Selecting and Developing the Global

Versus the Expatriate Manager:

A Review of the State-of-the-Art
Vladimir Pucik, Professor, IMD, Lausanne, Switzerland;Tania Saba, Assistant Professor, School of Industrial Relations,
University of Montreal

T
Ihis article presents a working definition of

• two key concepts in international human

I resource management: a global manager
and an expatriate manager. The expatriate manager
or the international manager is defined, in a
narrow sense, as an executive in a leadership
position that involves international assignments.
The global manager is defined, in a broad sense, as
an executive who has a hands-on understanding of
international business, has an ability to work across
cross-cultural, organizational, and functional
boundaries, and is able to balance the simultane-
ous demands of short-term profitability and
growth. The article's objectives are to
clarify the main differences
between the two concepts, to
review the principal contributions
to the literature on this subject, and to identify the
organizational processes and human resource manage-
ment tools that can influence both the success of the
expatriate assignments and the development of global
competencies.

40 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

 "The thing that wakes me up in the middle of the location of the assignment whereas the
the night is not what might happen to the econo- global manager is defined by his or her frame
my or what our competitors might do ne.xt. What of mind. The term "expatriate (or intemational)
does wake me up is worrying about whether manager" defines an executive who is able to
or not we have the leadership capability and the assume a leadership position fulfilling interna-
talent to implement the new and more tional assignments across countries and cultures.
complex global strategies." In this review, the terms expatriate manager and
-Dave Whitman. CEO. Whirlpool Corporation "international manager" are used as equivalents,
as these terms are interchangeable in most of the
Defining the Expatriate vs. literature. The term "global manager" (or
the Global Manager "transnational manager" as it is sometimes
It is widely agreed thai the critical factor for called in the literature) usually refers to an exec-
companies to succeed in global competition is utive assigned to a position with a cross-border
effective development of global managers and responsibility, who has a flexible and open
executives (Pucik. 1985; Bartlett & Ghoshal. mind, with a well-rounded understanding of
1989: Evans, 1992; Tichy & ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ international business and an ability
Sherman, 1993; Gates, 1994). to work across cross-cultural and
However, in management develop- Building and Lioss-functional boundaries, who
ment literature, there seems to be a perceives global competition as an
sustaining
great deal of confusion about the opportunity, and who is able to bal-
meaning of various terms defining organizational ance the simultaneous demands of
expatriate/intemational/global man- global integration and national
capabilities for
agers. In an effort to clarify the dif- responsiveness (Pucik. 1991;
ferences between the expatriate and global operations Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1989; 1992).
the global manager, this article is a critical Some global managers may be
explores the definitions of the two expatriates: many, if not most, have
challenge for most been expatriates at some point in
concepts, and explains the differ-
ences in behaviors, competencies, globalizing firms. their career, but probably only few
and characteristics of the two types expatriates are global managers.
Meeting this
of managers. The article also identi- A literature review' show.s that
fies and compares the human challenge requires although a great number of studies
resource practices necessary for an changes in cogni- deal wilh the international or the
effective development of the expatri- expatriate manager, there seem to
ate and global managers. tive processes be fewer studies (most of them con-
Building and sustaining organiza- through which ceptual, not empirical) about global
tional capabilities for global opera- managers. Within the abundant
managers frame
tions is a critical challenge for most research on expatriate managers,
globalizing finns (Nohria & business problems. most of the work has been focused
Ghoshai, 1997). Meeting this chal- on the issue of selecting managers
lenge requires changes in cognitive for international assignments result-
processes through which managers frame ing in lists of criteria, competencies, and charac-
business problems (Murtha, Lenway & Bagozzi. teristics that the international manager should
1998). Global thinking places high value on possess, as well as on the identification of per-
sharing infonnation, knowledge, and experience sonality and psychometric tests that could be
across national, functional, and business bound- used to measure such personal qualifications. At
aries and on balancing competing country, the same time, researchers have analyzed the
business, and functional priorities that emerge causes of failure in overseas assignments and
in the globalization process. This set of attitudes have introduced HR practices that would help
is often described as global mindset. organizations select, develop, and retain compe-
The emphasis on the mindset helps to tent expatriate managers (Tung, 1981;
differentiate between expatriate (intemational) Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985; Dulfer, 1990:
and global managers. The definition of an Ronen, 1990: Oddou, 1991: Arthur &
expatriate/international manager is linked to Bennett, 1995).

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 41

 The 21st-century Expatriate Manager Profile (adapted from Howard, 1992)
Skills Managerial Implications
Core Skills
Multidimensional Extensive multi-product, multi-indtistrj', multi-functional, multi-company, multi-country,
Perspective and multi-environment experience

Proficiency in Track record in successfully operating a strategic business unit(s) and/or a series of major
Line Management overseas projects

Prudent Decision- Competence and proven track record in making the right strategic decisions
Making SkilLs

Resourcefulness Skillful in getting himself or herself known and accepted in the host country's
political hierarchy

Ability as a Team Builder Adept in bringing a culturally diverse working group together to accomplish the major
mission and objective of the organization
Augmented Skills
Computer Literacy Comfortable exchanging strategic infonnation electronically

Prudent Negotiating Skills Proven track record in conducting successful strategic business negotiations in
multicultural environment

Ability as a Change Agent Proven track record in successfully initiating and implementing strategic organizational
changes

Visionary Skills Quick to recognize and respond to strategic business opportunities and potential political
and economic upheavals in the host country

Effective Delegatory Skills Proven track record in participative management style and ability to delegate

In contrast, research on global managers is
relatively scarce. Besides defining what the glob-
al manager's competencies and behavior should
be and how they differ from that of the expatriate
manager, studies revealing the global manager's
profile, the determinants of the successful global
manager, and the effective HR practices to devel-
op the global manager ate still mainly at a con-
ceptual stage (Kupfer, 1988; Pucik, 1992; Adler
& Bartholomew, 1992; Evans, 1992; Kets de
Vries & Mead, 1992; Tichy. 1992; Bartiett &
Ghoshal, 1992; Yeung & Ready, 1995, Werther,
Wachtel & Veal, 1995).
BKHAVIORS AND COMPETENCIES
Expatriates' Behaviors and Competencies. In
one of the earliest articles on this subjecl. Hays
(1974) categorizes expatriate managers into four
types. The structure reproducer is responsible for
reproducing in the foreign subsidiary a structure
similar to that of another part of the company.
The technical troubleshooter is sent to analyze
and solve a technical problem. The operational
expatriate is the individual who carries out a
well-defined position in an ongoing business.
and the chief executive officer oversees and
directs the entire foreign operation. Similarly.
Derr and Oddou (1991) identify two types of
expatriates; those who are assigned abroad to
"fix" a problem, including those assigned to line
management and specialized functional posi-
tions, and those who go abroad as "high-poten-
tials" to broaden their development before inov-
ing up to senior management. In this context,
Pucik (1992) differentiates between "demand-
driven" and ••learning-driven" international
assignments.
A number of researchers focused on compe-
tencies of effective international tnanagers.
According to Dulfer (1990), international man-
agers must have clear managerial qualifications,
in addition to purely technical and professional
skills and competencies. They should be able lo
perform tasks as members of a team, reflect on
complex problems in an appropriate way. impro-
vise and find new solutions in the face of unex-
pected changes, impart confidence in their own
ability to solve problems in difficult situations.
and most of all. motivate all members of the
organization to cooperate. McCali (1992) has

42 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

proposed (as an outcome of a research project
aimed ul developing an assessment instrument to
identify leadership potential in future internation-
al executives) that individuals who are hound to
be successful in international assignments are
those who show ability to Icarn from experience.
International managers should show curiosity
about how things work, have a sense of adven-
ture, demonstrate readiness/hardiness about
leaming. be biased toward action, accept respon-
sibility for learning and change, respect differ-
ences among people, seek and use feedback, and
have shown consistent growth over time.
Focusing on one key competency expected
of expatriate managers, the "international knowl-
edge," Rothwell (1992) explored its three princi-
pal components: general knowledge about the
world and global economy: national information
ahout conditions in a specific country; and busi-
ness understanding of strategy, process, and lead-
ership style. Looking toward the future, Howard
(1992) has summarized the skills required of the
21st-century expatriate manager (see Exhibit I).
Global Managers' Behaviors and
Competencies. According to Bartlett and
Ghoshal (1989; 1992), global managers are indi-
viduals that have been selected for, developed by,
and CO opted into the broader transnational orga-
nization. Their principal characteristic is the abil-
ity to resolve complex and potentially contradic-
tory issues embedded in the global environment.
Bartlett and Ghoshal refer to these sets of behav-
iors and competencies as the building of a global
matrix in the mind of the global manager, but
they add that there is no such thing as a universal
global manager. Rather, there are three groups of
global specialists — business managers, country
managers, and functional managers — that should
together lead the organization to achieve global-
scale efficiency and integration, national-level
responsiveness and flexibility, and cross-market
capacity to leverage learning on a worldwide
basis (see Exhibit 2).
A number of recent contributions to the dis-
cussion of globalization of management focused
on identification of key competencies of global
managers with references to the traditional lead-
ership literature. Tichy (1992) refers to global
managers/leaders as •'globalists," characterized
as individuals who have a global mindset — i.e.,
those who can conceptualize complex geopoliti-
cal and cultural forces as they impact business,
and possesses a well-honed set of global leader-
ship skills and behaviors, such as an ability to
build effective cross-cultural teams; the energy,
skills, and talents to be global networkers; and
skills as global '"change agents." Kets de Vries
and Mead (1992) identify global leaders as indi-
viduals with the capacity of envisioning (indicat-
ing future direction in an increasingly complex

The Three Groups of Global Specialists (adapted from Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1992)
Groups of Global Specialists Skills and Competencies

Business Manager • Recognize opportunities and risks across national and functional boundaries
• Coordinate activilies and link capabilities across those barriers
• Capture full benefit of integrated worldwide operations
Roles: Strategist. Architect, and Coordinator

Country Manager • Meet local customers' needs

• Satisfy the host govemment's requirements
• Defend the company's markel position against local and external
competitors
Roles: Sensor. Builder, and Contributor

Functional Manager • Build an organization that can use leaming to create and spread innova-
tions
• Scan for specialized infonnatiori leading-edge knowledge and best prac-
tices worldwide
• Champion innovations that may offer transnational opportunities and
applications
Roles: Scunner, Cross-Pottinator, and Champion

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 43

 Differences Between the Expatriate and the Global Manager
(Adler & Bartholomew, 1992)
Expatriate Manager
Global Perspective • Focuses on a single foreign country and
on managing relationships between head-
quatlers and that country
Local Responsiveness • Becomes an expert on one culture
Synergistic Learning • Works with and coaches people in each
foreign culture separately or sequentially
• Integrates foreigners into the headquar-
ters" national organizational culture
IVansition and • Adapts to living in a foreign culttire
Adaptation
Cross-cultural • Uses cross-cultural interaction skills pri-
Interaction marily on foreign assignments
Collaboration • Interacts with colleagues from within
clearly defined hierarchies of stmctural
and cultural dominance and subordination
Foreign Experience • Expatriation or inpatriation primarily to
get the job done
Transnational Manager
• Understands worldwide business environ-
ment from a global perspective
• Must leam about many foreign cultures'
perspectives, tastes, trends, technologies,
and approaches to conducting business
• Works with and leam from people from
many cultures simultaneously
• Creates a culturally synergistic organiza-
tional environment
• Adapts to living in many foreign cultures
• Uses cross-cultural skills on a daily bask
throughout his or her career
• Interiu:ts with foreign colleagues as equals
• Transpatriation for career and organiza-
tion development

environment), the ability to instill values and
inspire others and build and maintain organiza-
tional networks, the capacity for "pattern recog-
nition" {sorting out relevant from irrelevant
infonnation). and the ability to cope with stress.
Research conducted by the Ashridge
Management Research Group led to differentia-
tion within two sides of the global managers"
competencies (Barham & Anial. 1994). The first
set of competencies is linked to the active roles
that the global manager should play in order to
manage across a number of countries and cul-
tures simultaneously. The "doing"' competencies,
as Barham calls them, consist of championing
international strategy, operating as cross-border
coach and coordinator, acting as intercultural
mediator and change agent, and managing per-
sonal effectiveness for international business.
(The other set of global competencies, or what
Barham refers to as the "being"' competencies,
are presented later in the section on the attributes
of successful global managers.) Finally, in a recent
study of managers in major global companies,
Yeung and Ready (1995) identify six leadership
capabilities that corporations value in global
managers. These capabilities are as follows: to
be a catalyst/manager of strategic change; to be a
catalyst/manager of cultural change; to articulate
a tangible vision, values, and strategies; to exhib-
it a strong customer orientation; to empower oth-
ers to do their best; and to get results, or manage
strategy to action.
Several studies concentrated on global man-
agers" way of thinking, or "global tnindset."" In an
1993 article, Rhinesmith defined the global man-
ager as an executive with a global mindset, able to
scan the world from a broad perspective, always
looking for unexpected trends and opportunities to
achieve his or her personal, professional, or orga-
nizational objectives. Rhinesmith (1993; 1995)
defines the mindset as "a predisposition to see the
world in a particular way that sets boundaries and
provides explanations for why things are the way
they are. while at the same time establishing guid-
ance for ways in which we should behave.'" In this
respect, individuals with a global mindset should
be able to drive for the bigger, broader picture,
balance paradoxes, trust process over structure,
value differences, manage change, and seek life-
long leaming.
Is global mindset a tneasurable construct?
Recently, Murtha, Lenway. and Bagozzi (1998)
discussed the application of a survey instrument
designed to evaluate individual and organization-
al progress toward creating a global mindset
opera!ionalized as an ability to balance the con-

44 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

tradictory pressures of global integration, respon-
siveness, and coordination. They have created a
scale to assess the degree lo which managers
develop global mind.sets, the impact of policy
variables on organizational and individual differ-
ences concerning globalization, and most impor-
tant, individual and organizational progress in
becoming global and factors that account for
variations in the speed ot globalization across
and within organizations. An interesting question
that can be addressed using the global mindset
scale is whether one can acquire a global mindset
(to become a global manager) without ever leav-
ing his or her home country as an expatriate.
Comparing the Two Sets of Behaviors and
Competencies. Reviewing the behaviors and
competencies required of expatriate and transna-
tional managers. Adler and Bartholomew (1992)
summarize the main differences between the two
concepts (see Exhibit 3). The differences in skill
characteristics are seen as driven primarily by the
degree of cultural and organizational complexity
facing managers during iheir careers.
FACTORS ASSOCIATEU WITH KXPATRIATE
AND (;LOBAL MANAGERS- EAILURE
Much of the normative literature on the expatri-
ate process is based on the argument that the
expatriate failure rate is high (Baker &
Ivancevich, 1971; Misa & Fabricatore, 1979;
Tung. 1981: Black, Gregersen & Mendenhall,
1992). The study of predictors of expatriate fail-
ure now has a long history in management litera-
ture. In contrast, we are not aware of any study
that focuses on predictors of failure of global
managers.
Findings by Dowling (1990). Scullion (1994).
and Weeks (1992) suggest that shortages of expe-
rienced and capable expatriate managers have
become more acute over the past five years.
They are caused on the demand side by the ever-
increasing pace of internationalization, whiie on
the supply size, the organizational capability to
develop effective expatriate exeeutives is hin-
dered by the inadequate management of the
expatriation process, from selection and and han-
dling of the initial culture shock to repatriation
(Howard. 1980. 1992: Mendenhall, Dunbar &
Katcher 1990: Dulfer. 1990; Hogan & Goodson,
1990; Feldman & Tompson, 1992; Weeks, 1992;
Gregersen. 1995).
Recently, however, Harzing (1995) reviewed
the literature on expatriate failure measured as a
premature reentry and concluded that this argu-
ment is not fully sub.stantiated by empirical evi-
dence. She adds that measuring the failure rate as
the percentage of expatriate managers retuming
home before the expiration of their assignment
contract is inadequate for two reasons: (1) it is
far more damaging for a company if an expatri-
ate who fails to perform adequately stays until
the completion of the overseas assignment; and
(2) a completion of the overseas assignment does
not mean that the expatriate failure has been
avoided. Nevertheless, Harzing concludes that
HR executives should continue to examine expa-
triate failure, but more attention should be paid
to the reasons behind the failure (defined as pre-
mature return, the lack of cross-cultural adju.st-
ment, and poor pertbrmance during intemational
assignment), which may include a variety of
individual as well as organizational factors.
INDIVIDUAL EACTORS
First, the expatriate inability to manage and cope
effectively can be caused by personal issues.
Personality attributes such as the inability to deal
with stressful situations, lack of the right atti-
tudes and skills to communicate with people
from different cultures, and the inadaptability of
the family to the new environment are frequently
cited as reasons that cause an expatriate manager
to retum prematurely from the intemational
assignment (Mendenhall. Dunbar & Oddou,
1987; Hogan & Goodson. 1990; Black,
Gregersen & Mendenhall, 1992; Scullion, 1992;
1994). Some of these personality characteristics
will be examined in more detail later while
reviewing the literature on the attributes of suc-
cessful expatriate managers.
Aside from the personality attributes that may
cause the failure of the expatriate assignments,
the literature has focused on three additional
individual-level issues:
A) Willingness to Relocate. Brett and Stroh
(1995) studied empirically the willingness of
American managers to relocate intemationally.
The focus of the study was to provide an inten-
tional measure of that willingness. The results
showed that American managers' decision to
relocate were definitely influenced by their
spouse's feelings about intemational relocation
and by their own attitude toward moving in gen-
eral. It was also influenced by the number of
children at home and employer's policies
(Harvey, 1996). In recent research on intemation-
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 45
 al mobility. Forster (1992) focused on four key
dimensions (related to job mobility) to explain
Ihe attitudes toward accepting assignments
abroad: 1) the performance of employees abroad
and the causes of expatriate failures (Tung, 1982:
Pucik, 1988: Black & Mendenhall, 1992); 2) the
personality profiles and psychological attributes
of successful international managers (Phalak,
1974; Tung. 1981: Black & Mendenhall, 1990);
3) the effect of language and cultural training on
expatriates (Gertsen, 1990: Black, 1990); and 4)
and the effects of national cultural differences on
the outcomes of international assignments (Gould
& Penley, 1985; Gertsen, 1990; Smith, 1992).
B) Family Issues. The inability of the spouse
to adjust to the new country was cited in many
empirical studies as a reason for expatriate
failure (Tung, 1981: Black & Stephens, 1989:
Dowling. 1990: Swaak, I99,S). Dual-career
couples are also more likely to turn down
international assignments because of the expected
negative effects of a career interruption (Stephens
& Black. 1991). !t is clear [hat future research
should include investigations of the effects of
dual-earner families. Companies should imple-
ment practices such as job search assistance and
pooling available positions in a geographically
based consortium of companies (Catalyst, 1981).
C) Expatriate Commitment. Black and
Gregersen (1992) and Gregersen (1992) have
explained expatriate failure by taking a closer
look at the fonns of allegiance developed by the
expatriate toward both the local operation and
the parent company. They have identified four
types of expatriate commitment: the "freer
agents" with low level of commitment to both
the parent and the local operation; those who
"leave their heart at home"; those who "go
native": and those who become "dual citizens"
— expatriates with high allegiance to both the
parent and local affiliate. In their study, develop-
ing a high dual allegiance seems to be the best
way to prevent failure after an international
assignment and has proven to have positive per-
sonal and organizational consequences.
ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS
The ineptitude of the organizations in providing
effective expatriate selection, training, and prepa-
ration programs and support policies during and
after the completion of the international assign-
ment is regarded as a ver>' important reason in
determining the failure of overseas appointments.
46 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING
In the same vein, many authors have described the
difficulty of managing dual-career marriages, the
lack of career planning, the poor orientation pro-
grams, the ineffective cross-cultural training, and
the unattractive compensation packages as com-
mon organizational factors that would imminently
lead to overseas failure (Mendenhall, Dunbar &
Oddou, 1987: Blocklyn, 1989; Hogan & Goodson,
1990; Dunbur & Katcher, 1990; Derr & Oddou,
1991; Rothwell, 1992: Forster. 1992; Howard,
1992; Wederspahn & Stahl, 1992; Harrison,
1994). Criticizing what they believe is "the most
common American approach" to expatriate selec-
tion. Black, Gregersen, and Mendenhall (1992)
add that the global assignment is destined to fail if
it is based only on a superticial selection of candi-
dates on the presumable technical and managerial
competence to put "the foreign fire out." Others
argue that the typical selection process often fails
to take into consideration the candidates" cross-
cultural ability or the family disposition to live
abroad (Stone. 1991).
DETERMINANTS OF EXPATRIATE AND
GLOBAL MANAGERS' SUCCESS
The research on determinants of expatriate
success is also much more developed than
research on global managers, with an emphasis
on expatriate selection and the expatriation
process. The dominant theme of the literature
reflects the opinion that expatriate selection and
development is still mainly focused on technical
competence as the key determinant of an expatri-
ate manager's success, but that stronger efforts
should be deployed by organizations to assess
other, "softer" factors, such as relational, cross-
cultural, and interpersonal abilities as well as
adaptability potential of the spouse and other
family members (Tung. 1981; Bennett, 1989;
Cope, 1992; Scullion, 1994).
In one of the earliest studies of the expatria-
tion process, Tung (1981) identified four groups
of variables that contribute to expatriate success:
technical competence on the job; personality
traits or relational abilities: environmental vari-
ables; and the family situation. Tung (1981) adds
that the importance of these selection criteria
varies according to the category of tasks the
international manager is expected to perform:
chief executive officer; functional head; trou-
bleshooter; and international operative.
Mendenhail and Oddou (1985) identified four
key dimensions in the expatriate adjustment
 because they believe that expatriate acculturation
is a multidimensional process. The self-oriented
dimension is composed of three sub-factors: rein-
foreemenl subslilution; stre.ss reduction; and
technical competence. This dimension measures
the expatriate's ability of adjustment. The others-
oriented dimension measures the expatriate's
ability to interact effectively with host-country
nationals and consists of two sub-factors: rela-
tionship development and willingness to commu-
nicate. The perceptual dimension refers to the
ability lo understand why foreigners behave the
way they do. Expatriate managers should be non-
judgmental and non-evaluative in interpreting the
behavior ot host-country nationals. The cultural-
toughness dimension refers to the understanding
of differences between countries.
Ronen (1990) incorporates the dimensions of
expatriate success identified by Tung (1981) and
Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) and identifies five
categories of attributes of success: job factors:
relational dimensions; motivational state; family
situation; and language skills. Oddou (1991) states
that there arc never any guarantees in identifying
what constitutes the '"righr" person for the interna-
tional assignment. However, a few indicators
might be helpful to identify the potential expatri-
ate. The candidate's capacity to adapt to change
(new structures, new rules and new faces), his or
her open-mindness, sociability, self-confidence,
whether or not he or she has a supportive family,
and the candidate's capacity to deal with stress are
essential elements that enhance a firm's chances
of employing a successful expatriate.
With respect to global managers, the scope of
the literature is much more sparse. Kets de Vries
and Mead (1992) identified five principal cate-
gories of factors contributing lo the development
of global leaders: management development;
adaptability factors; leadership factors; personal
development; and training and education. These
five categories are broadly comparable to those
identified by Tung (1981), Mendenhall and Oddou
(1985), and Ronen (1990). and together can be
grouped as professional and technical competence,
relational abilities, leadership factors, family situa-
tion, and cultural awareness (see Exhibit 4).
From a psychological perspective, according
to Wills and Barham (1992). core competencies
of international managers may be described as
cognitive complexity, emotional energy, and psy-
chological maturity. The cognitive complexity
refers to the ability to see multiple dimensions in
a situation, and to identify the relationships
between those different dimensions. The emo-
tional energy is the ability to deal with stressful
situations. The psychological maturity refers to
three additional attributes of global managers:
their strong curiosity that drives them to learn;
their willingness to apply a great deal of psycho-
logical energy to unravel the complexity of a
situation; and their strong personal morality
(Barham & Antal, 1994).
Developing International and Global
Managers
Not surprisingly, the majority of conceptual
and empirical studies in this area have thus far
focused mainly on HR practices related to
expatriates. Research on global managers is
substantially less developed, and still basically in
a conceptual stage. The primary emphasis of the
empirical studies is on the expatriation process,
selection, and training: not much work has been
done on performance management and compen-
sation of globalization. Most of the studies are
descriptive, although a sophistication of the
analysis continues to increase. The key challenge
is the operationalization of the outcome variables
that are seldom linked to objective measures of
individual or organizational perfonnance.
HR MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
SUPPORTINC; EFFECTIVE DEPLOYMENT
OF EXPATRIATES
We have reviewed the recent literature on HR
management practices related to expatriate man-
agers in order to identify examples of effective
HR techniques that may support effective
deployment of expatriate managers (see Exhibit
5). The HR practices are categorized into five
major activities: staffing; training and career
development; performance appraisals and com-
pensation; expatriation process; and repatriation.
Refiecting the nature of the field, information on
HR practices is mostly drawn Irom North
American firms and European data; data on non-
Western firms appear only infrequently. The list
of citations is meant to be illustrative, not
exhaustive, but whenever appropriate, examples
of companies that have implemented the practice
(as cited in the literature) are included. We have
also noted the type of research methodology used
in the article reviewed.
A number of key themes emerge from our
review. In the area of staffing and selection, the
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 47
 thrust of HR activities in leading global firms —
consistent with recommendations based on past
research — is on enlarging the pool of potential
candidates for intemational a.ssignments, as well
as on making sure that the international track
attracts those with the best potential to succeed
in the firm. Assessment for intemational assign-
ment is becoming increasingly rigorous and often
involves the candidate's spouse. The structure of
assignments is becoming more flexible.
From the management development perspec-
tive, international assignments are increasingly
viewed as an intrinsic part of career progression,
providing opportunities for both a transfer of

Characteristics of the Successful Expatriate and Global Manager

Expatriate Manager Global Managerl
MCIKII'IIIKIII and Kets dt' \rits atid
T\ing (1981) Odduu (l^HS) Ronen (1990) Mead [1991)
Professional Technical Competence Self-Oriented Dimension Job Factors Management
and Technical on the Job • Technical competence • Technical skills Development
Competence (1) • Experience in • Acquaintance with • Early responsibility
company host-country and • Variety of tasks
• Technical knowledge headquarters • Early intemational
of business operations experietice
• Previous overseas • Managerial skills • Corporate values
experience • Administrative
• Managerial talent competence
• Overall experience
and education

Relational Personality Traits and Relational Dimensions Adaptability Factois

Abilities (2) Relational Abilities • Tolerance for • Narcissistic
• Communicative • Reinforcement ambiguity development
ability substitution • Behavioral flexibility • Cultural diversity in
• Maturity and • Stress reduction • Nonjudgmemalism family
emotional stability • Cultural empathy and • Early intemational
• Respect for culture Perceptual Dimension low elhnocentrism experience
of host country • Nonjodgmentali^im • Interpersonal skills • Bilingualism
• Adaptability and • Nonevaiuative in • Multiple roots
flexibility in new interpreting the
environment behavior of host-
country nationals

Leadership Others-Oriented Motivational State Leadership Factors

Factors (3) Dimension (expatriate • Belief in the mission • Self-confidence
ability lo interact effec- • Congruence with • Responsibility
tively with host-country career path • Curiosity
nationals) • Interest in overseas • Imagination
• Relationship experience • Hardiness
development • Interest in the specific • Decision-making
• Willingnes.s to host-country culture skills
communicate • Willingness to • Envisioning
acquire new patterns • Communication skills
of behaviour and • "Core values"
attitudes • Career goals and
expectations

Family Family Situation Family Situation Personal Development

Situation (4) • Stability of marital • Willingness of spouse • Supportive spouse
relationship to live abroad • Adaptable spouse
• Spouse's and family' • Adaptive and • "'Movable children"
adapiability supportive spouse • Variety of interest
• Stable marriage

Cultural Environmental Factors Cultural -Toughness Language Skills Training and Education
Awareness (5) • Flexibility in other Dimension refers to the • Host-country • Analytical skills
cultures understanding of differ- language • Professionai skills
ences between countries • Non-verbal • Study in another
communication culture
• Study in international
languages

48 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

knowledge as well as leaming of new competen-
cies by the international manager. Leading global
firms invest heavily In the training of their inter-
national managers. However, not only is training
provided in the pre-departure stage, but it is tar-
geted to help the expatriates continue learning
about the host culture and improve their intema-
tiona! skills during the assignment.
Managing the cost of compensating expatriate
managers often shows in surveys as an item of
major concern for intemational HR executives
(McKay. 1994; Reynolds. 1995). However, this
concem is not yet reflected in the academic liter-
ature. Most of the discussion and recommenda-
tions are focused on the effectiveness of various
financial incentives. In a number of articles,
there seems to be an implicit yearning fur a bet-
ter model ot expatriate compensation (e.g.. deliv-
ering the same or more positive outcomes —
pertbnnance and retention — for less money), but
the allemative designs are still not yet well-artic-
ulated or tested. Similarly, the area of expatriate
performance management (e.g.. criteria, process,
outcomes) is also substantially unexplored.
An important component of effective expatri-
ate management policies is geared toward the
expatriation process, before and throughout the
duration of an assignment. There is a strong con-
sensus in the literature about the need to invest in
thorough training and orientation programs not
only for the expatriate, but also for his or her
family. After posting, the quality of the support
network inside the host country, as well as link-
age with the home office, may influence how
expatriates perform. In addition, family well-
being is seen as an increasingly important pre-
requisite of expatriate effectiveness.
Finally, the repatriation stage of the intema-
lional assignment is receiving growing attention
in order to reduce the perceived high tumover of
retuming executives. Visible successful retums
can also have a positive impact on willingness of
others to accept an intemalional assignment.
While an intemational assignment cannot be a
shelter against organizational upheavals, much
more can be done to improve the odds of suc-
cess, at relatively low cost. The best practices
focus on advance planning in order to provide
meaningful opportunities upon return that create
value for the employee as well as for the compa-
ny, and on emotional and logistical support dur-
ing the transition.
HR PRACTICES THAT SUPPORT
DEVELOPMENT OF CLOBAL MANAGERS
Based on the observations in the literature, we
have categorized various normative statements
and prescriptions regarding the impact of HR
practices on development of global leaders into
five areas: selection; career development and
training; perfonnance management and compensa-
tion; organizalional design; and global communi-
cation. In particular, our objective was to capture
those HR practices that can support effective
development of global managers and are already
in the process of being implemented at leading
North American and European firms (Adler &
Batholomew. 1992; Kets de Vries & Mead. 1992;
Pucik, 1992; Tichy, 1992; Yeung & Ready. 1995).
A number of "'global'" HR practices stand out.
Staffing sheds its ethnocentric image; global
managers can come from anywhere in the world.
International assignments start early and flexibili-
ty is the key; they can take various forms linked
to the developmental needs. Global mindset and
global leadership become an integral part of per-
formance management criteria. Tasks of global
managers are structured to cross intra-organiza-
tional boundaries, often through membership in
transnational teams. Emphasis is on the quality of
the management process, open communication,
and creation of global competitive culture.
In comparison with the earlier discussion of
HR practices supporting development of intema-
tional managers, the focus on global managers
may require a qualitative leap in aligning HR
with the requirements of globalization, as all key
HR activities are intimately linked to the effec-
tiveness of the management development process.
However, as in the case of intemational man-
agers, intemational assignments are the essential
development tool, although they may happen
much earlier in an executive career as "global
leaming" becomes the primary objective.
Therefore, an effective execution of intemationa!
transfers will continue to demand attention.
Conclusions and Implications
To be successful in global competition, compa-
nies need both expatriate/international and global
managers. We have defined the former, in a
narrow sense, as an executive in a leadership
position that involves intemational assignments.
The global manager is defined, in a broad sense,
as an executive who has a hands-on understand-
HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 49
 Human Resource Practices that Can Effectively Select and Develop Successful Expatriate Managers
Activil (References) Cited Examptes
Staffing (1.2.3.4,5,7, 13. 18.20.22,24,25)
( •|i!i-.i.|,'l ."•U'rn.il rt.\-i-Liili-n.-nr i,i Till TTiiiEiiigfrnonl piv-uii'ii. ,il>niji|

Use third-i:uuiiuy nuliunals tor inlemalional asslgnmenls 3M

Invesl in promoting iriemalional opponunities To sTudents Colgate-Palmolive

Retruil sludents who have lived or were educaled abroad Colgate-Palmolive, Citibank

Recruil women for international a-ssignmenis

Provide shon-icrm assignmenls to increase Ihe pool ot employees with international experience

Base the seleclion of iniemational managers oit long-tenn hurniin resource foteca.st.-> Avon, Coca Cola Foods

Give new international assignees realistic career and job previews Ciba-Geigy

Interview Ihe spouse of the manager as part of the selection process Dow Chemicals

Make iniemational asiignnient planning a part of a career development process 3M. Mitsui & Co. USA

Communicate the value of international assignments to the company's glohal mission

Make international ii'-^ipnnn'nts .i uirnliEnin lor uilvantL-mfnt to scniiir niaiiap'riicnl Whirlpool, Dow ChemiLiil. nL'liouse Electric. 3M.
Arthur Andersen

Training and Career Development (3,5,6,8.9,11. 12.13,16.17, 18.21.24)

Provide expatriate tnanagers wiih technical training to enhance their International background Bechtel. Nordson

Provide language training, cultural and business orientation Ciba-Geigy

For high-potentials, provide a challenging international assignment wilhin three to five years after entry 3M, UBS (E)

Provide oppoitutiities to learn about international finance, marketing and other intem^onal functional areas Colgate-Palmolive

Encourage international managers to manage a multicultural workfon:e

Use intemalional :isMgnmenl as lop managi'intnt dcNclopmt'ni nn>l

Performance Appraisals and Compensation (10. I I . 12, 15.20,24)

Modify the performance evalualion system to incorporate ihe distincdve condition* of loial cokintrius

Ensure timely perfonnance review

Provide financial counseling for international managers KPMG-Peat Manvick

Provide a relocation allowance and a reentry bonus

Provide an equitable intemiitinnid aniipi-n-.irum pji-Viiyt

Expatriation Activities (3,4,5.7,8.12, 13. 18, 19.20,21,22)

Provide Ihe intetnational manager with ar orientation program before the assignment Dow Chemicals. Ciba-Geigy. Intel. Chevron Overseas
Petroleum

Send the expatriate for a visit to the host country (provide a period of orientation abroad) Colgate-Palmoiive

Involve the family in the orientation program Intel, Ciba-Geigy, Gillette

Bstahlish mentor relationships between expatriates and executives from home location for general career advice to reduce the "out of sigbl Colgate-Palmolive, 3M, Ciba-Geigy, Dow
out of mind" dilemma Chemicals, Honeywell, Northern Telecom

Develop a network of contacts to keep the expatriate up-to-date on day-to-day activities of home-country operations for social Colgate-Palmolive. Intel. Bechtel.
support and information exchange Honeywell, Northern Telecom

Organize social activities at the foreign site iri order to faeiiitate exchange of information anii problem solving in an informal setting

Assist [he expalriaie's spouse in fmding a job Gillene. Intel

ASMS! expatriate in finding schools for children

Repatriation Activities (3.5.7,8, 12.13, 18. 19.21,22.24;

Pian a specitic assignment for the retummg cxpairiate ABB. Dow Chemicals

Provide opportunities for the returning manager to use knowledge and skills leamed internationally 3M, Monsanto. UBS. Honeywell

Monitor career paths of international managers so that they are not relegated to the '"slow track" because of their international assignments 3M

Get the high-pertbrming international managers retogni/ed/promoted upor return home ABB

Assign the repatriated employee and family to a welcome group cotnposad of other farnilies wbo have lived abroad Intel. Eiow Chemicals

Key to Rcfertntes; 1. Bi.:inuLl, iyS4 • tEiltriic-il 2. BtJtk et ill . t T J ; • I V .'. Hl(«kt;n. I W J • CS** M I S M S i . i ; 4.ri.pifliin,t, IW5 - inkTvi™,, S. D C I T S Odiitiu. t W I • S — I t J J Elpali/l.'S MVC>.j: 6. rjunlrar i Kalcher, tflW- twcrv
7, t-ddmaTi n a t , tW2 - fi l4.SK US gnidualc sILfJeri,',); 8.Galei, IW4 - S U5H US HRMuniKetJi; •». H a m ' ™ . 1W4 - (": 10. Howard. 19»tl - S (i(IEipaLs/27 US MNCsl; I I . Klaus, I W S - C : 12, Oddnu, t W I - S (Ifi.i EviKit.-/L!S M N C I ,
13, (Mdou & Mendenhull, I W l - S 1135 EipUiflJS MNC=1; 14. Pudti, IVU - C\ 15. RcjnoUs, 1W> - C; t6. Rnihwell, l w ; • C. 17, Scullion. IW2 - S (4J Bnrish MNCsl: 18. Seiben si al,. 19QS - « (2 US M N C M ; I*. Shilling. tW.l - Inlerv
JO, S,il,.m.iii. tWSa-liilervie-iJ^. 21. Sotnni™, I W4h . Inlcmcws, 22. Solomon. tWMc tnlemews; 2J, Sleptwnw 4 Htatk. 199t - S (67 US Espats in Japan); 24. W « k s . 1992-.S ( B 0 U 5 MNC<)^ 15. Wrrthcr el al., t W S - C S (3 US MNCs)
- f : coniFptuat; " C ' S : C a s t Studs; • " . S ; Survcv

50 'HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

ing of intemational business, has an ability to
work across cross-cultural, organizational, and
functional boundaries, and is able to balance the
simultaneous demands of short-term profitability
and growth. In short, global managers are
defined by their state of mind, in contrast to
expatriate/international managers who are identi-
fied by location as execulivcs in leadership
positions that involve cross-border assignments
(Pucik, 1997).
In spite of this major conceptual difference,
the review of research seems to indicate that
at least some of the attributes of successful
expatriate and global managers may be identical.
They are related to five fundamental factors:
professional and technical competence; relational
abilities: leadership factors; family situation;
and cultural awareness. However, because of the
differences between expatriate managers and
global managers in their current and future roles
in the organization, there are naturally also signif-
icant differences in expectations regarding the
full set of desired competencies, role behaviors,
and way of thinking. The requirements put on
global managers are substantially more complex
and dynamic, reflecting the ever-changing nature
of the global competitive environment.
The emerging emphasis on cultivating the
manager's mind, versus the traditional emphasis
on competencies in the job, may require rethink-
ing the traditional HR approaches to global lead-
ership development. First, truly global leadership
development should focus on providing a broad
spectrum of high-potential employees worldwide

Human Resource Practices that Support the Development of Global Managers

Staffing
Recruiting worldwide for Selection criteria do not favor The point of entry does not
positions anywhere in the world any panicular culture limit future opportunities

Staffing decisions support fast tran.sfer Implementing global job posting system [nvolving top management in
of knowledge across boundaries the global staffing process

Career Development & Training

Training delivered by (runsnational
faculty to multicultural teams
Intemational assignments integrated
Into the career-planning process
Karly iniemaiiiinal experience encouraged Intemational assignments can take
on many forms, linked to a
Intemational assignments manager's development need.i
encourage global leaming
Emphasis on socialization
Training stimulating a sense of aspects of managemeni development
cultural empathy and adaptabiliiv

Performance Management & Compensation

Performance incentives and rewards Performance appraisals focus Flexible international compensation
reflect global coniribuiions on global mindset and behaviors system to encourage "low cost" mobility

Career opportunities equitable Emphasizing rewarding careers

across the world rather than short-temi ouicomes only

Organizational Design
Designing jobs across boundaries Focus on process, not on Removing HR barriers to
to increase global leaming structure and procedures organizational flexibility

HR systems aligned with needs

of transnational teams

Global Communication
Building intortnal communications Promoiing a global competitive culture
across boundaries

ril«iiulh.m. Adlciil Bunholomf*. 1992^ Banlw ft (Jhoihjl, IW2: Evan;., IPS^; IWZ; KMS de Vries, IWiPuciL, I98J: l**n IWI; RhiiKsmilh. 1995:
Sno*, tJsuson, SnclliHiunhnck, I W);Ticliy. IW2: Wi^nhcc, Wachlcl & Veak. IWi

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING 5I

 with opportunities to acquire and enhance their one being the need to fill the global leadership
global leadership skills and capabilities (Pucik, bencb (i.e., the development of global managers).
1997). Second, the purpose of international The first step in developing global leaders is to
assignments shifts considerably; learning from create a truly global HR function, as the ability
the experience becomes one of the key objec- to develop managers with global mindset inside
tives. Finally, such a process starts with a very the HR organization is one of the critical prereq-
careful selection of future global managers and uisites influencing the ability of the organization
continues throughout a manager's career, touch- to globalize. The HR function could and should
ing all traditional HR activities. serve as a role model of globalization; therefore,
Obviously, the HR function therefore plays an the HR leadership needs to have a well-rounded
indispensable role in the development of future knowledge of global HR and business issues,
global leaders. In fact, taking the lead in devel- including a deep understanding of the new global
oping global leaders provides HR executives competitive environment and [he impact it has on
witb an excellent opportunity to become an inte- the management of people worldwide.
gral player in implementing global business strat-
egy and influencing organizations' Footnote
competitiveness (Galbraith, 1992; ' This review is based on major
Keller & Campbell, 1992; Keslen The emerging European and North American jour-
1995; Yeung & Ready, 1995; nals. Contributions from Asia are
emphasis on
Lawson & Limbrick, 1996). The covered only to the degree they
integrating capability of the HR cultivating the appear in Western publications.
function in leveraging key global manager's mind,
talent and its capacity to play Biographical Sketches
the role of global catalyst can versus the tradi- Vladimir Pucik is professor at the
undoubtedly determine its ability tional emphasis International Institute for
to become a value-adding function Management Development (IMD) in
on competencies
in the organization. Lausanne, Switzerland, Previously,
Focusing on the operational in the job, may he was Associate Professor and
responsibilities of the HR function, Academic Director of International
require rethinking
efforts should be aimed to ensure Programs at the Center for Advanced
successful international assignments the traditional HR Hutnan Resource Studies at the ILR
and other developmental experi- approaches to School. Cornell University. His
ences that help managers and execu- research interests include manage-
global leadership ment practices in glohal firms,
tives worldwide to enhance their
global perspective. This implies development. transtiational human resource poli-
evaluating and aligning the key cies, international alliance .strategies.
staffing, development, and perfor- and comparative management, with a
mance management processes so they are consis- particular emphasis on the Far East and Europe.
tent with what we know already accounts for the He has published extensively in academic and
critical factors in developing global managers. professiotial journals. Dr. Pucik's most recent
Another value-adding opportunity for the HR major work is Globalizing Management:
function is to Creating and Leading the Competitive
support global integration, coordination, and Organization. He has consulted and conducted
learning by creating favorable conditions for the workshops for major corporations worldwide.
diffusion of global knowledge and perspective Dr. Pucik also teaches regularly in a number of
throughout the firm, thus creating a favorable international e.xecutive programs.
environment where global mindsets can flourish.
From a strategic perspective. Eichinger and Tania Saba is an assistant professor in the
Ulrich (1995) recently reviewed the future trends School of Industrial Relations at the University
facing HR professionals. They suggested that in of Montreal. She was a visiting fellow at Cornell
a number of areas, the traditional HR competen- University for the academic year 1995-1996,
cies need to be enhanced, or new competencies conducting research in the area of international
developed. Many of the new requirements listed human resource management. Her research
reflect the challenges of globalization, the critical interests include older workers' management.

51 HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

cateer management, and human resource man-
agement in international firms. She has pub-
lished in academic and profes.sional journals on
various issues in career management.
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