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History Brief
HISTORY
IN BRIEF
George Washington addressing the
Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, 1787.
INTRODUCTION
1
Early America
2
thousands of years. They then moved south into the land that
was to become the United States. They settled along the Pacific
Ocean in the Northwest, in the mountains and deserts of the
Southwest, and along the Mississippi River in the Middle West.
These early groups are known as Hohokam, Adenans,
Hopewellians, and Anasazi. They built villages and grew crops.
Some built mounds of earth in the shapes of pyramids, birds, or
serpents. Their life was closely tied to the land, and their society
was clan-oriented and communal. Elements of the natural
world played an essential part in their spiritual beliefs. Their
Left, Mesa Verde settlement in Colorado, 13th century. Above, aerial view of the Great
Serpent Mound in Adams County, Ohio. Carbon tests of the effigy revealed that the
creators of this 1,330-foot monument were members of the Native-American Fort
Ancient Culture (A.D. 1000-1550).
3
culture was primarily oral, although some developed a type of
hieroglyphics to preserve certain texts. Evidence shows that
there was a good deal of trade among the groups but also that
some of their relations were hostile.
For reasons not yet completely understood, these early
groups disappeared over time and were replaced by other groups
of Native Americans, including Hopi and Zuni, who flourished. By
the time Europeans reached what is now the United States, about
two million native people, maybe more, lived here.
The first Europeans to arrive in North America — at least
the first for whom there is solid evidence — were Norse.
They traveled west from Greenland, where Erik the Red had
founded a settlement around the year 985. In 1001, his son Leif
is thought to have explored the northeast coast of what is now
Canada. Ruins of Norse houses dating from that time have been
discovered at L’Anse-aux-Meadows in northern Newfoundland.
It would be almost 500 more years before other Europeans
reached North America and another 100 years after that before
permanent settlements were established. The first explorers
were searching for a sea passage to Asia. Others — chiefly
British, Dutch, French, and Spanish — came later to claim the
lands and riches of what they called the “New World.”
The first and most famous of these explorers was Christopher
Columbus of Genoa. His trips were financed by Queen Isabella of
Spain. Columbus landed on islands in the Caribbean Sea in 1492,
4
but he never saw the mainland of the future United States. John
Cabot of Venice came five years later on a mission for the king of
England. His journey was quickly forgotten, but it provided the
basis for British claims to North America.
The 1500s were the age of Spanish exploration in the
Americas. Juan Ponce de León landed in what is now Florida in
1513. Hernando De Soto reached Florida in 1539 and continued
as far as the Mississippi River. In 1540, Francisco Vázquez
de Coronado set out north from Mexico, which Spain had
5
conquered in 1522, in search of the mythical Seven Cities of
Cibola. He never found them, but his travels took him as far as
the Grand Canyon in Arizona, as well as into the Great Plains.
While the Spanish were pushing up from the south, the
northern portion of the present-day United States was slowly
being revealed through the journeys of other Europeans. These
included Giovanni da Verrazano, Jacques Cartier, and Amerigo
Vespucci, for whom the continent — America — would be named.
The first permanent European settlement in what was to
become the United States was established by the Spanish in
the middle 1500s at St. Augustine in Florida. However, it would
not play a part in the formation of the new nation. That story
took place in settlements farther north along the Atlantic coast
— in Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, and the 10 other areas
colonized by a growing tide of immigrants from Europe.
Colonial Period
7
Detail from a painting by American artist
Benjamin West (1738-1820), which depicts
William Penn’s treaty with the Native Americans
living where he founded the colony of
Pennsylvania as a haven for Quakers and others
seeking religious freedom. Penn’s fair treatment
of the Delaware Indians led to long-term, friendly
relations, unlike the conflicts between European
settlers and Indian tribes in other colonies.
8
Pilgrims signing the Mayflower Compact Benjamin Franklin: scientist, inventor,
aboard ship, 1620. writer, newspaper publisher, city
father of Philadelphia, diplomat, and
signer of both the Declaration of
Independence and the Constitution.
9
Relations between settlers and Native Americans, who were
called Indians, were an uneasy mix of cooperation and conflict.
Certain areas saw trade and some social interaction, but in
general, as the new settlements expanded, the Indians were
forced to move, often after being defeated in battle.
Settlement of the colonies was directly sponsored not by
the British government, but by private groups. All except Georgia
emerged as companies of shareholders or as proprietorships
chartered by the king. Some were governed rigidly by company
leaders, but in time, all developed a system of participatory
government based on British legal precedent and tradition.
Years of political turmoil in Britain culminated with the
Glorious Revolution of 1688-89 that deposed King James
II and led to limits on the monarchy and greater freedoms
for the people. The American colonies benefited from these
changes. Colonial assemblies claimed the right to act as local
parliaments. They passed measures that limited the power of
royal governors and expanded their own power.
Over the decades that followed, recurring disputes between
the governors and assemblies awakened colonists to the
increasing divergence between American and British interests.
The principles and precedents that emerged from these
disputes became the unwritten constitution of the colonies.
At first, the focus was on self-government within a British
commonwealth. Only later came the call for independence.
10
Road to Independence
Revolution
14
Artist’s depiction of the first shots of the American Revolution, fired at Lexington,
Massachusetts, on April 19, 1775. Local militia confronted British troops marching to seize
colonial armaments in the nearby town of Concord.
16
Drawing of revolutionary firebrand Patrick Henry
(standing to the left) uttering perhaps the most
famous words of the American Revolution —
“Give me liberty or give me death!” — in a debate
before the Virginia Assembly in 1775.
18
be ready to fight in a minute. The Minutemen intended only a
silent protest, and their leader told them not to shoot unless
fired on first. The British ordered the Minutemen to disperse,
and they complied. As they were withdrawing, someone fired
a shot. The British troops attacked the Minutemen with guns
and bayonets.
Fighting broke out at other places along the road as the
British soldiers in their bright red uniforms made their way back
to Boston. More than 250 “redcoats” were killed or wounded.
The Americans lost 93 men.
Deadly clashes continued around Boston as colonial
representatives hurried to Philadelphia to discuss the situation.
A majority voted to go to war against Britain. They agreed to
Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury John Marshall, chief justice of the U.S.
in the administration of President George Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835, in a
Washington. Hamilton advocated a strong portrait by Alonzo Chappel.
federal government and the encouragement
of industry.
19
combine colonial militias into a continental army, and they
appointed George Washington of Virginia as commander-
in-chief. At the same time, however, this Second Continental
Congress adopted a peace resolution urging King George III to
prevent further hostilities. The king rejected it and on August 23
declared that the American colonies were in rebellion.
Calls for independence intensified in the coming months.
Radical political theorist Thomas Paine helped crystallize the
argument for separation. In a pamphlet called Common Sense,
which sold 100,000 copies, he attacked the idea of a hereditary
monarchy. Paine presented two alternatives for America:
continued submission under a tyrannical king and outworn
system of government, or liberty and happiness as a self-
sufficient, independent republic.
The Second Continental Congress appointed a committee,
headed by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, to prepare a document
outlining the colonies’ grievances against the king and
explaining their decision to break away. This Declaration of
Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. The 4th of July has
since been celebrated as America’s Independence Day.
The Declaration of Independence not only announced the
birth of a new nation. It also set forth a philosophy of human
freedom that would become a dynamic force throughout the
world. It drew upon French and British political ideas, especially
those of John Locke in his Second Treatise on Government,
20
reaffirming the belief that political rights are basic human
rights, and are thus universal.
Declaring independence did not make Americans free.
British forces routed continental troops in New York, from
Long Island to New York City. They defeated the Americans
at Brandywine, Pennsylvania, and occupied Philadelphia,
forcing the Continental Congress to flee. American forces were
victorious at Saratoga, New York, and at Trenton and Princeton
in New Jersey. Yet George Washington continually struggled to
get the men and materials he desperately needed.
Decisive help came in 1778, when France recognized
the United States and signed a bilateral defense treaty.
Support from the French government, however, was based on
geopolitical, not ideological, reasons. France wanted to weaken
the power of Britain, its long-time adversary.
The fighting that began at Lexington, Massachusetts,
continued for eight years across a large portion of the
continent. Battles were fought from Montreal, Canada, in the
north to Savannah, Georgia, in the south. A huge British army
surrendered at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781, yet the war dragged
on with inconclusive results for another two years. A peace
treaty was finally signed in Paris on April 15, 1783.
The Revolution had a significance far beyond North
America. It attracted the attention of Europe’s political theorists
and strengthened the concept of natural rights throughout
21
the Western world. It attracted notables such as Thaddeus
Kosciusko, Friedrich von Steuben, and the Marquis de Lafayette,
who joined the revolution and hoped to transfer its liberal ideas
to their own countries.
The Treaty of Paris acknowledged the independence,
freedom, and sovereignty of the 13 former American colonies,
now states. The task of knitting them together into a new
nation lay ahead.
The historic room in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, where delegates drafted the
Constitution of the United States in the summer of 1787. The Constitution is the
supreme law of the land.
23
in colonial and state government. They were knowledgeable
in history, law, and political theory. Most were young, but the
group included the elderly Benjamin Franklin, who was nearing
the end of an extraordinary career of public service and scientific
achievement. Two notable Americans were not there: Thomas
Jefferson was in Paris as American ambassador to France, and
John Adams was in London as ambassador to Great Britain.
The Continental Congress had authorized the convention to
amend the Articles of Confederation. Instead, the delegates threw
aside the Articles — judging them inadequate for the needs of
the new nation — and devised a new form of government based
on the separation of legislative, executive, and judicial powers.
The gathering had become a constitutional convention.
Reaching consensus on some of the details of a new
constitution would prove extremely difficult. Many delegates
argued for a strong national government that limited states’
rights. Others argued equally persuasively for a weak national
government that preserved state authority. Some delegates
feared that Americans were not wise enough to govern
themselves and so opposed any sort of popular elections.
Others thought the national government should have as broad
a popular base as possible. Representatives from small states
insisted on equal representation in a national legislature. Those
from big states thought they deserved to have more influence.
Representatives from states where slavery was illegal hoped to
24
The Liberty Bell, in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, an enduring symbol
of American freedom. First rung
on July 8, 1776, to celebrate
the adoption of the Declaration
of Independence, it cracked in
1836, during the funeral of John
Marshall, Chief Justice of the U.S.
Supreme Court.
25
outlaw it. Those from slave states rejected any attempts to do
so. Some delegates wanted to limit the number of states in the
Union. Others supported statehood for the newly settled lands
to the West.
Every question raised new divisions, and each was resolved
by compromise.
The draft Constitution was not a long document. Yet it
provided the framework for the most complex government yet
devised. The national government would have full power to
issue currency, levy taxes, grant patents, conduct foreign policy,
maintain an army, establish post offices, and wage war. And it
would have three equal branches — a congress, a president,
and a court system — with balanced powers and checks against
each other’s actions.
Economic interests influenced the course of debate on the
document, but so did state, sectional, and ideological interests.
Also important was the idealism of the men who wrote it. They
believed they had designed a government that would promote
individual liberty and public virtue.
On September 17, 1787, after four months of deliberation, a
majority of delegates signed the new Constitution. They agreed
it would become the law of the land when nine of the 13 states
had ratified it.
The ratification process lasted about a year. Opponents
voiced fears that a strong central government could become
26
tyrannical and oppressive. Proponents responded that the
system of checks and balances would prevent this from
happening. The debate brought into existence two factions:
the Federalists, who favored a strong central government and
who supported the Constitution, and the Anti-Federalists, who
favored a loose association of states and who opposed the
Constitution.
Even after the Constitution was ratified, many Americans
felt it lacked an essential element. They said it did not
enumerate the rights of individuals. When the first Congress
met in New York City in September 1789, lawmakers agreed to
add these provisions. It took another two years before these
10 amendments — collectively known as the Bill of Rights
— became part of the Constitution.
The first of the 10 amendments guarantees freedom of
speech, press, and religion; the right to protest, assemble
peacefully, and demand changes. The fourth protects against
unreasonable searches and arrest. The fifth provides for due
process of law in all criminal cases. The sixth guarantees the
right to a fair and speedy trial. And the eighth protects against
cruel and unusual punishment.
Since the Bill of Rights was adopted more than 200 years
ago, only 17 more amendments have been added to the
Constitution.
27
Early Years, Westward Expansion, and
Regional Differences
30
1812 and 1852, the population tripled. The young nation’s size and
diversity defied easy generalization. It also invited contradiction.
The United States was a country of both civilized cities
built on commerce and industry, and primitive frontiers where
the rule of law was often ignored. It was a society that loved
freedom but permitted slavery. The Constitution held all these
different parts together. The strains, however, were growing.
Sectional Conflict
Sitting Bull, Sioux chief who led the last great Thomas Edison examines film used in the
battle of the Plains Indians against the U.S. motion picture projector that he invented
Army, defeating General George Custer at the with George Eastman.
Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876.
38
cattle ranchers on the vast grasslands, sheep farmers in the
river valleys, and farmers on the great plains. Cowboys on
horses took care of the animals and guided them to distant
railroads for shipment east. This is the image of America that
many people still have, even though the era of the “Wild West”
cowboy lasted only about 30 years.
From the time that Europeans landed on the east coast of
America, their migration westward meant confrontation with
native peoples. For many years, government policy had been to
move Native Americans beyond the reach of the white frontier
to lands reserved for their use. Time and again, however, the
government ignored its agreements and opened these areas to
white settlement. In the late 1800s, Sioux tribes in the northern
plains and Apaches in the southwest fought back hard to
Immigrants arriving at Ellis Island in New York City, principal gateway to the
United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. From 1890 to 1921,
almost 19 million people entered the United States as immigrants.
39
Mulberry Street in New York City, also
known as “Little Italy,” in the early years
of the 20th century. Newly arrived
immigrant families often settled
in densely populated urban
enclaves.
40
preserve their way of life. They were skilled fighters but were
eventually overwhelmed by government forces. Official policy
after these conflicts was well-intentioned but sometimes proved
disastrous. In 1934, Congress passed a measure that attempted
to protect tribal customs and communal life on the reservations.
The last decades of the 19th century saw a race by European
powers to colonize Africa and compete for trade in Asia. Many
Americans believed the United States had a right and duty to
expand its influence in other parts of the world. Many others,
however, rejected any actions that hinted at imperialism.
A brief war with Spain in 1898 left the United States with
control over several Spanish overseas possessions: Cuba, Puerto
Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. Officially, the United States
encouraged them to move toward self-government, but, in fact,
it maintained administrative control. Idealism in foreign policy
existed alongside the practical desire to protect the economic
interests of a once-isolated nation that had become a world power.
Children working at the Indiana Glass Works in 1908. Enacting child labor laws was one of the
principal goals of the Progressive movement in this era.
44
on immigration. Starting in the 1920s, however, quotas were
established in response to Americans’ fears that their jobs and
culture were being threatened by the newcomers. While large
surges of immigration have historically created social strains, most
Americans — whose own ancestors arrived as immigrants —
believe that the Statue of Liberty in New York harbor represents
the spirit of a welcoming land to those “yearning to breathe free.”
This belief has preserved the United States as a nation of nations.
American infantry forces in 1918, firing a 37 Flappers posing for the camera at a 1920s-
mm. gun, advance against German positions era party.
in World War I.
46
The immediate postwar period was one of labor unrest and
racial tensions. Farmers were struggling because of the abrupt
end of wartime demand. Bolshevik violence fueled a “Red Scare”
that led to decades of militant hostility toward the revolutionary
Communist movement. Despite these problems, for a few years
in the 1920s the United States enjoyed a period of real and
broadly distributed prosperity. Families purchased their first
automobile, radio, and refrigerator, and they began going to
the movies regularly. And suffragists, after decades of political
activism, succeeded in getting approval of a constitutional
amendment in 1920 that gave women the right to vote.
The good times did not last. The value of many stocks, which
had become artificially inflated, fell dramatically in October 1929.
Over the next three years, the business recession in America
became part of a worldwide economic depression. Businesses
and factories shut down, banks failed, farm income dropped. By
November 1932, 20 percent of Americans were unemployed.
The presidential campaign that year was chiefly a debate
over the causes of the Great Depression and ways to reverse
it. Incumbent Herbert Hoover had started the process of
rebuilding the economy, but his efforts had little impact,
and he lost the election to Franklin Roosevelt. Roosevelt was
infectiously optimistic and was ready to use federal authority to
achieve bold remedies. Under his leadership, the United States
would enter another era of economic and political change.
47
The New Deal and World War II
Left, Depression-era soup line, 1930s. Right, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs perhaps
the most far-reaching legislation of the New Deal: the Social Security Act of 1935. Today,
Social Security, one of the largest government programs in the United States, provides
retirement and disability income to millions of Americans.
48
to plant trees, clean up waterways, and improve facilities in
national parks. The Public Works Administration hired skilled
laborers for large-scale projects, such as building dams and
bridges. The Tennessee Valley Authority provided flood control
and electric power for that impoverished area. And the Federal
Emergency Relief Administration distributed aid, often in the
form of direct payments.
A second round of programs employed workers to build
roads, airports, and schools; hired artists, actors, musicians, and
writers; and gave part-time employment to young people. It
also established the Social Security system to help the poor,
disabled, and elderly.
Americans were generally uneasy with the idea of big
government, yet they wanted the government to take greater
responsibility for the welfare of ordinary people. And while the
New Deal provided tangible help for millions of Americans, it
never succeeded in restoring prosperity. Better times would
come, but not until after another world war had swept the
United States into its path.
The United States tried to remain neutral while totalitarian
regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan expanded their control
over neighboring countries. Debate intensified after Germany
invaded France and began bombing Britain. Despite strong
isolationist sentiment, Congress voted to conscript soldiers and
strengthen the military.
49
World War II in the Pacific was characterized by large-scale naval and air battles. Here, a
Japanese plane plunges down in flames during an attack on a U.S. carrier fleet in the Mariana
Islands, June 1944.
50
General Dwight
Eisenhower,
Supreme
Commander in
Europe, talks with
paratroopers
shortly before
the Normandy
invasion, June 6,
1944.
Assembly line of
P-38 Lightning
fighter planes
during World
War II. With its
massive output
of war materiel,
the United States
became, in the
words of President
Roosevelt,
“the arsenal of
democracy.”
51
Most people were focused on what was happening
in Europe, when Japan threatened to seize sources of raw
materials used by Western industries. In response, the United
States imposed an embargo on the one commodity Japan
needed above all others — oil — and demanded that it
withdraw from territories it had conquered. Japan refused, and
on December 7, 1941, it carried out a devastating attack on
the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The United States
declared war on Japan. Germany and Italy, by then allies of
Japan, declared war on the United States.
American industry and agriculture were harnessed for the
war effort. Production of military equipment was staggering:
300,000 aircraft, 5,000 cargo ships, 60,000 landing craft, and
86,000 tanks in less than four years. Much of the work was done
by women, who went to work in factories while men went to
fight.
The United States, Britain, and the Soviet Union, allied to
counter the Nazi threat, decided that their primary military
effort was to be concentrated in Europe. They were determined
to break the German-Italian grip on the Mediterranean and
prevent the fall of Moscow. Then they would liberate Rome and
Paris, and finally Berlin.
From Germany’s occupation of Poland in 1939 to its surrender
in 1945, the war in Europe claimed the lives of millions of people
— soldiers and civilians alike. Millions more were exterminated
52
in the Holocaust, Nazi Germany’s systematic policy of genocide
against the Jews and other groups.
The war in Asia was largely a series of naval battles and
amphibious assaults to break the Japanese grip on islands in
the Pacific Ocean. Fighting there continued after the fighting
in Europe had stopped. The final battles were among the war’s
bloodiest. Most Americans, including President Harry Truman,
believed that an invasion of Japan would be even worse. Truman
was willing to use the newly developed atomic bomb to bring
the war to an end. When Japan refused to surrender, he ordered
bombs dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The plan worked — Japan surrendered — and World War II
was finally over in August 1945. Only later would people realize
the full implications of the awesome, destructive power of
nuclear weapons.
President Harry S
Truman holds a
newspaper that wrongly
announced his defeat by
Republican candidate
Thomas Dewey in the
1948 election.
54
Plan” to rebuild western Europe. The Soviet Union wanted to
secure its borders at all costs. It used military force to help bring
Communist regimes to power in Central and Eastern Europe.
The United States vowed to contain Soviet expansionism.
It demanded and obtained a full Soviet withdrawal from Iran. It
supported Turkey against Soviet attempts to control shipping
lanes. It provided economic and military aid to Greece to fight
a strong Communist insurgency. And it led the effort to airlift
millions of tons of supplies to Berlin when the Soviet Union
blockaded that divided city.
With most American aid moving across the Atlantic,
little could be done to prevent the Communist forces of Mao
Zedong from taking control of China in 1949. When North Korea
— supported by China and the Soviet Union — invaded South
Korea the next year, the United States secured U.N. support
for military intervention. The North Koreans were eventually
pushed back, and a truce was signed, but tensions would
remain high and U.S. troops would stay for decades.
In the mid-1960s, the United States sent troops to defend
South Vietnam against a Communist insurgency based in North
Vietnam. American involvement escalated greatly but was
not enough to prevent the South from collapsing in 1975. The
war cost hundreds of thousands of lives. It also caused bitter
divisions at home, making Americans wary of further foreign
entanglements.
55
Cultural Change: 1950-1980
58
Johnson to begin peace negotiations. Young people also began
to reject their parents’ cultural values. The most visible signs of
the so-called counterculture were long hair, rock-and-roll music,
and the use of illegal drugs.
Americans concerned about the environment organized
efforts to reduce air and water pollution. The year 1970 saw
the first “Earth Day” celebration and the creation of the
Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental legislation
reflected the need to reduce pollutants without imposing
burdensome costs on industries.
The great social changes of the 1950s-1980s grew out
of an open, fluid, and diverse society. Demands for change
were sometimes peaceful, sometimes deadly. Compromises
61
62
Left, firefighters beneath the
destroyed vertical struts of the
World Trade Center’s twin towers
after the September 11, 2001,
terrorist attacks in New York
and Washington, D.C. Above,
projected image of how the New
York City skyline might look with
the addition of Freedom Tower,
which will be built at the World
Trade Center site.
63
AFTERWORD
64
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