Computer Science  

Section 1: Theory Fundamentals  

1.1 Information Representation   

 
1.1.1. Number representation 
Types of Number Systems  
a.) Binary Number Systems
b.) Denary/ Decimal Number Systems
c.) Hexadecimal Number Systems
d.) Octal Number Systems

a.) Binary Number Systems

Term: The binary number system is a base-2 system which uses just two symbols, 0 and 1. These
binary digits are usually referred to as 'bit s'.

● All data inside a computer system are stored and manipulated using a binary code. However,
if there is ever a need to document some of this binary code outside of the computer system
it is not helpful to use the internal code.

● Instead, it is far better to use a hexadecimal representation for documentation purposes.

Whether or not a code represents a binary number, it can be treated as such and converted
to the corresponding hexadecimal number. This makes the representation more compact
and, as a result, more intelligible.

Term: Each binary digit is also called ​a bit​.​ Binary number system is also positional value system,
where each digit has a value expressed in powers of 2, as displayed here.

In any binary number, the rightmost digit is called ​least significant bit (LSB) and​ leftmost digit is
called ​most significant bit (MSB).

And decimal equivalent of this number is sum of product of each digit with its positional value.

11010​2​ = 1×2​4 ​+ 1×2​3​ + 0×2​2​ + 1×2​1​ + 0×2​0

= 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0
 = 26​10

Computer memory is measured in terms of how many bits it can store. ​Here is a chart for memory
capacity conversion.

❖ 1 byte (B) = 8 bits

❖ 1 Kilobytes (KB) = 1024 bytes

❖ 1 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 KB

❖ 1 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 MB

❖ 1 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 GB

❖ 1 Exabyte (EB) = 1024 PB

❖ 1 Zettabyte = 1024 EB

❖ 1 Yottabyte (YB) = 1024 ZB

b.) Denary / Decimal Number Systems:

Term:​ Decimal number system is a b

​ ase 10​ number system having 10 digits from 0 to 9. This means
that any numerical quantity can be represented using these 10 digits. Decimal number system is also
a ​positional value system​.

This means that the value of digits will depend on its position. Let us take an example to understand
this.

Say we have three numbers – 734, 971 and 207. The value of 7 in all three numbers is different−

o In 734, value of 7 is 7 hundreds or 700 or 7 × 100 or 7 × 10​2

o In 971, value of 7 is 7 tens or 70 or 7 × 10 or 7 × 10​1

o In 207, value 0f 7 is 7 units or 7 or 7 × 1 or 7 × 10​0

The weightage of each position can be represented as follows −

In digital systems, instructions are given through electric signals; variation is done by varying the
voltage of the signal. Having 10 different voltages to implement decimal number system in digital
equipment is difficult.
c.) Hexadecimal Number Systems:

Term:​ Hexadecimal numbers are in the base-16 system and therefore require 16 individual symbols
to represent a number. The symbols chosen are 0-9 supplemented with A- F.

​ as its value
Hexadecimal number system is also a positional value system with where each digit h
expressed in powers of 16,​ as shown here −

A few examples of the hexadecimal representation of binary numbers represented by eight bits are
shown in Table 1.01.

Note that each ​grouping of four bits​ is represented by one hexadecimal symbol. Also note that it is
common practice to include leading zeros in a hexadecimal number when used in this way.

Decimal equivalent of any hexadecimal number is sum of product of each digit with its positional
value.

27FB​16​ = 2×16​3​ + 7×16​2​ + 15×16​1​ + 10×16​0

= 8192 + 1792 + 240 +10

= 10234​10

d.) Octal Number Systems:

Term: The number system whose ​base is 8​ is known as the ​octal number system​. The b
​ ase 8
means​ the system uses ​eight digits​ from 0 to 7.

All the eight digits from 0 to 8 have same physical meaning as that of decimal numbers. The
next digit in octal number is represented by 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 which represents
the decimal digits 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15. In this manner the octal number 20 represents
the decimal number 16 and subsequently 21, 22, 23….octal numbers will show the decimal
digits 17, 18, 19…etc and so on.
 Number Systems Relationships

The following table depicts the relationship between decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal number
systems.

HEXADECIMAL DECIMAL OCTAL BINARY

0 0 0 0000

1 1 1 0001

2 2 2 0010

3 3 3 0011

4 4 4 0100

5 5 5 0101

6 6 6 0110

7 7 7 0111

8 8 10 1000

9 9 11 1001

A 10 12 1010

B 11 13 1011

C 12 14 1100

D 13 15 1101
E 14 16 1110

F 15 17 1111

Conversion of Binary, Hexadecimal, and Octal to Denary /Decimal number systems

To convert a binary number to a denary number the straightforward method is to sum the individual
position values knowing that the least significant bit represents 2°, the next one 21 and so on. This is
illustrated by conversion of the binary number 11001 as shown in Figure 1.01.

Below given examples contains the following rows: (Common for all conversions)
A)​ ​Row 1​ contains the ​DIGITs​ of number (that is going to be converted).
B)​ ​Row 2​ contains the ​POSITION​ of each digit in the number system.
C)​ ​Row 3​ contains the multiplication: ​DIGIT* BASE^POSITION​.
D)​ ​Row 4​ contains the calculated result of ​step C​.
E)​ And then add each value of ​step D​, resulted value is the Decimal Number

Binary Conversion to denary/Decimal Conversion:

Binary Number is: ​(11000000111001)​2

Octal to Decimal Conversion

Octal Number is: ​(30071)​8

=12288+0+0+56+1
=12345​-Decimal Number is: ​(12345)​10

Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

Hexadecimal Number is: ​(2D5)​16

=512+208+5
=725
Decimal Number is: (725)​10

Conversion of Decimal Numbers to Binary/Hexadecimal /Octal Numbers

Decimal to Binary

Here is an example of using repeated division to convert 1792 decimal to binary:

Decimal Number Operation Quotient Remainder Binary Result

1792 ÷2= 896 0 0
896 ÷2= 448 0 0​0
448 ÷2= 224 0 0​00
224 ÷2= 112 0 0​000
112 ÷2= 56 0 0​0000
56 ÷2= 28 0 0​00000
28 ÷2= 14 0 0​000000
14 ÷2= 7 0 0​0000000
7 ÷2= 3 1 1​00000000
3 ÷2= 1 1 1​100000000
1 ÷2= 0 1 1​1100000000
0 done.

Decimal to Octal

Here is an example of using repeated division to convert 1792 decimal to octal:

Decimal Number Operation Quotient Remainder Octal Result

1792 ÷8= 224 0 0
224 ÷8= 28 0 0​0
28 ÷8= 3 4 4​00
3 ÷8= 0 3 3​400
0 done.

Decimal to Hexadecimal
Here is an example of using repeated division to convert 1792 decimal to hexadecimal:

Decimal Number Operation Quotient Remainder Hexadecimal Result

1792 ÷ 16 = 112 0 0
112 ÷ 16 = 7 0 0​0
7 ÷ 16 = 0 7 7​00
0 done.
The only addition to the algorithm when converting from decimal to hexadecimal is that a table must
be used to obtain the hexadecimal digit if the remainder is greater than decimal 9.

Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hexadecimal
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
:

Decimal: 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal
8 9 A B C D E F
:

Converting hexadecimal numbers

To convert a hexadecimal number to binary, each digit is treated separately and converted
into a 4-bit binary equivalent, remembering that F converts to 1111; E converts to 1110 and
so on. Subsequent conversion of the resulting binary to denary can then be done if needed.
To convert a binary number to hexadecimal you start with the four least significant bits and
convert them to one hexadecimal digit. You then proceed upwards towards the most
significant bit, successively taking groupings of four bits and converting each grouping to the
corresponding hexadecimal digit. It is possible to convert a denary number directly to
hexadecimal but it is easier to convert first to binary before completing the conversion.
1.1.1. A. Internal Coding of Numbers 

Terms  

1. Byte:​ a group of eight bits treated as a single unit 

a byte, or a group of bytes, might represent a binary value but equally might 
represent a code. For either case, the right-hand bit is referred to as the least 
significant and the left-hand bit as the most significant or top bit. Furthermore, 
the bits in a byte are numbered right to left starting at bit O and ending at bit 
7. 
 
2. One’s Complement :​ One's complement: the binary number obtained by 
subtracting each digit in a binary number from 1 
 
3. Two's complement​: the one's complement of a binary number plus 1 
 
Conversions –Binary to two’s Complement: 
If you need to convert a binary number to its two's complement form you can use the 
method indicated by the definition but there is a quicker method. For this you start at 
the least significant bit and move left ignoring any zeros up to the first 1 which is also 
ignored.  
Any remaining bits are then changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0. For example, 
expressing the number 10100100 in two's complement form leaves the right-hand 100 
unchanged then the remaining 10100 changes to 01011 so the result is 01011100.  
The differences between a sign and magnitude representation and a two's complement 
representation are illustrated in Table 1.02. For simplicity we consider only the values 
that can be stored in four bits (referred to as a 'nibble'). 

Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD​)

Binary-coded decimal is a binary representation which can be used for a positive 

denary integer. 
Each digit of the denary number is represented in sequence with a group of four 
binary digits.  
 
Example: Represent the denary integer 859 in BCD.  
8  5  9  
1000  0101 1001  
So, 859 denary is 100001011001 as a BCD representation.  
 
Early computers stored date and time values in the BIOS of the operating system using 
BCD representation. Some later games consoles including Atari and Sony PlayStation 
did likewise. However in 2010, the PlayStation software interpreted the final two 
digits of the date ‘10’ (stored in BCD) as the hexadecimal number 16.  
 
 
 
 
1.1.1. B. Internal Coding of Text 
 
ASCII CODE  
 
The scheme which has been used for the longest time is the ASCII (American Standard Code 
for Information Interchange) coding scheme. This is an internationally agreed standard. There 
are some variations on ASCII coding schemes but the major one is the 7-bit code. It is 
customary to present the codes in a table for which a number of different designs have been 
used. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
There are some special features that make the coding scheme easy to use in certain 
circumstances. The first is that the codes for numbers and for letters are in sequence in each 
case so that, for example, if 1 is added to the code for seven the code for eight is produced. 
The second is that the codes for the upper-case letters differ from the codes for the 
corresponding lower-case letters only in the value of bit 5. This makes conversion of upper 
case to lower case, or the reverse, a simple operation. 
 
 
UNICODE  
 
These have been developed in tandem with the Universal Character Set (UCS) scheme; the 
only differences between these schemes are the identifying names given to them. The aim of 
Unicode is to be able to represent any possible text in code form. In particular this includes all 
languages in the world. However, Unicode is designed so that once a coding set has been 
defined it is never changed. 
 
In particular, the first 128 characters in Unicode are the ASCII codes. Unicode has its own 
special terminology. For example, a character code is referred to as a 'code point'. In any 
documentation there is a special way of identifying a code point. An example is U+0041 
which is the code point corresponding to the alphabetic character A. The 0041 are 
hexadecimal characters representing two bytes. The interesting point is that in a text where 
the coding has been identified as Unicode it is only necessary to use a one-byte 
representation for the 128 codes corresponding to ASCII. To ensure such a code cannot be 
misinterpreted, the codes where more than one byte is needed have restrictions applied. 
Figure LOS shows the format used for a two-byte code. 
 
11​??????​ 10​??????  
Figure 1.05 Unicode two-byte code format 
 
The most significant bit for an ASCII code is always O so neither of the two-byte 
representations here can cause confusion. 
 
 
 
1.1.2. IMAGES  
 
Images can be stored in a computer system for the eventual purpose of displaying the image 
on a screen or for presenting it on paper, usually as a component of a document. Such an 
image can be created by using an appropriate drawing package. Alternatively, when an 
image already exists independently of the computer system, the image can be captured by 
using photography or by scanning. 
 
Vector Graphics  
 
Term: ​ a graphic consisting of components defined by geometric formulae and associated 
properties, such as line colour and style. 
 
It is normal for an image that is created by a drawing package or a ​computer-aided design 
(CAD) package​ to consist of a number of geometric objects. The outcome is then usually for the 
image to be stored as a vector graphic file. 
 
1. A vector graphic is made up from a number of drawing objects.  
2. A vector graphic program such as ​Microsoft Visio or Corel Draw​ comes with a vast 
number of different objects organised into groups or ‘shape libraries’.  
3. Objects are organised into groups of shapes – the creator has selected a straight line 
from the ‘Connectors’ group and an LCD monitor from the ‘Computer’ group.  
4. Objects have properties.  
5. These properties determine the size and appearance of each object. If an object is 
re-sized its properties are simply recalculated. An example could be a network 
topology diagram where a library of networking shapes exists containing objects for a 
computer, file server, printer, etc.  
6. The user could quickly construct a network topology diagram. The advantage of vector 
graphics is that changing the size of any object will not affect the quantity of the 
drawing’s appearance. That is, the objects are scalable. 
 
 
Bitmapped Image  
 
A bitmap graphic is a rectangular grid built up from a number of pixels. ​A pixel​ is the 
smallest addressable picture element which can be represented. The term bitmap comes from 
the concept that the bit patterns which make up the file are ‘mapped’ to an area in the main 
memory. Each pixel will be a particular colour. Each pixel’s colour will be represented as a 
binary pattern. The contents of the bitmap file will be this sequence of binary colour codes. 
 
Picture element (pixel):​ the smallest identifiable component of a bitmap image, defined by 
just two properties: its position in the bitmap matrix and its colour. The smallest addressable 
picture element which can be represented. 
 
There are several types of encoding and i le formats for bitmap images:  
• Monochrome: black and white pixels only  
• 16 colour: 16 available colours for the pixels  
• 256 colour: 256 possible colours  
• 24-bit colour (or true colour) where millions of different colours are possible. 
 
Bitmap encoding  Pixel representation  Explanation 
Only two colours needed (Black
Monochrome 1 bit and white). One byte can store
eight pixels
16 colour 4 bits Each byte can store two pixels

256 colour 8 bits (1 byte) Each byte stores one pixel.

The number of different colours
24-bit colour 24 bits (3 bytes)
possible is 224 (16, 777, 216).
Table: Encoding for bitmap images  
 
In addition to the pixel data, the bitmap i le will have other data stored in a file header. The 
header data will give the size of the bitmap (width and height measured in pixels) and the 
type of bitmap (encoding) Bitmaps have the drawback that they have a large i le size. If an 
attempt is made to over-enlarge the bitmap with -editing software the individual pixels may 
become visible. This is called the staircase effect.  
 
The clarity with which a bitmap image is viewed on a monitor screen will depend on two 
factors: 
• Resolution of the image: the number of pixels per centimetre. A small image size made up 
from a large number of pixels will produce a sharper display.  
• Screen resolution: the number of pixels which can be viewed horizontally and vertically on 
the screen. A typical PC screen resolution is 1680 pixels × 1080 pixels. This is a key factor to 
consider when purchasing a monitor – what is the highest possible screen resolution? 
 
 
 
 
 
Applications of bitmapped and vector graphics  
 
Bitmapped graphics are used to:  
• capture scanned images from a paper document. 
• scan a photograph. 
 
Vector graphics are used for: 
• General line-drawing diagrams  
• Diagrams for specialist applications, such as flowcharting, object-oriented class diagrams, 
network topologies and any application where there is a specialist shapes library available. A 
diagram using vector graphics software could be intended for inclusion in a word processor 
document. When completed it must be saved in one of the ​universally recognised file formats.

Bitmap file Size: 

Kibi: a prefix representing the factor 210 (1024) written as the symbol Ki  
Mebi: a prefix representing the factor 220 (1048576) written as the symbol Mi  
Gibi: a prefix representing the factor 230 written as the symbol Gi 
 
 
1.1.3. SOUND  
 
Sound is a key requirement for most software.  
Sound will be used for:  
• sounding context-sensitive warning messages to the user 
• The playback of music files, video and bit-streamed media content  
• Specialist applications, such as the reading of a text document to a visual impaired user. A 
sound signal is an analogue signal. To be saved as data on the computer, the sound signal 
must be converted from an analogue to a digital signal. This will be done by some form of 
analogue-to-digital converter (ADC). 
 
The sound will be sampled at a set time interval and these sample values form the binary 
values which form the sound file. The issues which affect the sound quality and the file size are: 
• How many bits are used to encode each sampled value (the sampling resolution)  
• How often the samples are taken, that is, how many values per second (the sampling rate)  
 
The graph in Figure 1.04 illustrates the sampling rate.  
 

 
Samples are being taken every one millisecond; that is, 1000 samples will be taken every 
second. This example used only eight bits to store each sample. Figure 1.05 shows the 
sampled data values stored in main memory from address 300 onwards. 
 
It should be apparent from ​Figure 1.05​ that:  
• If samples are taken more frequently, the quality of the sound wave will increase.  
• If a larger number of bits is used to encode each sample, the sound resolution will increase.  
 
Sound editing software is used for the recording of:  
• Spoken word using a microphone • the ‘digitising’ of an analogue sound source. An example 
could be the connection of a record turntable to the computer. The sound from a vinyl record is 
then recorded using the sound recording software 
 
Editing features of the software would include:  
• Cutting and pasting of sections of the recording  
• Filtering out certain sounds. For example the ‘clicks’ on a scratched vinyl record 
• Recording as a single (mono) channel or two channels (stereo)  
• Normalising the recording level  
• Export of the sound recording to a variety of file formats. For example MP3. 
 
300  301  302  303  304  305  306  307  308  309  
8  20  35  44  38  38  48  61  69  75  
 
310  311  312  313  314  
75  57  45  36  29 
Figure 1.05 
 
 
1.1.4 VIDEO  
 
Video is in widespread use on computers for recreational and educational use:  
 
• YouTube is one of the most popular websites where users can post their own video content. 
• Videos are an excellent medium for an explanation of the working of a piece of equipment 
or to provide a learning tutorial.  
 
A video is a sequence of still photographic images which are displayed in sequence. The 
frequency with which they are displayed gives the appearance of continuous motion, and what 
is contained on individual frames is not apparent. The frequency with which the frames are 
displayed is called the ​frame rate​. A continuous effect to the human eye is achieved with a 
frame rate of 25 frames per second or higher. 
 
Frame rate: the frequency with which video 
Frames are displayed 
 
Progressive encoding 
 
A system which stores the data for an entire frame and displays all the frame data at the 
same time is called ‘progressive encoding’. This means the frame rate will be the number of 
pictures displayed per second. Traditional Film uses progressive encoding.  
 
 
 
Interlaced encoding 
 
The problem is that some devices, such as a television, are not designed to display all the 
frame data at the same time. The data from a single frame is encoded as two separate fields; 
one containing the data for the even numbered rows and the second frame has the data for 
the odd numbered rows. The term interlaced comes from the concept that the image is 
rendered by switching between the even field and the odd field. It follows that the rate of 
picture display is twice the frame rate. 
 
With increasing demand for the display of video content through DVD players, set-top boxes 
and other home electronic devices there is still a need for interlaced encoded video format i 
les. The picture frames that make up interlaced fields have a correct order relative to each 
other:  
• The spatial order shows which should be the odd or even field.  
• The temporal order refers to a field or frame and which field represents an earlier moment 
in time.  
 
If either one or both of these orders is incorrect the result of the playback will appear as jerky 
motion or blurred edges to content. 
 
 
1.1.5 Compression Techniques  
 
Both sound and video files tend to have large file size. Techniques used which encode the data 
in a way which results in less byte for the file are highly desirable. Compression is the 
technique of reducing the size of a file without a significant loss in the later quality in the use 
of the file.  
 
There are two categories of compression.  
The first is ​lossless compression​ where the file size is reduced but no information is lost and 
when necessary the process can be reversed to re-create the original file.  
The second is ​lossy compression​ where the file size is reduced with some loss of information 
and the original file can never be recovered. In many applications a combination of lossless 
and lossy methods may be used. 
 
Lossless compression​: coding techniques that allow subsequent decoding to recreate exactly the 
original file  
 
Lossy compression​: coding techniques that cause some information to be lost so that the exact 
original file cannot be recovered in subsequent decoding 
 
Image compression techniques 
 
Run-length encoding (RLE) Consider a bitmapped file of a photograph where over half of the 
pixels are the same pixel value, representing the blue sky. An alternative to saving (say) the 
300 consecutive pixel values on a row could be to save a single copy of the pixel value 
followed by the number of occurrences of the value (300). This way we have reduced the 
number of pixels used to store this portion of the graphic from 300 to a very small number. 
This technique would be appropriate for a monochrome image consisting of a black line 
drawing on a white background. This will contain ‘runs’ when horizontal or vertical straight line 
are drawn. Consider a 256-colour image that is 30 x 4 pixels as shown in Figure 1.06. The 
image has four different colours, coded as w, b, r and g. 
 
Lossless encoding 
We now have two alternatives for encoding a bitmapped image:  
• Save the colour code for every pixel.  
• Use run-length encoding. Both of these techniques mean that the original bitmap can be 
re-created when the data is read from the bitmap image i le and displayed on the output 
device. For bitmap files several of the universal file formats are lossless. These include .bmp 
and the Portable Network Graphics (.png) format, which was intended as a replacement for 
the older .gif format. 

Lossy encoding 
Using a ‘lossy’ technique for encoding bitmap data has the objective of compressing the file 
size. Lossy techniques are based on two concepts which exploit the limitations of the human 
eye: 
• An image which has a large background could encode the background pixels with a lower 
resolution. 
 • Colours such as blue, to which the human eye is less sensitive, could be encoded at a lower 
resolution.  
The popular .jpeg file format is lossy. 
 
Video compression techniques  
 
Since a video is made up of a number of frames, we are interested in applying various 
compression techniques to a video frame or a frame sequence.  
 
Spatial redundancy  
This is the similar to the concern over ‘redundancy’ in a bitmap file. Is there a sequence of the 
same pixels within a single frame which could be encoded or effectively compressed?  
 
Temporal redundancy  
Is there a sequence of similar pixels in the same position in consecutive frames? In which case, 
we do not need to repeat them in each frame. It will depend entirely on the content. A room 
full of people disco-dancing will not compress as well as a panoramic view of a beauty spot. 
 
Interframe coding​ addresses the issue of temporal redundancy. The encoding method is 
based on the idea of ​key frames​, which store data for all the picture, and intermediary 
frames which store only the differences from the next intermediary frame or key frame. 
 
 
File Formats  
 
Over the years standards in the computing industry have emerged for image files (we have 
already mentioned .BMP, .PNG, .GIF and .JPEG) and sound data. Popular sound formats 
include .WAV, .MPEG and .MP3.  
 
Video – which is a combination of moving pictures and sound – requires its own industry 
standards. The detail about encoding methods used for this is outside the scope of our 
syllabus. The key issue is that there is correct synchronisation between the picture display and 
the accompanying sound commentary.  
 
The current popular multimedia container formats include:  
 
• AVI (standard Microsoft Windows container)  
• MOV (standard QuickTime container) 
 
• MP4 (standard container for MPEG-4 multimedia)  
• Matroska (not standard for any codec or system, but it is an open standard).  
 
The differences between container formats arise from issues such as: 
• Popularity: is the container format widely supported? This is the reason that the AVI format is 
still the most popular format.  
• Overheads: This refers to the difference in file size between two files with the same content 
in a different container. For a two-hour film, an AVI file may be up to 10 MB larger than a 
file in Matroska format. 
 • Support for advanced codec functionality: Older formats, such as AVI, do not support new 
codec features, such as streaming media. 
 
 
 
Summary 
 
  shape libraries provided by the 
❖ Numbers can be written using a  software. Each object has a set of 
binary, denary or hexadecimal  properties which are stored as part 
base.   of the vector file. 
❖ Two’s complement is a  ❖ Sound is encoded as samples taken 
representation which allows both  from the analogue source with a set 
positive and negative integers to  sampling rate. The number of bits 
be represented.   used to encode each sample (the 
❖ Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a  sampling resolution) determines the 
coding system used for positive  sound quality.  
integers.  ❖ Video is made up of a sequence of 
❖ Images can be encoded as a  image frames with an 
bitmap, made up of a rectangular  accompanying sound track. The 
grid of pixels. The file header will  encoding can be interlaced or 
contain data about the image: its  progressive. Various multimedia 
height, width and the type of  formats are used commercially. 
bitmap. Bitmap resolutions are  These formats may uses 
monochrome, 16 colour, 256 colour  compression techniques to address 
and true colour. From the resolution  spatial and temporal redundancy.  
and the dimensions, the file size can  ❖ Compression techniques use either 
be calculated.   ‘lossy’ or ‘lossless’. One lossless 
❖ Vector graphics are constructed  technique is run-length encoding 
using drawing objects selected from  (RLE).