Geo Informatics PDF

GEO INFORMATICS
Geoinformatics is the science and art of

– Measuring
– Storing
– Organizing
– Analyzing
– Visualizing
data related to phenomena occurring on or

near the earth’s surface.
Engr. Muhammad Naeem

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(engr.muhammadnaeem@gmail.com)
• Geoinformatics combines
–Geospatial analysis
–Modeling
–Geospatial databases
–Human-computer interaction
–Both wired and wireless networking
technologies
for analyzing Geoinformation

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APPLICATIONS OF
GEO-INFORMATICS
Many fields benefit from geoinformatics,
few of them includes
– Urban planning and land use management
– Tourism
– Virtual globes
– Local and national gazetteer management
– Environmental modeling and analysis
– Military
– Transport network planning and management
– Agriculture
– Meteorology and climate change
– Telecommunications

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BRANCHES of
GEO-INFORMATICS
• Cartography
• Geodesy
• Geographic Information Systems
• Global Navigation Satellite Systems
• Photogrammetry
• Remote Sensing
• Web Mapping

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• CARTOGRAPHY
– Study and Practice of making maps
• GEODESY
– The scientific discipline that deals with the measurement
and representation of the Earth
• GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS
– A system that captures, stores, analyzes, manages and
presents data with reference to geographic location data

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• GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEMS
– A system of satellites that provide autonomous geo-
spatial positioning with global coverage
• PHOTOGRAMMETRY
– The practice of determining the geometric properties of
objects from photographic images
• REMOTE SENSING
– The acquisition of information about an object or
phenomenon, without making physical contact with the
object

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• WEB MAPPING
– The process of designing, implementing, generating and delivering
maps on the World Wide Web

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ArcGIS
• It is a suite consisting of a group of Geographic

Information Systems (GIS) software products
• Produced by Esri
• Environmental Systems Research Institute

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ESRI
• Environmental Systems Research Institute
• It is a software development and services

company providing
– Geographic Information System (GIS) software
– Geodatabase management applications
• The headquarters of Esri is in Redlands,

California

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ESRI
• Esri uses the name ArcGIS to refer to its suite

of GIS software products, which operate on
desktop, server, and mobile platforms

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ArcGIS
• ArcGIS includes the following Windows

desktop software:
– ArcReader
– ArcGIS Desktop
• ArcView
• ArcEditor
• ArcInfo

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ArcGIS
As of September 2010 Esri's current

desktop GIS suite is version 10.0

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ArcGIS
• ArcGIS is also available on web as

http://www.arcgis.com/

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ArcReader
• It is a software providing some basic tools for

– map viewing
– printing
– querying of spatial data

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ArcView
• It is a software providing some basic tools for
– Map viewing
– Printing
– Querying
– Editing of spatial data

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ArcEditor & ArcInfo
• ArcEditor is used for midlevel editing of spatial

data
• ArcInfo is for highlevel editing

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Terminologies to be
Studied before using
GIS, GPS, Remote Sensing

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Shapes History of
Earth
•Flat
•Spherical
•Egg/Elliptical
•Geoid

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Geoid

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Reasons of Geoid
• Mariana Trench:
– The deepest part of the world
– Deep up to 10,971 m (35,994 ft) below sea level
– Wide up to 2,550 kilometres (1,580 miles)
• Mount Everest
– The highest part of the world
– Heigh up to 8,848 metres (29,029 ft) above sea
level

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Geographic
Cordinate System
• A coordinate system that enables every
location on the Earth to be specified by a set
of numbers
• A common choice of coordinates is
– Latitude
– Longitude
– Elevation

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Latitude
An angle measured:
– In degrees
– With refrence to Equator of the Earth
– Towards
• North or
• South
Specifies North South Position of a Point

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Latitude
Latitude of:
– Equator = 00
– North Pole = 900N or +900
– South Pole = 900S or -900

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Latitude

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Latitude

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Latitude

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Longitude
An angle measured:
– In degrees
– With refrence to Prime Meridian
– Towards
• East or
• West
Specifies East West Position of a Point

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Longitude
Latitude of:
– Prime Meridian = 00
– East = 900E or +900
– West = 900W or -900

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Longitude

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Longitude

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Longitude

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Meridian
• An imaginary arc
– Running from North to South
– Connecting points of equal longitudes
• Types
– Prime Meridian
– 180th Meridian

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Prime Meridian
A meridian having 00 Longitude
An international conference in 1884 decided the

modern Prime Meridian passes through
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in
southeast London, United Kingdom

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Prime Meridian

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Prime Meridian

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Prime Meridian

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Prime Meridian

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180th Meridian
• The 180th meridian or antimeridian is the
meridian which is 180° east or west of
the Prime Meridian
• Used as basis for International Date Line(IDL)

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International Date Line
(IDL)
• North-South imaginary line on the surface of
the Earth
• Passing through the middle of the Pacific
Ocean
• The date changes as a ship or airplane travels
east or west across it

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International Date Line
(IDL)
• Crossing the IDL travelling east results in a day

or 24 hours being subtracted
• Crossing west results in a day being added

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Earth Tilt
Assignment
Q#1 What is meant by tilt of the earth?
Q#2 What are the causes for the earth’s

tilt?
Q#3 Japan latest Earth Quack has

increased the earth’s tilt. What will be
the effect of this tilt on the Longitudes
and Latitudes of the earth as well as GPS

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GNSS
(Global Navigation Satellite System)
• A Satellite System used to pinpoint a
Geographic Location of a user’s reciever
anywhere in the world
• Two GNSS systems are currently in operation
– GPS (United States’ Global Positioning System)
– GLONASS (Russian Federation’s Global Orbiting
Navigation Satellite System)

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Other GNSS
Under Development
• Galileo Positioning System

(European Union)(2020)
• Compass Navigation System (From Biedou

Navigation System)
(China)(2020)

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Satellite Constellation
• A group of artificial satellites working in
concert
• The satellites are
– Synchronised
– Operate together under shared control

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GPS Constellation
• 24 Satellites
• 6 Orbits
• 4 Satellites per orbit
• Orbit Period = approx 12 hrs
• Orbit Radius = 26600 Km (approx)
• Satellites’ Altitude = 20,200 Km(approx)
• Inclination with Earth = 55 degree
• Angle b/w Orbital Planes = 60 degrees
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GPS Constellation
• Satellites do not rotate w.r.t. Earth but w.r.t
distant stars
• 6 to 11 satellites are always in sight from earth
surface
• For this purpose the 4 satellites are not evenly
spaced(900)
• They are spaced at 30, 105, 120, 105 degrees
• 4 satellites are sufficient for GPS reciever
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GPS Constellation

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Working of GPS System
• A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely
timing the signals sent by GPS satellites
• The receiver uses the messages it receives to
determine the transit time of each message and
computes the distance to each satellite
• The GPS reciever with the help of the satellites
determine
– Time(t)
– Longitude(x)
– Latitude(y)
– Altitude(z)
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• Let xi, yi, zi, ti be the x-cordinate, y-cordinate, z-
cordinate and time respectively of satellite i
• Let tr be the time the GPS recieves the message
• Then the transit time of the message = (tr – ti)
• Assume the message travells at a speed of light c
• Then by distance formula;
• Distance b/w the satellite and GPS reciever =
(tr – ti)c
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• Consider a reciever recieves messages from 4
satellites
• Then the position of the reciever is confined
by the spheres formed by these 4 satellites
• The center of the sphere is the satellite and
the GPS reciever is at its surface, therefore,
the distance from the reciever to satellite
know as pseudorange is the radius of the
sphere

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• The position of the GPS reciever is somewhere
at the intersection of these spheres
• Greater the number of spheres smaller will be
the intersection space and accurate will be the
position of the reciever

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Sources of Errors in GPS
• Satellite Geometry
• Satellite Orbits
• Multipath Effect
• Atmospheric Effects
• Clock Inaccuracies and Rounding Errors

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SATELLITE GEOMETRY:
Let the GPS receiver receives signals from 4
satellites, then there are two cases
CASE 1
The satellites are at 900 to each other w.r.t the
GPS receiver.
CASE 2
The satellites are not at 900 to each other w.r.t
the GPS receiver.

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• For demonstration purpose we will take 2
satellites.
• Let the two satellites w.r.t the receiver can be
seen at an angle of approximately 90° to each
other.
• The possible positions are marked by the grey
circles. The point of intersection of the two circles
is a rather small, more or less quadratic field
(blue), the determined position will be rather
accurate.
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• On the other hand the two satellites at angle
other than 900 are forming greater area of
intersection

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SATELLITE ORBITS
• Slight shifts of the orbits are possible due to
gravitation forces.
• Sun and moon have a weak influence on the

orbits.
• The resulting error being not more than 2 m.

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MULTIPATH EFFECT
• The multipath effect is caused by reflection of satellite signals (radio

waves) on objects.
• For GPS signals this effect mainly appears in the neighborhood of

large buildings or other elevations.
• The reflected signal takes more time to reach the receiver than the
direct signal. The resulting error typically lies in the range of a few
meters.

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ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS
• While radio signals travel with the velocity of light in the

outer space, their propagation in the ionosphere and
troposphere is slower.
• In the ionosphere(consisting of layers) in a height of 80 –

400 km a large number of electrons and positive charged
ions are formed by the ionizing force of the sun.
• The layers refract the electromagnetic waves from the

satellites, resulting in an elongated runtime of the signals.

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• Electromagnetic waves are slowed down inversely
proportional to the square of their frequency (1/f2)
while passing the ionosphere
• The reasons for the refraction in troposphere are

different concentrations of water vapours, caused by
different weather conditions.
• The error caused that way is smaller than the

ionospheric error, but can not be eliminated by
calculation. It can only be approximated by a general
calculation model.
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CLOCK ERRORS
• Despite the synchronization of the receiver clock with

the satellite time during the position determination,
the remaining inaccuracy of the time still leads to an
error of about 2 m in the position determination.
• Rounding and calculation errors of the receiver sum up

approximately to 1 m.

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ERROR VALUE(Approx)
Ionosphere 4.0 meters
Clock 2.1 meters
Orbit 2.1 meters
Troposphere 0.7 meters
Receiver 0.5 meters
Multipath 1.0 meter
TOTAL 10.4 meters

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Differential GPS(DGPS)
• It is an enhancement to Global Positioning System that
provides improved location accuracy, from the 15-
meter nominal GPS accuracy to about 10 cm in case of
the best implementations.
• Differential correction can be applied in real-time
directly in the field or by post processing method in the
office.
• Although both methods are based on the same
underlying principles, each accesses different data
sources and achieves different levels of accuracy.
• Combining both methods provides flexibility during
data collection and improves data integrity

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• Until 2000, civilian users had to contend with Selective
Availability (SA).
• The US DoD intentionally introduced random timing
errors in satellite signals to limit the effectiveness of
GPS and its potential misuse.
• These timing errors could affect the accuracy of
readings by as much as 100 meters.
• With SA removed, a single GPS receiver from any
manufacturer can achieve accuracies of approximately
10 meters.
• The majority of data collected using GPS for GIS is
differentially corrected to improve accuracy.
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• The underlying premise of differential GPS (DGPS) is
that any two receivers that are relatively close together
will experience similar atmospheric errors.
• DGPS requires that a GPS receiver be set up on a
precisely known location.
• This GPS receiver is the base or reference station. The
base station receiver calculates its position based on
satellite signals and compares this location to the
known location.
• The difference is applied to the GPS data recorded by
the second GPS receiver, which is known as the roving
receiver.

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• The corrected information can be applied to
data from the roving receiver in real time in
the field or through post processing after data
capture using special processing software.

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Methods of Correcting GPS Errors
• Real Time Correction
• Post-Processing Correction
• Satellite Differential Services

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• REAL TIME CORRECTION:
– The base station calculates and broadcasts corrections
for each satellite as it receives the data.
– The correction is received by the roving receiver via a
radio signal and applied to the position it is
calculating.
– As a result, the position displayed and logged to the
data file of the roving GPS receiver is a differentially
corrected position.

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• POST-PROCESSING CORRECTION:
– Differentially correcting GPS data by post-processing
uses a base GPS receiver that logs positions at a
known location and a rover GPS receiver that collects
positions in the field.
– The files from the base and rover are transferred to
the office processing software, which computes
corrected positions for the rover's file.
– This resulting corrected file can be viewed in or
exported to a GIS.

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• SATELLITE DIFFERENTIAL SERVICES:
– In this method geostationary satellites are used.
– This system obtains corrections from more than one
reference station.
– Reference stations collect the base station GPS data and
relay this data to Network Control Center,
– NCC sends the information to a geostationary satellite for
verification.
– The verified information is sent to the roving GPS receiver
to ensure it obtains GPS positions in real time.
– E.g. WAAS(Wide Area Augmentation System ):
• The (WAAS) was created by the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) as a free-to-air differential correction service.

77
• The system augments GPS with additional signals that
increase the reliability, integrity, precision and availability of
GPS signals required for the aviation industry.
• The WAAS network consists of 25 ground reference stations
located in the United States.
• This network receives GPS signals from all GPS satellites in
view.
• The GPS data is sent to a master control site, where GPS
differential corrections and GPS satellite health data are
transmitted to geo-stationary satellites.
• These satellites broadcast the information to all WAAS-
capable GPS receivers, which then decode the WAAS signal
to provide real-time differential corrections.

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Remote Sensing
• The acquisition of information about an object or
phenomenon, without making physical contact
with the object.
• In modern usage, the term generally refers to the
use of aerial sensor technologies to detect and
classify objects on Earth (both on the surface, and
in the atmosphere and oceans) by means
of propagated signals (e.g. electromagnetic
radiation emitted from aircraft or satellites or
sun).
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Remote Sensing
• The process of remote sensing involves the
detection and measurement of radiation of
different wavelengths reflected or emitted
from distant objects or materials, by which
they may be identified and categorized by
class/type, substance, and spatial distribution.

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Remote Sensing
• INPUTS OF REMOTE SENSING:
• Remote Sensing four basic inputs
– 1. The Target
– 2. The Platform
– 3. The Sensor(s)
– 4. The Signal (usually electromagnetic radiation or
acoustical waves)

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Remote Sensing
• EM SPECTRUM:
– The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the
continuous range of electromagnetic radiation,
– These radiations extends from gamma rays to
radio waves and visible light
– Gamma rays have highest frequency and lowest
wavelength
– Radio waves have lowest frequency & longest
wavelength
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Remote Sensing
• The EM spectrum can be divided into seven
different regions
1. gamma rays
2. X-rays
3. ultraviolet
4. visible light
5. infrared
6. microwaves
7. radio waves

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Remote Sensing

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Remote Sensing
• The major regions of interest in satellite
sensing are:
– Visible Light
– Reflected and Emitted Infrared
– Microwave

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Remote Sensing
• REFLECTION AND ABSORPTION:
– When radiation from the Sun reaches the surface of the
Earth, some of the energy at specific wavelengths is
absorbed and the rest of the energy is reflected by the
surface material.
– The only two exceptions to this situation are if the surface
of a body is a perfect reflector or a true black body.
– The occurrence of these surfaces in the natural world is
very rare.
– In the visible region of the EM spectrum, the feature we
describe as the color of the object is the visible light that is
not absorbed by that object.

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Remote Sensing
– In the case of a green leaf, for example, the blue and
red wavelengths are absorbed by the leaf, while the
green wavelength is reflected and detected by our
eyes.
– In remote sensing, a detector measures the
electromagnetic (EM) radiation that is reflected back
from the Earth’s surface materials.
– These measurements can help to distinguish the type
of land covering.
– Soil, water and vegetation have clearly different
patterns of reflectance and absorption over different
wavelengths

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Remote Sensing
– The reflectance of radiation from one type of
surface material, such as soil, varies over the
range of wavelengths in the EM spectrum. This is
known as the spectral signature of the material.
– All Earth surface features, including minerals,
vegetation, dry soil, water, and snow, have unique
spectral reflectance signatures.

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Remote Sensing

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Remote Sensing
• SENSORS:
– A sensor is a device that measures and records electromagnetic
energy.
– Sensors can be divided into two groups.
– Passive Sensors and Active Sensors
– Passive sensors depend on an external source of energy, usually
the sun.
– The most common passive sensor is the photographic camera.
– Active sensors have their own source of energy, an example
would be a radar gun.
– These sensors send out a signal and measure the amount
reflected back.
– Active sensors are more controlled because they do not depend
upon varying illumination conditions

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Remote Sensing

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Remote Sensing

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Terminologies Related to
Remote Sensing
• Swath
• Nadir and Limb
• Field of View(FOV)
• Instantaneous Field of View(IFOV)
• Spectral Reflectance Signature

94
Remote Sensing
SWATH:
• The width of strip on the earth viewed or
imaged by the satellite.
• Imaging swaths for spaceborne sensors
generally vary between tens and hundreds of
kilometers wide

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Remote Sensing
NADIR AND LIMB:
• Nadir and Limb describe two ways a satellite can look at the
surface.
• Nadir is when the satellite is looking at the surface directly below it.
• Limb is when the satellite is looking at an angle from zenith.
• Nadir results in a circle footprint and provides optimal spatial
resolution.
• Limb results in an oval footprint which distorts the image resulting
in decreased spatial resolution.
• Limb allows for easier altitude determination and has a longer path
through the atmosphere.
• The longer path for limb may make it easier to measure sparse
chemicals

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Remote Sensing

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Remote Sensing
• FOV & IFOV:
• The basic functions of most satellite sensors is
to collect information about the reflected
radiation along a pathway, known as the field
of view (FOV), as the satellite orbits the Earth.
• The smallest area of ground that is sampled is
called the instantaneous field of view (IFOV).
• The IFOV is also described as the pixel size of
the sensor.
99
Remote Sensing

100
Remote Sensing
SPECTRAL REFLECTANCE SIGNATURE:
• For any given material, the amount of solar radiation

that it reflects, absorbs, transmits, or emits varies with
wavelength.
• When that amount (usually intensity, as a percent of

reflectance) coming from the material is plotted over a
range of wavelengths, the connected points produce a
curve called the material's spectral signature (spectral
response curve).

101
Remote Sensing

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Remote Sensing

103
Types of Platforms
• Ground Based(up to 50m)
– Ground
– Vehicles
– Towers
• Airborne(up to 50km)
– Balloons
– Airplanes
– Helicopters
– High Altitude Aircrafts
• Spaceborne (100km to 36000km)
– Rockets
– Satellites
– Shuttles
104
Types of Satellites and Orbits
• Geosynchronous Satellites
• Sunsynchronous Satellites
• Near polar Orbiting Satellites

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• Geosynchronous Satellites
– Geostationary satellites (often called weather
satellites) are “fixed” above a given point on the
Earth surface because their circular orbits above
the equator have rotation period equals to the
earth’s rotation period.

106
• Geo Stationary Satellite Coverage

107
Sunsynchronous Satellites:
– A sun-synchronous orbit describes the orbit of a satellite
that provides consistent lighting of the Earth-scan view
– The satellite passes the equator and each latitude at the
same time each day
– For example, a satellite's sun-synchronous orbit might
cross the equator twelve times a day each time at 3:00
p.m. local time
– The orbital plane of a sun-synchronous orbit must also
precess (rotate) approximately one degree each day,
eastward, to keep pace with the Earth's revolution around
the sun

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• Near Polar Orbiting Satellites
– Ascending pass is when the satellite travels from
south to north
– Descending pass is when the satellite travels from
north to south

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Ground track of a Polar Orbiting Satellite

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• RESOLUTIONS:

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GEO INFORMATICS

Geoinformatics is the science and art of

data related to phenomena occurring on or

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

• It is a suite consisting of a group of Geographic

• Environmental Systems Research Institute

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

• It is a software development and services

• The headquarters of Esri is in Redlands,

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

• Esri uses the name ArcGIS to refer to its suite

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

• ArcGIS includes the following Windows

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

As of September 2010 Esri's current

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

• ArcGIS is also available on web as

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

• It is a software providing some basic tools for

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

• ArcEditor is used for midlevel editing of spatial

• ArcInfo is for highlevel editing

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Specifies North South Position of a Point

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Specifies East West Position of a Point

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

An international conference in 1884 decided the

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

Engr. Muhammad Naeem

• Crossing the IDL travelling east results in a day

• Crossing west results in a day being added