.013
nQ 0.01330
 19.019
1.49S 2 1.490.000189 2
1 1

a) Design curves
2
AR 3 19.019
8
 8
 0.0742 We get from design
D 3 8 3

curves
y
n  0.33
D

y  0.338  2.64 ft
n
b) Numerical solution
Expressing AR2/3 in terms of the angle θ we get
5


 1   sin   2
D 

 
3
 8
19.019
2
1
 D  3
 2 
The solution is θ=2.46 rad, which corresponds to
 D   
y  
n 1 cos   2.64 ft
2  2
y  2.64 ft
n

Problem 4-17
The flow depth at a section in a long rectangular channel
changes from 4 ft to 5 ft. Determine the percentage change
in the rate of discharge.
Solution
Percentage change of rate of discharge
From Manning’s equation:
1.49 2 1
Q AR S 2
3
n
5
  3
 By 
1.49  1 1
Q 
  (1)
S2
At 4 ft depth 1 2
n   3
 B2y 
 1
5
  3
 By 
1.49  2 1
At 5 ft depth Q  S 2  (2)
2 n 
2
 3

 B2y 
 2
Dividing Eq. (1) by Eq. (2)
 5 2
  3   3
Q  By   B2y 
1  1  2
Q  5 2
2  By 
 3  
 B2y  3
 2  1
5 2
Q 
 y  3  B  2 y  3
1  1  2  (3)
Q  y   B  2 y 
2  2  1
Assuming a wide rectangular channel:
B2y B
2
B2y B
1

Then Eq. (3) becomes as

 
5 2
Q y  3  B  3
1  1 

    (4)
Q y  
 B 

2 
2   

y1 4
  0.8 , we get
y2 5
Q
1  0.8 5 3  0.689
Q
2
Q
100 1  68.9 ٪
Q
2
Q1 is 68.9 percent of Q2.

Problem 4-19
Is the flow sub critical or supercritical in a 4-m wide
rectangular channel for a discharge of 9m3/s? The bottom
slope is 0.005 and n = 0.014.
Given
B= 4 m
Q= 9 m3/s
So=0.005
n=0.014
Solution:
a) critical depth:

Q2
y 3
c
gB 2

92
y 3  0.802m
c
9.81 4 2

b) assume steady-uniform flow and compute the

normal depth:
2 nQ 0.0149
AR 3   1.065
S 0.005

5
  3
 By 
 n 1.065
And
2
 
 B2y  3
 n
 5 2
  3 1.065 B  2 y  3 0
 By  
 n  n
By trial and error method we get,
yn= 0.5m
In this case as y n  yc , therefore, the flow is
supercritical.

Problem 4-23
Compute the discharge in a 12-ft wide rock channel
(n = 0.035) having a bottom slope of 0.001 and flow depth
of 3 ft. What is the critical depth at this flow? Is the flow
critical, sub critical, or supercritical?
Solution
Compute the flow rate
1.49 2 1
Q AR S 2  (1)
3
n 
A  By 12 3  36 ft 2
A 123 36
R    2 ft
P 12  6 18
Putting the values of A and R in Eq. (1), we get

1.49 2 1 1. 49 2 1
Q AR S 2 
3     
 36 2   0.001 2
3
n  0.035     

76.93
Q  76.93cfs Or q   6.41cfs / ft
12
The critical depth is
 2
y  3 q  3  6. 41 2
c g 32.2
y 1.085 ft y  y So the flow is sub
c c
critical.