E S S AY S

STRUCTURE
 WRITING...

• What do you find difficult when you are writing?

• What skills do you need to develop?
• What are the features of ‘good (academic)
writing’?
 FEATURES OF ‘GOOD’
ACADEMIC WRITING
• In this order of importance:
• Precise & complete – conscious choice of words that conveys exact and
complete meaning. Don’t leave your reader thinking ‘What?’ or ‘So
what?’
• Clear – simple language with exception of required technical terms
• Brief – as short as possible, avoiding unnecessary words or sentences
(repetition & redundancy)
 FEATURES OF ‘GOOD’
ACADEMIC WRITING
• Effective structure – good use of sentences & paragraphs and well
organised sections, chapters & thesis
• Correct spelling and grammar – more important to clearly express and
logically order ideas, as once message is clearly communicated
someone else can help you correct spelling and grammar
• Simple, clear illustrations – indicative of ‘higher order’ thinking / more
sophisticated understanding
• Follows disciplinary conventions – before deviating from convention
make sure you know what the convention is
• Interesting
 CONSIDERATIONS IN ACADEMIC
WRITING
• Academic writing is a product of many considerations (SWALES & FEAK, 2012):
 ESSAYS - STRUCTURE

• Construction process:

The reader must be able to understand your text without you there to
explain it;

• Brainstorming:

Basic vocabulary (not a large one);

Thought organization;

Writing sentences...
COHERENCE AND COHESION
• Write short and clear sentences about the main topic of each
paragraph;

• Focus on what you are writing;

• Establish the good and the bad sides of the topic;

• Don’t make it a “samba do criolo doido”.

 VERBS

• For written academic style, there is a tendency for academic writers to

use a single verb when possible.
 OTHER STYLISTIC FEATURES

1. The use of first person pronoun;

2. Contractions;
3. Negative forms choice;
4. The use of vague expressions;
5. Addressing the reader as you;
6. Direct questions X Indirect questions;
7. Adverb placement;
8. The use of split infinitives;
9. Using too many words;
10. Passive voice.
 OLD-TO-NEW INFORMATION FLOW
• Many writers generally try to follow a progression from old or given information,
which is in the subject position or early at the left end of the sentence, to new
information, which is placed at the right end of the sentence.
• Placing relevant “old” information in early position establishes a content
connection backward and provides a forward content link that establishes the
context.
• The old-to-new pattern of information is established by starting a text with
some familiar information.
• To tie two sentences together, you can repeat information from the beginning
of the first sentence .
• Alternatively, you can pick up information from the end of the first sentence.
• If old-to-new cannot be easily maintained, writers will often opt to use a logical
 BODYING YOUR ESSAY
• Part 1 – Introduction

Use (original) words from the topic;

Hook; Set-ups; Thesis;

• Part 2 – Development

Develop the ideas glimpsed in the introductory paragraph;

Deepen the different perspectives about the topic;

• Part 3 – Conclusion

Re-state/wrap up what was said in the introduction;

It should have a feeling of closure.

 GENERAL TO SPECIFIC (GS)
TEXTS
• The structure of these texts involves movement from broader statements to more
specific ones.
• This pattern can be used at the paragraph level as well as for larger units of
discourse, such as a series of paragraphs in a section or even the text as a whole.
• GS organization is often used to structure an introduction for a longer piece of
writing.
• A GS pattern can help you produce: a) an answer to an examination question; b)
a course paper; c) an opening paragraph of an assignment; d) background (or
scene-setting) to an analysis or discussion.
• GS texts typically begin with one of the following: a short or extended definition, a
generalization or purpose purpose statement, a statement of fact, or some
interesting statistics.
SHAPE OF A GS TEXT
 SPECIFIC TO GENERAL (SG)
TEXTS
• SG patterns are also possible in academic writing and, in fact, are fairly
common in some fields such as History and
• Art, as well as some medical genres, most notably in case reports, and legal
genres, in case notes.
• SG texts begin with a specific focus and then progressively become more
general.
• The specific focus could be an event, a piece of art, an individual (e.g., a
patient in a case report in Medicine), of organization (e.g., a company in a
Business case study).
• Often in SG texts the strategy is to give specific examples or details that
provide a foundation for and justify the investigation of a larger concern.
SHAPE OF AN SG TEXT
 INTRODUCTION
• Hook: sentence that grabs the reader’s attention and makes them want
to read what comes next.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF HOOKS
• Interesting fact or statistic

“It is estimated that 87% of Americans believe there is a God.”

“Ancient Egyptians used heavy eye makeup to keep evil spirits at bay and
to protect their eyes from infection.’’

• Question

“ Have you ever wondered what you would do if you couldn’t fail?”

“ What’s the one thing you can do to make the world a better place?’’
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF HOOKS
• Anecdote

“There was nothing more isolating than being alone in a foreign country,
with no cell phone, no money, and no ability to speak the language.’’

“It was Christmas of 1995 when my parents taught me a valuable lesson:

always expect the unexpected.’’
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF HOOKS
• Quote

General Patton once said, “If a man does his best, what else is there?”

When Hillary Clinton said “we must stop thinking of the individual and start
thinking about what is best for society,” she highlighted one of the biggest
issues in American politics.

• Dictionary definition

The dictionary defines “reality” as “the world or the state of things as they
actually exist, as opposed to an idealistic or notional idea of them.’’
D
ARGUMENTS OF YOUR ESSAY!
“The movement of migration all over the world isn’t
something particular from nowadays, but a reality
presented by the human race since ancient times. In
current societies, many people (and peoples) have
moved, and they bring their traditions, knowledge and
beliefs with them, altogether in a new and globalized
world.”
The recent wave of migration throughout the world
has brought a lot of discussion to its cultural
consequences. However, the movement of migration
all over the world isn’t something particular to
nowadays, but a reality presented by the human race
since ancient times. In current societies, many
people and peoples have moved, and they bring their
traditions, knowledge and beliefs with them,
altogether in a new and globalized world. This
baggage can bring advantages for mankind in the
most various fields, but it can also bring political,
social and economic difficulties as well.
DEVELOPMENT PARAGRAPHS

First Body Paragraph

 It should contain the strongest argument, most significant example and cleverest illustration;
 The topic for this paragraph must be in the first or second sentence;
 It should be related to the thesis statement of the introductory paragraph.

Second Body Paragraph

 It should contain the second strongest argument, second most significant example and
second cleverest illustration;
 The topic for this paragraph must be in the first or second sentence;
 It should be related to the thesis statement of the introductory paragraph.
DEVELOPMENT PARAGRAPHS

Third Body Paragraph

 Should contain the weakest argument, weakest example, weakest illustration;

 The topic for this paragraph must be in the first or second sentence;
 It should be related to the thesis statement of the introductory paragraph;

 The last sentence in this paragraph should include a transitional concluding hook that
signals the reader that this is the final major point being made in this paper. This hook
also leads into the last, or concluding, paragraph.
CONCLUSION

The conclusion paragraph should contain:

 A restatement of the thesis statement;

 A summary of the three main points from the body of the essay;

 A final statement, which should contain your position about the theme.
 COMMON ISSUES: LINKING
SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS

AND

MOREOVER FURTHERMORE

IN ADDITION TO LIKEWISE
 COMMON ISSUES: LINKING
SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS

BUT

HOWEVER IN CONTRAST

ON THE
DESPITE
CONTRARY

ON THE OTHER
HAND
 COMMON ISSUES: LINKING
SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS

SO

THEREFORE CONSEQUENTLY

HENCE THEN

THUS

Further information: http://www.essayzone.co.uk/blog/how-to-begin-a-new-paragraph-useful-linking-words-and-

 TWO WAYS TO WRITE A 5-PARAGRAPH ESSAY

 By pointing out two sides, a positive and a negative one. One body paragraph to
balance both ideas;

 By presenting three points/ideas in the thesis. Therefore you will need to write three
body paragraphs in the development.
 PRESENTATION

1. Does the information flow in an expected manner?

2. Consider the overall format of your written work.
3. Proofread for grammatical accuracy.
4. Check for misspelled words, even if you have
spellchecked your work.
“The movement of migration all over the world isn’t something particular from
nowadays, but a reality presented by the human race since ancient times. In
current societies, many people (and peoples) have moved, and they bring all
their traditions, knowledge and beliefs with them, altogether in a new and
globalized world.
On one hand, we have the positive aspects of the migration movement. The
mixture of different races and peoples has made us to adapt well to the
environment. Besides the physical conditions, the cultural fusion attached to it is
greatly advantageous for the human kind as whole. For instance, in Science: the
contribution from the Greeks into mathematics, the Arabic into medicine, etc.
On the other hand, there are some issues as well. Recent researches have
shown the “dark side” of this process of migration and mixing. All in all, cultural,
socio-political and economic aspects are the most claimed. The present
societies have been facing difficult issues/topics, such as xenophobia, racism,
ghettoization*, among others inside their borders.
The conception of a “dream way of living” is still one of the biggest
responsible for pulling people from their countries into others; however, it
isn’t the only one. Thus, in order to face the consequences of this idea
plenty of discussion has been brought into our current days, and we
aren’t even close to solve them up.
Finally, the migration issue and all its features are still far away from
ending. There’s a lot to be talked about, understood, thought and
analyzed. When it comes to moving from your homeland into a foreign
country, we need to consider different facts and aspects (economic,
social, cultural, etc.), but, eventually. I believe that the exchange of
experiences just contribute for the better.”

(“Anonymous”)
 THE BENEFITS OF REGULAR EXERCISE
In recent years many people have become increasingly
aware of the need for physical fitness .*  Almost
everywhere people turn, whether it is to a newsstand,
television or billboard , * advice for guarding and
improving health bombards them.  Although much of
this advice is commercially motivated by those eager to
sell vitamins, natural foods and reducing gimmicks ,*  make the idea more convincing, and create
some of it, especially that advocating a regular
exercise program, merits serious attention. Such a
program, if it consists of at least thirty minutes three
times a week and if a person's physician approves it,*   generally.
provides numerous benefits. Regular exercise releases
tension, improves appearance, and increases
stamina .*
*The introduction begins with a broad view
of physical fitness generally, but also
engages the reader by connecting with
general experience
*Notice that the writer reaches past the
general "anywhere one looks" to the more
specific and concrete "newsstand, television
or billboard."
*Again notice the specifics—not just "to sell
products" or "to sell stuff." The specifics
more associations for the reader.
*Notice how the introduction is a good place
to present background, definitions and
limitations that affect the thesis and topic
*By placing the thesis at the end of the
introduction, the writer not only makes the
main point clear and emphatic, but also
makes sure that the essay’s main point is
uppermost in the reader’s mind as the
reader begins the body of the essay
 THE BENEFITS OF REGULAR EXERCISE
The first of these benefits, the release of tension, is
immediate .*  Tension builds in the body because of
an overaccumulation of adrenaline produced by
stress, anxiety, or fear. * Doctors agree that
performing calisthenics or participating in an active
sport such as tennis or volleyball for thirty minutes
releases tension. If a person swims, jogs or rides a
bicycle for half that time, he or she should sleep
better at night and have a better temperament the
next day. In addition, after the release of tension,
petty irritations and frustrations should be less
troubling. * For example, an employee upset by the
day's work and by traffic congestion may rush home,
argue with the family, and eat excessively. Taking
about thirty minutes to release frustrations through
physical exercise could help him or her to avoid this
behavior. Planned physical exercise, therefore, can
eliminate, or at least control, tension.*
*This sentence offers the paragraph
idea (release of tension), renews the
essay idea (these benefits), and also
alerts the reader to the underlying logic
of the arrangement of main ideas ("is
immediate" suggests to the reader that
the essay will follow a chronological
order, the order in which the benefits
become available).*Again, notice the
specifics in the next two sentences—
specific activities and specific benefits.
 
*Note again how the general term,
"petty irritations and frustrations," is
followed by specific examples. Whether
you use the exact words or not, "for
example" is a helpful concept to
employ.
 
*This closing sentence reinforces both
the paragraph idea and the essay idea.
 THE BENEFITS OF REGULAR EXERCISE

An improved appearance, which is a second benefit

of regular exercise, * is not as immediately apparent
*as a better disposition .*   Exercise takes perhaps a
month or longer to show its results in a trimmer,
firmer figure. Improvement, however, will come. A
person who is ten pounds overweight, for instance,
may be able during this time to burn away most
excess fat and to tighten muscles, thereby reshaping
the physique. Having improved muscle tone and
even posture, he or she will wear clothes more
attractively and comfortably. Combined with a
sensible diet, an exercise program will also improve
a person's skin tone. This improved appearance will
provide confidence and favorably impress others.
*See how the paragraph opens with
both the new paragraph idea and a
renewal of the essay idea. There’s no
way the reader can get lost here.
*"Not as immediate" reinforces the
underlying chronological order of the
main ideas.
*"Better disposition" points back at the
preceding paragraph.
 THE BENEFITS OF REGULAR EXERCISE

  In addition to the self-confidence engendered by an

improved appearance, increased physical strength
produces stamina.*  A stronger, healthier body is
obviously more capable of working harder and , in
fact, of withstanding normal fatigue then a tense,
weak one. A worker who exercises should be able to *Note the transition, pointing back to
complete a forty-hour week and still retain enough the preceding paragraph and ahead to
the new paragraph idea. 
energy for mowing the grass, painting the garage, or  
cleaning windows .*  Similarly, the student who goes  
to school, keeps house and perhaps works part time  
should accomplish tasks efficiently. Equally
important, this stamina helps to ward off illnesses
such as colds and influenza. Altogether, improved
endurance is one of the most important benefits of a
regular exercise program.
 THE BENEFITS OF REGULAR EXERCISE

*This is an example of the "circle close."

The conclusion returns to the opening,
repeating the initial example, question,
Although easy solutions to the goals of losing weight and problem or statement that opens the
achieving an attractive, energetic body saturate the media ,* essay. This provides a satisfying sense of
actually acquiring these benefits is not easy. The rewards, overall design and completeness, and
however, are fully worth the effort of an established exercise strengthens unity. This is not the only
program that makes a person feel relaxed, look healthy, and approach to an effective conclusion, and
have adequate strength for strenuous as well as routine sometimes it seems artificial or forced,
activities . * but it’s often smooth, effective, and easy.
Be sure to note how it works here by
rereading the introduction to see how it is
repeated here.
by Bette Latta
*Note how clearly the essay idea and the
main supporting points are reinforced
through their restatement here.
 REFERENCES

• SWALES, J.M., FEAK, C. B. Academic writing for graduate students. Michigan

University Press, 2004.

WEBSITES:
• http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/jfriedlander/sample_5-paragarph_theme.htm
• https://monroecollege.libguides.com/content.php?pid=369744&sid=3031245
• http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/five_par.htm
• http://www2.ulg.ac.be/facphl/uer/d-german/remed/paragraphs.htm