Chapter No .

05

Dams
INTRODUCTION
A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river or a stream to impound
part of runoff from the catchment u/s of the dam. During wet periods the water is
conserved and is used in the lean or dry seasons as per requirement. The rate at which
water is required to meet the demands of irrigation, hydropower, watersupply; flood
control rarely conforms to the pattern of water availability.
USES
1. The water collected in this lake can be used for recreation or as a reservoir of
drinking water, or they can be tapped off into surrounding farm land.
2. The energy of this collected water can be used to turn a mill to grind wheat or to
turn the blades of a turbine to generate electrical power.
3. The dams can serve as protections for the towns and cities farther down the
river.
INVESTIGATION SURVEY
The object of investigation and studies for a dam site is to evolve a suitable
location, design and construction of the dam structure which is expeditious, economical
and at the same time effects the desired impounding of water.

TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY
The topographical survey may be preliminary and final.

Preliminary Survey
Besides reconnaissance of area, the preliminary survey aims at obtaining
sufficient details to establish merits and demerits of various site, the most economical
and suitable dam site & tentative cost. It also includes trial borings, geological and
hydrological studies.
FINAL SURVEY
Final survey is conducted in respect of the finally selected site to more precise
data for detailed design and precise estimates of the construction cost, besides the
following:-
(1) The dam site topographical map is prepared to cover an area sufficient to
accommodate all possible arrangements such as spillway; outlet works diversion works
etc. for a large structure a scale of 1/1000 with contours at intervals of 2 m are
adequate. The plan will cover an area at least up to about 200m u/s and 400m d/s of the
dam site and extend well beyond the abutments.
(2) The reservoir submergence plan may be prepared showing elevation high
enough to allow anticipated maximum reservoir level
(3) Command area plan is prepared
(4) River is surveyed 10km u/s and 10km d/s.
(5) L- Section is prepared for the canals.
(6) Survey plan of power house is prepared
(7) L-Section of penstock and tail race channel is prepared.
(8) Survey plan of surge tank area is prepared.
(9) Plan table surveying for the selection of suitable site for residential colony,
workshop complex is done.
(10) Estimate is done for excavation filling and concrete work etc.
(11) Computation of the quantum of land acquisition and compensation for the land
and the property to be submerged.
(12) Determination of the type and height of the dam
(13) Areal survey as the reservoir is usually large and the areal survey will be good
enough for computing the capacity at various levels and land/properties to be
submerged.
(14) Determination of capacity
(a) Reservoir area is computed in M-m3 or ha – m by using the planimeter on
contour map
(b) Storage is measured using a formula such as cone formula

H  
V=  A + A + A A 
3 1 2 1 2 
Where A1 is area at one contour, A2 is area at another contour (sq km) and H is contour
interval (m).
Following graphs shows area –elevation and storage – elevation curve.

Simpson formula
a) Volume between any odd number of contours

H       
V= 2 A + A + .....+ A  + 4 A + A +.....+ A  +  A + A 

3   1 2 n   2 4 n −1  1 2 
H
V = (2 times the sum of areas of odd contours + 4 times the sum of areas of even
3
contours + areas of first and last contours)
b) For even number of contours
 2H    
V= A + A +.....+ A  + 2 A + A +.....+ A 
 2
3 
4 
m   1 3 m −1
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION
Geological Investigation is carried out to collect data regarding
(i) Geological features folds, faults, fissures etc their nature and extent.
(ii) Water tightness of the reservoir basin
(iii) Existing and potential slide area
(iv) Assessment of valuable minerals in reservoir area
(v) Ground water condition
(vi) Seismic conditions etc.
(vii) Properties of foundation soil, hidden weak spots and shear zones, etc.

FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION
Foundation Investigation for earth, rockfill, masonry dams includes
investigation to determine properties of foundation soil, hidden weak spots and shear
zones etc and depth of overburden usual methods of exploration comprise
(i) Bore holes
(ii) Excavation of open pits
(iii) Tunneling into the side of the valley
(iv) Core drilling

Meteorological Studies
(i) On the watershed plan is shown normal annual isohyets (rain fall contours)
location of raingange stations, stations, gauge and discharge sites and interprovincial
boundaries.
(ii) Assessment of rainfall in the catchments
(iii) Collection and evaluation of data and frequencies of heavy rain fall
(iv) Mean monthly temperature, wind velocities, relative humidity
Hydrological Investigation
These investigations include:-
a) Gauge and discharge observation extending for at least five years at project site
b) Hourly gauges and discharges during flood occurrence and survey map of flood
marks of past floods.
c) Determination of observed river hydrographs to fix the spillway capacity of the
reservoir.
d) Criteria to be followed in the estimation of design flood.
e) Rain-fall correlation studies, critical rainfall condition in regard to the intensity
and duration in the drainage area above the dam site.
f) Estimation of annual yields and their break up into monthly, monsoon and non-
monsoon runoff.
g) Actual 10 daily observed runoff pattern for runoff of the river projects.
h) Estimated yields reliabilities of 75%, 90% and 100% for the irrigation power
and water supply projects respectively.
SEDIMENT STUDIES
Loss of storage capacity by silting is a very vital issue for determining the
useful life of the reservoir. Sediment observation shall be carried for 3 years for
suspended load, bed load and natural soil conditions including catchment characteristics
from point of erosion. Chemical and petrographic analysis of river water shall be done.

CONSTRUCTION METERIAL INVESTIGATION

A map showing the location of construction material is prepared. E.g. rock,
coarse aggregate, cement, etc.
COMMUNICATION
Map is prepared to show, existing roads, proposed roads water and rail routes
with information on load and size limitation, electric power source and transmission
lines, telephone lines and rerouting of communication system if disrupted.
ENVIRONOMENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS
The impact of the project on navigation, fish culture, wild life, ground water and
ecology of the area is determined.

SLECTION OF DAM SITE

There are various considerations for the final selection of a dam site.
(i) Good catchment u/s of dam
(ii) Minimum length of dam
(iii) Minimum height of dam
(iv) Suitable foundation
(v) Availability of suitable location for spillway.
(vi) Availability of suitable construction material
(vii) Ensure adequate capacity of reservoir
(viii) Rim of dam and basin of reservoir water light
(ix) Minimum construction and matenance cost
(x) Suitable site for residential colony and offices
(xi) Diversion of river possible during the project period
(xii) Land to be submerged should be of low value
(xiii) Location of dam and appurtenant (related works) should be in one province
(xiv) Good water supply carrying min sediments
(xv) Healthy locality, very cold climate and heavy rainfall impede construction
activities.

SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM

It depends on following factors.

Topography
It is the principal governing factor in the selection of the type of dam. U-Shaped
volley suitable for concrete overflow dam. A narrow V- shaped volley of top width less
than one-fourth of its height with a separate site of its spillway is suitable for arch dam.
A wide gorge with separate site for spillway is suitable for earthen dam. Gravity dam is
suitable if length is less and height is more.

Geology and nature of dam

Geological character, thickness, permeability and inclination of the underlying strata,
existing faults and fissures determine the foundation conditions of the dam. The
selection of the type of dam is governed by the nature of the foundations, as under.
(i) Masonry and concrete dams are constructed on rocky foundation.
(ii) Well compacted gravel foundation is suitable for low gravity dam, earthen
dam and rockfill dam.
(iii) Silty and fine sandy foundation is suitable for earth dam.
(iv) Clay foundation is suitable for earthen dam.

SPILLWAY LOCATION
A suitable site for the required size and type of spillway governs the type of
dam to be constructed. Spillway site and type is influenced by the magnitude of the
flood to be surplused. As such where large capacity spillway is required to cater for
higher magnitude flood, combining the dam and spillway into one structure in the form
of concrete overflow gravity dam is considered. Non-overflow type dam like earth dam
or rock fill dam is suitable where spillway can be located outside the limit of the dam
by excavating through one or both of the abutments.

SAFETY CONSIDERATION
The type of dam suitable for the given foundation and site conditions is also
governed by the safety consideration. Loss of life and property arising from dam
incidents is an indication of the severity in some cases. Safety of dam is of paramount
importance.
AVAILABILITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
Main materials required for the construction of the dams of various types are
a) Sand gravel, crushed stone as concrete aggregate
b) Soils for embankments,
c) Rock for embankment and riprap. Economical availability of these materials
determines the type of dam to be constructed. Where good concrete aggregate
is available, concrete dam is suitable. Where suitable soils are available,
earthen dam is suitable.
EARTHQUAKE ZONE
Earthquake for us should be considered in the design of a dam. Type of dam
suited to resist the earthquake shocks without damage are earth fill dam and concrete
gravity dam.

Purpose and Economics

The type of dam to be constructed depends on the purpose to be served e.g.
storage dam for hydel power, irrigation & floods.

Aesthetic consideration
If it is for recreational purpose then aesthetic beauty is also considered.

Life of dam
Concrete and masonry dams have more life then earthen and rockfill dam.

Type of dams
Various types of dam are gravity dam, arch dam, buttress dam, and Earth and rock fill
dam. The comparative merits and demerits of various types of dams are as follows:
Gravity dam (Advantages)
(i) Suitable for narrow gorge with steep side slopes where earthen dam, if
constructed might slip.
(ii) Built to any height provided sound foundation is available.
(iii) Low maintenance cost.
(iv) Suited to areas with heavy rainfall.
(v) No spillway required if overflow dam
(vi) Outlets can be provided at various elevations to cater for discharging surplus
water.
(vii) Section can be made thinner to economize in cost.
(viii) Failure not sudden.
Disadvantage
(i) Required sound rock foundation. Unsuitable for wide gorge or permeable
foundations on which earth dam can be constructed.
(ii) More costly than earthen dam of same height, especially where foundations
are deep.
(iii) Require elaborate construction plant and machinery besides skilled labor.
(iv) Costly construction material.
(v) Raising difficult if net provided in original design.
(vi) Not suitable in seismic zone
Arch dam

Advantages
(i) Base rock foundation may not be very sound as pressure transmitted to the
foundation is less. Hence suitable for moderate foundation.
(ii) Particularly Suitable for V- shaped gorge where the depth of water stored is
greater than the width of gorge.
(iii) Cheaper then solid gravity dam.
(iv) Less base width so less uplift pressure.
(v) Since only a small part of water load is transferred to the foundation by the
cantilever action an arch dam can be constructed in moderate foundations where gravity
dam requiring sound foundation rock may be unsuitable.

Disadvantages
(i) Requires abutments to be of very sound rock to resist arch thrust.
(ii) The aggregate cost of dam and spillway may make it uneconomical
compared to other types of dam even if the length to height ratio is within economical
limit (5: 1 or 6: 1).
(iii) Required skilled labour.
(iv) Requires elaborate formwork.
(v) Unsuitable for wide gorge.

Buttress dam
Advantages
(i) Requires 60% less concrete than slide gravity dam
(ii) Less pressure on foundation and better distribution of compression stresses
(iii) Power house can be located between buttresses
(iv) Full use of structural conc. Strength can be made.
(v) Decreased uplift pressure
(vi) More stable against sliding
(vii) Specially adapted where further increase in reservoir capacity required.

(vii) Inspection and maintenance easier

(viii) Higher speed of construction because of large exposed area
(ix) Can be built on permeable

Disadvantages
(i) Less stable against lateral thrust and earthquake.
(ii) Require rich concrete mix
(iii) More exposed to failure due to military witch.
(iv) Highly skilled labour required
(v) Sensitive to even minor deterioration as very this concrete
(vi) Careful supervision required during construction
(vii) Not suitable where high labour cost

Earth and rockfill dam

Combined earth & rockfill

Advantages
(i) Adaptable to any type of foundation
(ii) Permit subsequent raising
(iii) Adaptable in seismic zone
(iv) Economical in 1st cost
(v) Wide verity of material can be used
(vi) Comparatively unskilled labour can be employed
(vii) Modern excavatim and compaction equipment helps speedy construction
Disadvantages
(i) Exposed to damage by floods
(ii) Cannot be used as overflow dam
(iii) High maintenance cost
(iv) Unsuitable for high rainfall region
(v) Instrumentation necessary to study behavior of dam during and after
construction add to its cost.
(vi) Outlet at low level cannot be provide so silt removed not possible.
(vii) Failure sudden without warning
(viii) Cannot be constructed for greater height.

Classification of dams
Dams are classified as follows:-

Classification based on hydraulic design

(i) Overflow dams

Overflow dams are designed to pass surplus flood water over the crest. They are
made of concrete or masonary and called spillway dams.

(ii) Non-overflow dams

A non-overflow dam is desi8gned in such a way so that no surplus flood water
overtops it. Surplus water is allowed to pass through spillway constructed separately.

(2) Gravity dams

It depends on self weight to resist the action of water stored on u/s side. It is
rigid type of dam constructed of concrete normally.
Arch Dam
It is curved dam convex u/s that depends principally on arch action for its
stability. The load is transferred to abutments. It is rigid type and made of concrete or
masonry.

Buttress Dam
It is also called follow dam and made of concrete. It is rigid type. Water load
acts on concrete slab (R.C.C) and through buttresses is transferred to foundation.

(3) Classification Based on function

Storage Dam
It is used to store water.

Diversion Dam
It is used to raise water and divert it. It is not used for storage.

Detention Dam
It is constructed to reduce flood peaks by storing the flood flow in excess of the
capacity of spillway or outlet works of dam to minimize the effect of sudden floods.

Check Dam
It is low dam for checking uncontrolled transportation of sediments.

Diversion cum Storage Dam

It serves dual purpose of storing and diversion
(4) Classification Based on Construction Materials
Large Dam
All dams above 15m height, crest length not less than 500m, storage not less than
100000m3 and max flood discharge capacity is not less than 2000m3/sec are called large
dams.

Small Dam
All dams below 15m are called small dams.

APPROVEMENT OF COST OF A MULTIPURPOSE RESERVOIR PROJECT

River valley projects are essentially multipurpose for irrigation and hydel power
generation besides indirect benefits which are achieved form than such as drinking
water flood protection, fishing, navigation, tourism etc. The cost of construction of the
project is apportioned on the basis of the uses for which the reservoir is planned. The
main objective of the allocation is to distribute the cost on justifiable basis amongst the
various purposes beneficiations.
There are different methods toe cost allocations. (Pl.sec page 132 Sharma)
The following example will illustrate these methods.
5.1 A multipurpose valley project has the salient cost data as under. Apportion
the cost among the irrigation and power generation:-
Total cost of the project = Rs 100 crore
Cost of dam portion = Rs 70 crores
Cost of dam irrigation system = Rs 30 crores
Cost of power specialties like penstock
Trash rack structures etc = 10 crores
Cost of dam irrigation specialties = 5 crores
Height of Dam = 150m
Live storage = 2000 M-m3
Storage utilized for power 1200 M-m3
Storage utilized for irrigation = 800 M-m3
Single purpose dam
(i) For power generation = Dam height 135m,
(1200 M-m3 live storage) Cost Rs.70 crores
(ii) For irrigation (800 M-m3 live storage) = Dam ht. 105m cost = 50 crores

SOLUTION
(i) By Equitable Justifiable Method
Cost of common civil works = 70 - 10 - 5 = 55 crores
According to this method, the amount is to be proportional among power and
irrigation facilities in the sation of cost of dam estimated, assuming it was
constructed for providing irrigation and power benefits separately
Hence, share of cost debitable to
55 × 70
Power = = 32crore
(70 + 50)
55 × 50
Share of cost debitable to irrigation = = 23crore
(70 + 50)
Total cost to be born by power
=32 + 10 =42 crores
Total cost to be born by Irrigation
= 23 + 5 + 30 = 58 crores

(Note: Total cost of transmission and power hence are not included in the above
analysis as it is to be born by power)
 (ii) By Equal Apportionment Method
 100 − 10 − 5 
Specific cost share of joint cost   Total Application
 2 

Irrigation Power Total

5 10 15 crore
42.5 42.5 85 crore
47.5 52.5 100 crore
5.2 Apportion the cost of a multipurpose project of the following cost data:-
Total cost = 100 crores
Estimate use-storage capacity
(a) Fore Flood Control = 5000 M-m3
(b) For Power = 2500 M.cu. m.
(c) For Irrigation = 2500 M-m3
Separable cost, flood control =10 crores
Irrigation = 50 crores
Power = 30 crores
Total = Rs 90 crores

Solve
Joint cost (total – separable cost) = 100 – 90 = Rs. 10 crores
10 × 5000
For flood control, share of joint cost (in ratio of use) = = RS 5 crore
10000
10 × 2500
For Irrigation = = RS 2.5 crore
10000
10 × 2500
For Power = = RS 2.5 crore
10000
Therefore total cost chargeable to:-
Flood control =10 + 5 = Rs. 15 crores
 Irrigation = 50 + 2.5 = Rs. 52.5 crores
Power = 30 + 2.5 = Rs. 32.5 crores
Total = Rs 100 crores

Assignment # 04
Solve Example 5.1(page 134) of Dam Engg by Sharma for the following data:-
Total cost of project = Rs 100 crores +R. No = x
Cost of Dam portion = 0.7x
Cost of Irrigation = 0.3x
Similarly Change other data and than solve.