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Published in IET Power Electronics

Received on 28th January 2008
Revised on 22nd April 2008
doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034

ISSN 1755-4535

Static synchronous compensators

(STATCOM): a review
B. Singh1 R. Saha2 A. Chandra3 K. Al-Haddad3
1
Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi 110 016, India
2
Central Electricity Authority, Sewa Bhawan, R.K. Puram, New Delhi 110 066, India
3
Department of Electrical Engineering, Ecole de Technologie Supérieure (ETS), 1100 Notre Dame Oust, Montreal, Quebec,
Canada, H3C1K3
E-mail: rshahacno@yahoo.com

Abstract: Fast acting static synchronous compensator (STATCOM), a representative of FACTS family, is a promising
technology being extensively used as the state-of-the-art dynamic shunt compensator for reactive power control
in transmission and distribution system. Over the last couple of decades, researchers and engineers have made
path-breaking research on this technology and by virtue of which, many STATCOM controllers based on the self-
commutating solid-state voltage-source converter (VSC) have been developed and commercially put in operation
to control system dynamics under stressed conditions. Because of its many attributes, STATCOM has emerged as a
qualitatively superior controller relative to the line commutating static VAR compensator (SVC). This controller is
called with different terminologies as STATic COMpensator advanced static VAR compensator, advanced static VAR
generator or static VAR generator, STATic CONdenser, synchronous solid-state VAR compensator, VSC-based SVC or
self-commutated SVC or static synchronous compensator (SSC or S2C). The development of STATCOM controller
employing various solid-state converter topologies, magnetics configurations, control algorithms, switching
techniques and so on, has been well reported in literature with its versatile applications in power system. A
review on the state-of-the-art STATCOM technology and further research potential are presented classifying
more than 300 research publications.

1 Introduction transistor (IEGT), integrated gate commutated thyristor

Line commutating thyristor device-based solid-state reactive
power compensators were developed in the 1970s. These are
used either as thyristor switched capacitors or thyristor-
controlled reactor (TCRs) or a combination thereof with
passive filters eliminating dominant harmonics generated
from electronic switching phenomenon. These are basically
a VAR impedance-type controllers, commonly known as
static VAR compensator (SVC), where susceptance of the
TCR is controlled by varying the firing angle. The
technology is well matured, but its operational flexibility
and versatile applications are limited.
With the advent of voltage-source converter (VSC)
technology built upon self-commutating controllable solid-
state switches viz. gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), insulated
gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), injection-enhanced gate
(IGCT) or gate commutated thyristor (GCT) and so on, it
has ushered a new family of FACTS controllers such as
static synchronous compensators (STATCOM) and unified
power flow controller (UPFC) have been developed. The
self-commutating VSC, called as DC-to-AC converter, is
the backbone of these controllers being employed to
regulate reactive current by generation and absorption of
controllable reactive power with various solid-state
switching techniques. The major attributes of STATCOM
are quick response time, less space requirement, optimum
voltage platform, higher operational flexibility and excellent
dynamic characteristics under various operating conditions.
These controllers are also known as STATic COMpensator
(STATCOM), advanced static VAR compensator (ASVC),
advanced static VAR generator (ASVG), STATic
CONdenser (STATCON), static var generator (SVG),
synchronous solid-state VAR compensator (SSVC),

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VSC-based SVC or self-commutated SVC or static
synchronous compensator (SSC or S2C). EPRI in USA is
a pioneer to conduct research in this area and has been
instrumental to develop a number of existing STATCOM
projects in collaboration with power utilities/industries.
Power industries such as GE, Siemens, ABB, Alsthom,
Mitsubishi, Toshiba and so on, with their in-house R&D
facilities have given birth to many versatile STATCOM
projects presently in operation in high-voltage transmission
system to control system dynamics under stressed
conditions. The VSC-based STATCOM has emerged as a
qualitatively superior technology relative to that of the line-
commutating thyristor-based SVC being used as dynamic
shunt compensator.
GTO-based VSCs (GTO-VSC), commercially available
with high power capacity, are employed in high power
rating controllers with triggering once per cycle
[fundamental frequency switching (FFS)]. Although IGBT
and IGCT devices are available with reasonably good
power ratings, these are being mainly used in low-to-
medium rating compensators operated under pulse-width
modulation (PWM) switching, that is, multiple switching
(1 – 3 kHz) in a cycle of operation. Use of these switching
devices in high power rating controllers is yet to be fully
commercialised and therefore its use is limited. In the
state-of-the-art STATCOM equipments, two major
topologies of VSC-bridges viz. multi-pulse and multi-level
are the most common for operation under FFS or PWM
mode or selective harmonic elimination modulation. For
high power rating STATCOMs, GTO-VSC is still the
choice for operation under square-wave mode of switching,
that is, once per cycle. A concept of multi-level voltage re-
injection in DC circuit of VSC topology, as an alternative
to high-frequency device switching adopted under PWM
control or instead of adopting higher multi-level topology
under FFS principle, has been reported to multiply the
pulse-order several times without employing additional
VSCs. With commercialisation of this approach, there
would be a major saving of solid-state devices and magnetic
components.
A comprehensive review on the STATCOM technology
and its development are carried out in this paper. The
paper includes ten sections viz. (i) working principle of
STATCOM, (ii) solid-state switching devices and
technology, (iii) STATCOM topologies and configurations,
(iv) control methodologies and approaches, (v) component
selection, (vi) specific applications, (vii) simulation tools,
(viii) latest trends and perspective research potentials (ix)
concluding remarks and (x) references. Based on the
literature survey, Refs. [1 – 320] are classified into three
categories such as texts [1 – 17], patents [18 – 40] and
research papers [41 – 320]. Based on the development of
STATCOM technology, the articles [41– 320] have been
classified into eight subgroups comprising of (i) state-of-
the-art technology [41 – 54], (ii) GTO-VSC based
STATCOMs [55 – 72], (iii) PWM-VSC based
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STATCOMs [73 – 91], (iv) multi-level and multi-pulse
topologies [92 – 132], (v) control methodologies [133 – 227],
(vi) specific applications of STATCOMs [228 – 305], (vii)
STATCOMs with energy source [306 – 313] and (viii)
STATCOM simulation techniques [314 – 320].
2 Working principle of statcom
VSC is the backbone of STATCOM and it is a combination
of self-commutating solid-state turn-off devices (viz. GTO,
IGBT, IGCT and so on) with a reverse diode connected in
parallel to them. The solid-state switches are operated
either in square-wave mode with switching once per cycle
or in PWM mode employing high switching frequencies in
a cycle of operation or selective harmonic elimination
modulation employing low switching frequencies. A DC
voltage source on the input side of VSC, which is generally
achieved by a DC capacitor and output, is a multi-stepped
AC voltage waveform, almost a sinusoidal waveform. The
turn-off device makes the converter action, whereas diode
handles rectifier action. STATCOM is essentially
consisting of six-pulse VSC units, DC side of which is
connected to a DC capacitor to be used as an energy
storage device, interfacing magnetics (main coupling
transformer and/or inter-mediate/inter-phase transformers)
that form the electrical coupling between converter AC
output voltage (Vc) and system voltage (Vs) and a controller.
The primary objective of STATCOM is to obtain an
almost harmonic neutralised and controllable three-phase
AC output voltage waveforms at the point of common
coupling (PCC) to regulate reactive current flow by
generation and absorption of controllable reactive power by
the solid-state switching algorithm. As STATCOM has
inherent characteristics for real power exchange with a
support of proper energy storage system, operation of such
controller is possible in all four quadrants of Q – P plane [2]
and it is governed by the following power flow relation
!
VV VV V2
S ¼ 3 s c sin a  j3 s c cos a  s ¼ P  jQ (1)
XL XL XL
where S is the apparent power flow, P the active power flow,
Q the reactive power flow, Vs the main AC phase voltage to
neutral (rms), Vc the STATCOM fundamental output AC
phase voltage (rms), X (¼ vL, where, v ¼ 2pf ), the
leakage reactance, L the leakage inductance, f the system
frequency and a the phase angle between Vs and Vc .
Active power flow is influenced by the variation of a and
reactive power flow is greatly varied with the magnitude of
the voltage variation between Vc and Vs . For lagging a,
power (P) flows from Vc to Vs , for leading a, power (P)
flows from Vs to Vc and for a ¼0, the P is zero and Q is
derived from (1) as follows
Vs
Q¼ (V  Vs ) (2)
XL c
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The AC voltage output (Vc) of STATCOM is governed by
DC capacitor voltage (Vdc) and it can be controlled
by varying phase difference (a) between Vc and Vs (and also
by m, modulation index for PWM control). The basic two-
level and three-level VSC configurations and respective AC
output voltage (Vc) waveforms corresponding to a square-
wave mode of operation are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2,
respectively.
Functionally, STATCOM injects an almost sinusoidal
current (I ) in quadrature (lagging or leading) with the line
voltage (Vs), and emulates as an inductive or a capacitive
reactance at the point of connection with the electrical
system for reactive power control, and it is ideally the
situation when amplitude of Vs is controlled from full
leading (capacitive) to full lagging (inductive) for a equals
to zero (i.e. both Vc and Vs are in the same phase). The
magnitude and phase angle of the injected current (I ) are
determined by the magnitude and phase difference (a)
between Vc and Vs across the leakage inductance (L), which
in turn controls reactive power flow and DC voltage, Vdc
across the capacitor. When Vc . Vs , the STATCOM is
considered to be operating in a capacitive mode. When
Vc , Vs , it is operating in an inductive mode and for
Vc ¼ Vs , no reactive power exchange takes place. In the
high rating STATCOM operated under fundamental
frequency switching, the principle of phase angle control
(a) is generally adopted in control algorithm to compensate
converter losses by active power drawn from AC system
and also for power flows in or out of the VSC to indirectly
control the magnitude of DC voltage with charging or
discharging of DC bus capacitor enabling control of
Figure 1 Basic two-level six-pulse VSC bridge and its AC voltage output waveform in square-wave mode of operation
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reactive power flow into the system. Phasor diagrams on
the operating principle are illustrated in (Figs. 3a– 3g). This
aspect is well presented in [1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 15, 31, 32, 50,
58, 59, 63, 73, 92, 96, 109, 116, 136, 140, 144, 160, 167,
225, 235].
3 State-of-the-art solid-state
switching devices and switching
technology
In power converter circuits [41, 44, 47, 48, 51], various
controllable solid-state switches such as conventional
thyristor, GTO, IGBT, IEGT, IGCT or GCT [164],
bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and MOS field effect
transistor are employed for various applications such as
VSC, current-source converter and so on. Each device has
different operating characteristics in respect to switching
frequency/speed, device ratings, turn-off and turn-on
timings, forward and reverses breakdown voltage, on-state
voltage drop, switching losses and so on. The conventional
thyristor, a line commutating switching device available
commercially at very high power ratings, is a mature
technology and forms basic switching element for SVC, a
second generation FACTS controller being used as a
dynamic reactive power compensator. This power
semiconductor device has no turn-off capability and
relatively high response time. The emerging technology is
solid-state controllable turn-off switches. These switches
viz. GTO, IGBT, IGCT are being used extensively in
converter circuits for state-of-the-art FACTS controllers.
Drive circuit requirements, switching frequency/speed,
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Figure 2 Basic three-level six-pulse VSC bridge and its output AC voltage waveform in square-wave mode of operation

switching losses and cost of each device are the trade-off to
use these devices effectively. Among the turn-off power
switches, GTO thyristor is a mature technology and
commercially available at high power ratings. Its extensive
applications in high power rating converter-cum-
compensator circuits have ushered in a new era of FACTS
[42, 43, 52, 54, 63, 70, 296] controllers, for example,
STATCOM [46, 228, 239, 252, 269, 280–282], UPFC
[252, 281], convertible static compensator (CSC) [278],
static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) [252, 281]
and so on. Solid-state IGBT switching device is a relatively
new technology in power electronics is employed in
medium-to-high power ratings PWM-based FACTS
controllers [41, 44, 47, 271] due to its high switching
frequency and speed. Among the turn-off switches, IGCT is
the most promising and emerging solid-state technology [47,
48] and has the merits of low switching loss, higher
switching frequency/speed, no snubber circuit requirements.
IGCT-converter-based high power rating STATCOM
[280] is under implementation stage at 138 kV Talega

Figure 3 STATCOM operating principle and control characteristics

a Capacitive mode
b Inductive mode
c Floating mode
d Capacitor charging mode
e Capacitor discharging mode
f VI characteristics
g V– Q characteristics

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sub-station in California. Because of relatively high cost, its
commercial competitiveness is yet to be fully explored.
Switching topologies such as PWM or power frequency
switching depend upon the type of solid-state devices used
in STATCOM. Primarily, fundamental frequency method
of switching (pulsed one per line frequency cycle) and
PWM techniques (pulsed multi times per half cycle) are
widely accepted methods. In PWM control, solid-state
switches are operated many times at frequent intervals
within the same cycle of output voltage, and an improved
quality of output AC voltage waveforms [in terms of low-
amplitude of low-order harmonics/low total harmonic
distortion (THD)] can be obtained. Based on the
frequency and amplitude of triangular shape carrier signal
and modulating control signal, PWM converters are
designed, in general, to eliminate triplen and other low-
order harmonics (5th/7th), and by means of suitable
filter design, predominantly higher-order harmonics are
reduced in the AC voltage output. As the converter
conduction and switching losses are a function of
switching frequency, the PWM technique is not
generally adopted in high rating STATCOMs on
account of high switching losses, whereas low-to-
medium rating STATCOMs used in power distribution
system are built upon PWM control and such
STATCOMs are generally termed D-STATCOM [55,
61, 88, 90, 91, 117, 217, 243, 251, 260, 268, 274, 275,
307, 310]. Switching frequency [16] of solid-state
devices is one of the key factors in designing PWM-VSC
and it can be typically 3 kHz for IGBT and 500 Hz for
IGCT or GCT. The various aspects of PWM-VSC
based STATCOM have been presented in [73 – 91].
However, soft-switching technique or rather zero-voltage
switching applications in multiple voltage source square-
wave converters have been proposed in the literature [73,
99] to considerably reduce switching losses and electro-
magnetic interference.
As GTO is well-proven solid-state device and
commercially available with power-handling levels as that of
the conventional thyristor, GTO-VSC is the backbone of
the high power rating STATCOMs [55– 72] that are used
extensively in high-voltage transmission system. The PWM
technique in such converter circuit has been found to be
unpopular due to its higher gating energy requirements and
switching losses. Factoring this, STATCOMs built upon
GTO-VSCs are designed primarily to operate it in a
square-wave mode of operation.
4 Statcom topologies and
configurations
Many VSC-based topologies and configurations are adopted in
the state-of-the-art STATCOM controllers and significantly,
multi-pulse and/or multi-level topologies [46, 92–132] are
widely accepted in the design of compensators. For example,
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a two-level multi-pulse topology is a mature topology and
commercially adopted in +100 MVA STATCOM at 500/
161 kV Sullivan S/S of Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),
US [231, 235, 239, 240] and in +80 MVA SVG at 154 kV
Inuyama switching station of Kansai Electric Power Co.
(KEPC), Japan [228]. An elementary six-pulse VSC which
consists of three legs (phases) with two valves per leg and an
electrostatic capacitor on the DC bus is illustrated in Fig. 1.
Each valve consists of a self-commutating switch with a
reverse diode connected in parallel. In square-wave mode,
eight possible switching states are possible with respect to the
polarity of DC voltage source (Vdc). A set of three quasi-
square waveforms at its AC terminals, displaced successively
by 1208, is obtained using fundamental frequency switching
modulation. The phase to neutral (0, +Vdc/3, +2Vdc/3) and
line-to-line voltage (0, +Vdc) of the converter shown in
Fig. 1 contain an unacceptable current harmonics causing
severe harmonic interference to electrical system. To reduce
THD, multi-pulse converter topology derived from the
combination of multiple number (N-numbers) of elementary
six-pulse converter units to be triggered at specific
displacement angle(s), is widely adopted, and output AC
voltage waveforms from each unit is electro-magnetically
added with an appropriate phase shift by inter-phase
transformer(s) to produce a multi-pulse (6  N pulses)
waveform close to sinusoidal wave.
In a multi-pulse converter configuration, the displacement
angle between two consecutive six-pulse converter is 2p/
(6N ) and three-phase voltage contains odd harmonics
component of the order of (6Nk + 1), where k ¼ 1, 2,
3, . . . . With the increase in pulse number, lower-order
harmonics are neutralised and a very close to sinusoidal
AC output voltage waveform can be realised. Compared
with basic six-pulse converter, the multi-pulse configuration
of STATCOM increases the achievable VAR rating,
improves the harmonic performance, decreases the DC side
current harmonics and reduces significantly the overall
filter requirements. Basic two-level 12 (2  6-pulse),
24 (4  6-pulse) and 6N (N  6-pulse)-pulse converter
configurations are depicted in Figs. 4a – 4b, 5 and 6,
respectively. Basic configurations of magnetics in multi-
pulse converters are discussed in [92, 228, 235]. It is noted
that increase in pulse order increases the number of
electronics devices, magnetics and associated components
and thus added to the cost. However, the high pulse-order
STATCOM enables to improve harmonics and operational
performances. Most industrial practices are to employ 48-
pulse configuration [46, 228, 131, 235, 239, 240, 252, 269,
278] where magnetics are designed generally in two stages
using transformers. The inter-phase transformers (as many
as VSCs) are employed to sum-up the output AC voltages
of converters, which is further stepped-up through a main
coupling transformer to match with the main AC system.
The typical two stages of magnetics architecture of the
existing +80 MVA SVG [228] at the Inuyama switching
station are depicted in Figs. 7a and 7b. The feasibility of
other magnetics configurations in 48-pulse compensator,
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Figure 4 Multi-pulse parallel and series converter configurations
a 12-pulse parallel converter configuration
b 12-pulse series converter configuration
which are proposed in the literature [46], are illustrated in
Figs. 7c and 7d. Out of the few multi-pulse topologies, 12-
pulse, 18-pulse, 24-pulse and 48-pulse configurations are
very common and based on which, many STATCOM
power circuits are proposed in the literature [20, 21, 26, 36,
38, 60, 61, 71, 86, 93, 111, 114, 143, 148, 167, 228, 235,
298, 299, 309]. The EMTP models of 12-pulse and 24-
pulse VSC-based STATCOMs are presented in [111, 167].
Typically, 12-pulse two-level converter configurations
consisting of two elementary six-pulse bridges [55, 58,
167], DC side of each is connected in parallel and its AC
side is either connected in series or in parallel are shown in
Figs. 4a and 4b. Magnetics in a 12-pulse two-level
STATCOM is configured such that, one bridge is fed to
Y –Y transformer and the other bridge to a D– Y
transformer maintaining thereby a phase shift of 308
between two sets of fundamental AC output p voltage
waveform. The converter side D-winding has 3 times the
turns as the converter side Y-winding to keep the same
volts per turn in both the windings. The AC mains side
windings (Y ) are connected in series and can have any turn
ratios to increase or decrease the output voltages. The
combined output phase voltage leads to multi-stepped
voltage waveform and has 12-pulse waveform with
harmonics of the order of (12k +1) that is, 11th, 13th,
23rd . . . and with amplitudes of 1/11th, 1/13th, 1/
23rd . . . of fundamental amplitude, respectively.
Figure 5 24-pulse (4  6-pulse) converter configuration
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Another variant of topology is a multi-level VSC structure
to generate multi-stepped voltage waveform close to
sinusoidal nature. Owing to the complex series-parallel
connection of transformers windings/circuits in multi-pulse
converters, multi-level configurations have been receiving
increasing attention for high voltage and high power rating
applications. In multi-level topology, a synthesised stair-
case voltage waveform is derived from several levels of DC
voltage sources obtained normally by using capacitor
voltage sources, and in this category, three-level converter
topologies with square-wave mode of operation is most
common [252, 280, 281]. An N-level topology is achieved
by splitting of DC capacitors into (N 2 1) sections
produces N-level output phase voltage and a (2N 2 1) level
output line voltage waveform. When number of levels is
high enough, harmonic content in AC output voltage is
reduced to low enough to avoid the need of filters. The
main features of multi-level converter are the low harmonic
content of the output voltage compared with a square-wave
pulse converter, decreased device voltage stress (a fraction
of the total DC bus voltage) and potentially higher
converter voltage and thus power rating. It is proposed in
[95] that the multi-level topology employing capacitor
voltage synthesis technique is to be preferred to the multi-
pulse topology employing magnetic coupling technique.
Three basic types of multi-level VSCs are reported in [95,
114, 123] viz. (i) multi-point clamped converter in which
three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) converter topology
is a matured technology [61, 114, 116, 153] and on this
Figure 6 6N-pulse (N6-pulse) converter configuration
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Figure 7 Two stages of magnetics architecture and feasibility of other magnetics configuration in two-level 48-pulse (86-
pulse) STATCOM circuit
a Magnetics of 48-pulse, two-level +80 MVA STATCOM at Inuyama sw. station, KEPC
b 48-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at PCC
c Typical magnetics configurations of true 48-pulse STATCOM
d Magnetic configuration of Quasi 48-pulse STATCOM

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concept many STATCOM controllers have been
commercially developed. Contrary to two-level converters,
this three-level converter allows controlling of the
magnitude of AC voltage by a variation of dead-angle (b)
maintaining fixed DC capacitor voltage. The second type is
chain converters based on standard H-bridge arrangements
and the third is nested-cell converter or flying capacitor
multi-level converter. Implementations of these converters
require the same number of switches for the same number
of levels, but there is a wide variation in terms of passive
component requirements and operational and control
strategies. Such topologies are complex and therefore
applications of these converters are limited. Typically,
three-to-nine level converter topologies have been reported
in the literature [95, 119, 132]. For relatively slow
switching devices like GTO, application of three-level
converter topology with fundamental frequency switching
has got wide acceptability in designing STATCOM for
high power rating applications. A simplified scheme of
three-level NPC converter comprising four-switches in
each converter leg and four-level single-phase NPC
converter configuration is given in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively.
It is experienced that fundamental switching based 48-
pulse converter topology is extensively used in high power
rating STATCOMs due to its excellent operational and
harmonics performance, whereas low pulse-order
compensators such as 12-pulse, or 18-pulse or 24-pulse
configurations under square-wave mode of operation are
not adopted due to high impact of voltage harmonics,
causing unacceptable harmonic distortion. Such low-pulse
order and multi-pulse VSC topology-based STATCOMs
are proposed in [71, 298, 299] for voltage regulation, power
factor improvement in transmission system and these can
effectively improve harmonic performance by adopting a
typical magnetics structure and simple control algorithm,
the magnetics architectures of which are illustrated in
Figs. 10a– 10c, 11a– 11c and 12a – 12b. Among the two-
level, 48-pulse GTO-VSC topology-based STATCOMs
with GTO triggering under FFS principle, two most
pioneering and practical compensators exist at the 154 kV
Inuyama switching station of KEPC and at 161/500 kV
Sullivan substation of TVA. In multi-level topology,
Figure 8 Single phase of a three-level NPC converter
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three-level architecture is extensively adopted in high power
rating STATCOMs being used in high-voltage
transmission system. Interestingly, the first UPFC [252] of
+160 MVA capacity, which has a STATCOM
component, has been built using three-level NPC GTO-
based converter configuration and it has been in service at
138 kV Inez S/S of American Electric Power since 1997.
A three-level IGBT-based NPC converter configuration
with a rating of +36 MVA being operated as a back-to-
back inter-tie between Texas and Mexico with a
functionality of STATCOM has been working since 2001
[271]. Three-level VSC topology is adopted in the
development of a versatile +200 MVA CSC at 345 kV
Marcy S/S, NY [278] and a +40 MVA STATCOM
[281] under 80 MVA UPFC project of Korea Electric
Power Corporation. In Gleenbrook 115 kV sub-station,
Northeast Utilities, +150 MVA STATCOM [282] is built
upon GTO-based chain-link VSC configuration. Multi-
level topology and various STATCOM circuit
configurations and related control strategies are presented
in the literature [61, 78, 82, 92, 95, 96, 98, 106, 108, 110,
114, 119, 123]. A nine-level high power rating converter
topology with a combination of IGCT and IGBT-based
converter configurations, called hybrid approach, is
proposed in [119].
The concept of multi-level voltage re-injection in DC
circuit of VSC topology is envisioned in [49, 66, 68, 69,
72] to increase pulse-order (like conventional high-pulse
STATCOM) by minimising converters’ requirements and
magnetics. Simple configurations of voltage reinjection for
two-level and three-level structurs are shown in Figs. 13
and 14, respectively. Based on this principle, a model of
36-pulse STATCOM is proposed in [68] using only two
elementary six-pulse VSCs operated under FFS principle.
A model of a 60-pulse STATCOM is proposed in [72]
using multi-level voltage re-injection in DC circuit of
2  6-pulse STATCOM operated under square-wave
mode. With the advent of this innovative approach, basic
pulse-order is increased multi-fold improving harmonic
Figure 9 Single phase of a four-level NPC converter
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Figure 10 Interfacing magnetics of 12-pulse (26-pulse) two-level +100 MVA GTO-VSC based STATCOM and STATCOM AC
voltage waveform at PCC
a Interfacing magnetics configuration-1 of 2  6 pulse converters
b Interfacing magnetics configuration-2 of 2  6 pulse converters
c 12-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at PCC
performance significantly. Instead of adopting VSC in the
design of STATCOM, the current-source converter
topology with multi-level current re-injection technique is
focused in [50, 70], where a five-level current reinjection is
derived to meet harmonic standards.
5 Control strategies and
approaches
The control system is the heart of state-of-the-art
STATCOM controller for dynamic control of reactive
power in electrical system. Based on the operational
requirements, type of applications, system configuration and
loss optimisation, essential control parameters are
controlled to obtain desired performance and many control
methodologies in STATCOM power circuits have been
presented in [133 – 227]. In a square-wave mode of
operation, phase angle control (a) across the leakage
reactance (L) is the main controlling parameter. This
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control is employed in a two-level converter structure,
where DC voltage (Vdc) is dynamically adjusted to above or
equal to or below the system voltage for reactive power
control. In a three-level configuration, the dead-angle or
zero-swell period (b) is controlled to vary the converter AC
output voltage by maintaining Vdc constant. The control
system for STATCOM operated with PWM mode
employs control of a and m (modulation index) to change
the converter AC voltages keeping Vdc constant. The basic
control architecture is shown in Fig. 15. For voltage
regulation, two control-loop circuits namely inner current
control loop and external/outer voltage control loop are
employed in STATCOM power circuit. The current
control loop produces the desired phase angle difference of
the converter voltage relative to the system voltage and in
turn, generates the gating pulses, whereas the voltage
control loop generates the reference reactive current for the
current controller of the inner control loop. This control
philosophy is implemented with proportional and integral
control (PI control) algorithm or with a combination of
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Figure 11 Interfacing magnetics of 18-pulse (36-pulse) two-level +100 MVA GTO-VSC based STATCOM and STATCOM AC
voltage waveform at PCC
a Stage-I and stage-II Transformer magnetics
b (þ)2082 082 (2)208 under stage-II of magnetics
c 18-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage at PCC

Figure 12 Interfacing magnetics of 24-pulse (46-pulse) two-level +100 MVA GTO-VSC based STATCOM and STATCOM AC
voltage waveform at PCC
a Interfacing magnetics layout
b 24-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at PCC

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Figure 13 Typical voltage re-injection circuit layout of two-level 12-pulse (26-pulse) converter configuration for
transforming into 36-pulse voltage waveform at PCC

proportional (P), integral (I ) and derivative (D) control
algorithm in d– q synchronous rotating frame. Figs. 16 and
17 illustrate the PI methodology for two-level and three-
level GTO-VSC based STATCOM power circuits. The
general mathematical approach, modelling and design of
control systems for compensator circuits are proposed in
[136, 153, 167, 180, 181, 186– 188, 194, 202, 220].
In the process of designing and implementation of control
system, acquisition of many signals is involved. Initially,
the essential AC and DC voltages and current signals
(instantaneous values/vectors) are sensed using sensors. In the
next step, these signals are synthesised by techniques such as
d–q synchronous rotating axis transformation, alpha–beta
stationery reference frame of transformation and so on. Phase

Figure 14 Typical voltage reinjection circuit layout of three-level 12-pulse (26-pulse) converter configuration for
transforming into 60-pulse AC voltage waveform at PCC

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Figure 15 Basic GTO-VSC based STATCOM operation and control architecture
locked loop circuit is normally employed to calculate phase and
frequency information of the fundamental positive sequence
component of system voltage which synchronises AC
converter output voltage. Third step involves generation of
compensating command signals based on three kinds of state-
of-the-art control methodologies, linear, nonlinear and special
control techniques. Fourth step is to generate required gating
signals for the solid-state devices.
Signal actuation: Instantaneous current and voltage signals such
as system voltage are the basic input parameters to the controller
Figure 16 PI-control algorithm of two-level GTO-VSC based
STATCOM power circuit
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and are sensed using CTs and PTs or using other sensing
devices. DC voltage across the capacitor and current on DC
side are sensed using Hall effect and other sensing devices.
Compensating signals derivation: The compensating signals
are generally derived either in time domain or in
frequency domain. Time-domain signals of instantaneous
voltage and/or current vectors are sensed and decomposed
using widely popular method such as the d – q synchronous
rotating axis transformation [80, 136, 137, 139, 160]. The
transformed values are processed by various control
techniques like PI or PID controllers to derive the
compensating command signals [31, 32, 167, 235]. For
voltage regulation [137, 167, 178, 235] in power system,
the basic control is realised by controlling the injected
reactive current by the STATCOM. In PWM mode of
control [73, 74, 78, 80, 138, 160, 178], there are two
control strategies adopted viz. voltage control (VC)
technique and current control (CC) technique. The CC
techniques [73, 84], where error compensation and
voltage modulation determine the various switching states,
have been widely adopted with linear and/or nonlinear
control strategies. In the linear control methodologies,
stationery PI controller or ramp comparison current
control, synchronous vector PI control, state feedback
control, predictive control and deadbeat control are the
various approaches followed [73, 84, 151, 169]. The
nonlinear group of controllers [73, 84, 148, 157, 161,
175, 205] includes hysterisis control [75, 84, 165, 244],
delta modulation (DM) or pulse DM current control and
online optimised controller [84]. For improving
controllability and operational performance of STATCOMs
under various system conditions, fuzzy logic, neural network,
neuro-fuzzy artificial intelligence/rule-based techniques and
related supplementary pre-compensators are introduced in
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Figure 17 Control algorithm of three-level GTO-VSC based STATCOM power circuit
the control of STATCOMs [73, 84, 154, 156, 161, 162, 166,
183, 201, 215, 218, 222]. For qualitative improvement of
electrical system, DSP-based indirect current control
techniques [180–182, 193, 247, 273] have assumed a
significant role. Analytical analysis of various control
parameters by space vector analysis has been presented in
[31, 106, 136, 137–140, 160]. Mathematical models of
STATCOM controller to control system parameters during
asymmetric conditions have been proposed based on the
sequence analysis [80, 148, 190] and an analysis on
controlling unbalanced voltage conditions is presented in
[159, 174].
6 Component selection
and ratings
Based on the specific applications, operating requirements,
system configurations and control strategies, ratings of various
components of STATCOM such as DC capacitor, leakage
inductance of coupling transformers, converter VA ratings
and so on, are selected. Solid-state self-commutating switches
(GTOs, IGBTs, IGCTs or the like) and a diode connected
in parallel with reverse polarity constitute a valve in converter.
Based on the current and voltage ratings of controllable
switches or devices, a group of valves is connected in series to
obtain the desired voltage rating (sum of rated voltages) of the
converter. The rms current ratings translate in restrictions on
the converter current at AC side and peak current ratings
relate to the device turn-off capabilities. One or more
redundant valve is also provided for reliability reasons [145,
235]. Typical maximum voltage and current ratings of various
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state-of-the-art turn-off switches are presented in [16, 41, 45,
47] such as GTOs: 6 kV, 6 kA; IGBTs: 6.5 kV, 2000 A [16]
or 6.5 kV, 600 A or 4.5 kV, 900 A; IGCTs: 6 kV, 6 kA and
conventional thyristors – 8 kV, 3.5 kA. From Table 1, it is
seen that the self-commutating solid-state GTO device is the
main power switching element used in most converter circuits
of high power rating STATCOMs.
In general, the nominal DC-link voltage has to be
relatively a large value to generate converter output voltage
with amplitude similar to that of the AC system voltage
on the secondary side of the coupling transformer [32] at
zero VAR generation and moderate variation from this
value for rated VAR output. Deriving DC capacitor rating
based on the peak-stored energy requirement is explained
in [58]. The DC capacitor design for static compensator
is greatly influenced by the ripple factor of the DC voltage
and these aspects are depicted in [58, 123, 134, 135].
Nevertheless, the capacitor size is optimised by
considering the ripple on the harmonic level at the PCC
and also by taking into consideration the possibility of
resonance for a given coupling reactance [170]. The
steady-state and transient-state characteristics of the
controller and the quantum of AC ripple on the DC side
which is less during balanced conditions and significantly
high during unbalanced situation are taken into
consideration in determining the size of the capacitor. If
the controller exchanges real power with the system for a
short time, the higher size of the capacitor needs to be
provided. It is proposed in [4] that the requirement of
DC-link component in PWM-mode operation is
significantly smaller than those needed for a comparable
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Table 1 Self-commutating power semiconductor devices used in converters of high power rating statcoms

Sl. Station-utility-Year of operation STATCOM effective capacity Solid-state turn-off

device ratings
1 Inuyama- Kansai Electric Power Corp., +80 MVA (at that time called as static var generator- GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
Japan-1991 SVG)
2 Sullivan-Tennessee Valley Authority +100 MVA GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
(TVA), US-1996
3 Inez-American Electric Power (AEP), +160 MVA (shunt part of unified power flow GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
US-1998 controller-UPFC)
4 Henan-Henan Power Administration, +20 MVA GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
China-1999
5 Marcy-New York Power Authority +200 MVA (+2  100 MVA converter units of GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
(NYPA), US-2001 convertible static compensator-CSC)
6 East Clayodon-National Grid Company +75 MVA (re-locatable) GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
(NGC), UK-2001
7 Essex-Vermont Electric Power þ133/241 MVA GTO: 6 kV, 6 kA
Company (VELCO), US-2001
8 Kangjin-Korea Electric Power Corp. +40 MVA (shunt part of +80 MVA unified power GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
(KEPCO)-2002 flow controller-UPFC)
9 Talega-San Diego Gas & Electric +100 MVA (+2  50 MVA) GCT: 6 kV, 6 kA
(SDG&E), California-2002

square-wave mode operation. Generally, the capacitor rating in
the multi-pulse circuits decreases with the increasing number of
pulses. However, in multi-level converter topologies, the
capacitor rating is almost independent of the number of levels
and they are larger than the VA rating of the compensators. It
is proposed in [123] that DC capacitor rating is 4–18 times
larger than the VA rating of the compensator in the multi-
level topologies.
The selection of parameter for coupling reactance of
the transformer mostly determines the full VAR output of
the converter, and it is typically not more than 15% of the
nominal system voltage [32]. The selection of the coupling
reactance is heavily constrained by the harmonic
requirements of the network and, in general, a high value is
preferred to minimise the harmonic distortion at the PCC
[170]. However, for low leakage reactance, converter rating
needs to be increased.
The converter loss is one of the significant aspect, which
affects the overall efficiency of the controller [74]. The
converter loss increases almost proportionally with switching
frequency and quadratically with the DC voltage. With the
increase of modulation index (m), losses decrease and the
system runs at higher DC voltage for a given reactive current.
For optimisation of converter operating losses, switching
frequency should be low but m should be maximum.
Mathematical modelling and designing of passive components
of many prototype and/or commercial STATCOM
controllers and solid-state-device rating techniques have been
presented in [20, 48, 58, 83, 135, 145, 309].
7 Specific application areas
of statcom
STATCOM technology has multi-dimensional applications
[228 – 305] to control power system parameters in steady-
state and dynamic system conditions. As a representative of
FACTS controller, STATCOM is a matured technology for
power quality improvements [55, 61, 117, 260, 268, 274,
275], reactive power control, voltage regulation [78, 235],
power swings/oscillations damping [78, 237, 259, 266, 284,
286], damping torsional oscillations/SSR damping [202,
250, 262], transmission line capacity enhancement, dynamic
stability improvement including steady state, transient and
voltage stability [175, 228, 255, 275, 277, 288, 291, 292,
295, 297, 300, 303], and for application under power system
faults [86, 159, 184, 304]. It is also used as hybrid
controllers in combination with passive elements [235, 273].
STATCOM has many interesting features such as high
speed of response (sub-cycle), versatile controlling and
operational characteristics, ability to implement controllers
of low/medium/high MVA ratings, low-space requirement,
higher stability margins and so on. It is rapidly replacing the
conventional forced-commutating reactive power controllers,
SVC and other slow-acting controllers in power system. In
the field of distribution system, the acronym of this
controller is D-STATCOM [55, 61, 88, 90, 91, 117, 217,

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243, 260, 268, 274, 275, 307] being widely used for power-
quality improvement, custom power, voltage regulation,
compensation and balancing of nonlinear loads and/or
unbalanced loads, load power factor improvement, harmonic
elimination and so on. Versatile applications of
D-STATCOM for system improvements in distribution level
have been well documented in many references [251, 257,
243, 256, 260, 263, 268, 274, 310]. Considerable
improvement in electrical machine controls like self-excited
induction generators (SEIGs) by hysteresis current control
technique and other nonlinear approaches have been
presented in [181, 182, 244, 253, 272]. For harnessing non-
conventional energy sources such as wind power, applications
of STATCOMs and its controlling features to control SEIGs
in wind farm are discussed in [217, 248]. In combination
with an energy storage system (battery or magnetic storage
device), STATCOM are being widely utilised [57, 306–313]
for power-quality improvements and also for uninterruptible
power supply and real power exchange during emergency.
In high-voltage transmission and high-power rating
applications, many practical STATCOM controllers are
in real-time applications and their multi-dimensional
advantages are well realised [228, 235, 239, 252, 258, 269,
278, 280, 281, 282, 301, 306]. STATCOM back-to-back
inter-tie [271] is a relatively new area of application to
exchange power between two inter-ties and to improve
voltage stability. It is analogous to HVDC back-to-back
system named as HVDC light with inherent MVAR
supporting feature.
8 Latest trends and future
developments
IGCT and IGBT devices [47, 48] are the promising self-
commutating solid-state controllable switches that are
increasingly being used in STATCOMs under PWM mode
of operation due to its low switching losses and fast response
time relative to GTO switches. Out of these two power
electronic devices, IGCT is the most promising technology
for high power rating STATCOMs. Owing to its qualitative
improvement and rapid commercialisation, these devices are
now available with reasonably higher power ratings. Design
and development of high power ratings STATCOMs using
IGCT-based VSCs with PWM mode of operation
employing multi-pulse and/or multi-level topologies are the
promising area of research. Out of the various multi-level
converter topologies, three-level configuration has been proven
to be most practical. It is proposed that in multi-level
topologies, beyond three levels, the controller design for
balancing voltages across the various segments of DC
capacitors to be used as energy storage devices is difficult and
therefore higher-level converter configurations are rarely used.
Evolving proper controller to meet such specific control
objective for multi-level STATCOMs is a potential area of
research. There is a further scope of improving the controller
functions in STATCOMs which would enable to control
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system dynamics during symmetrical and asymmetrical faults
in high-voltage transmission system. In this context,
improving control algorithms employing fuzzy-logic or neural
network or neuro-fuzzy logic needs to be investigated for
achieving better controllability. In a system using multiple
numbers of the state-of-the-art compensators at various
potential locations, coordinated control mechanism seems to
be an interesting area of research in respect to capacity
optimisation of the compensators ensuring effective utilisation
of the transmission assets and thus, saving in cost. The
concept of voltage re-injection principle in DC-link circuit of
STATCOMs operated at fundamental frequency switching is
a good technique to be greatly utilised to improve harmonics
performance using less number of sold-state devices and
associated components in STATCOM power circuits.
9 Simulation tools
Many experimental and prototype models of STATCOM
controllers have been reported in research publications.
Simulation of various configurations/topologies, control
strategies, magnetics, filter requirements, component level
designing and so on, have been presented in [314–320] with
the help of many standard software simulation tools.
MATLAB/SIMULINK/PSB, EMTP, PSCAD/EMTDC,
SPICE, EUROSTAG and so on, are some of the software
tools being extensively used by researchers and engineers to
simulate various power electronics devices in power system
circuits, electrical machines and so on. Detailed modelling of
STATCOM controllers and performance analysis and
sensitivities of various passive components under varying
system-operating conditions ensure the researchers and
engineers to firm up the design parameters in pre-fabrication
stage. Employing EMTP simulation program, prototype
modelling of typical STATCOM controllers and analysis
have been presented in [111, 167, 315, 316, 320]. A specific
modelling of D-STATCOM with IGBT converters are
presented by using power system block set tool box under
MATLAB environment [317, 318, 319].
10 Conclusions
STATCOM is the state-of-the-art dynamic shunt compensator
in FACTS family, which is widely used to control system
dynamics under stressed condition. The self-commutating
VSC built upon controllable solid-state devices (viz. GTO,
IGBT, IGCT and so on) with operation under FFS or PWM
switching principle is the backbone of this compensator.
Many commendable features of STATCOM viz. four-
quadrant operation in P–Q plane (in support of proper energy
source), high speed of response (sub-cycle), versatile
controlling and operational characteristics, optimum voltage
platform and so on, have been reported in research
publications. STATCOM being a versatile reactive power
compensator has taken the place of the line commutating
SVC, a relatively slow-acting dynamic shunt controller. The
EPRI in USA, who is a pioneer to conduct research and
evolve high power rating STATCOMs employing
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GTO-VSCs as its backbone, has developed a number of existing
STATCOM projects in collaboration with many utilities/
organisations. In many research papers, this controller has
been called as ASVC or ASVG or SVG or STATCON or
SSVC or VSC-based SVC or self-commutated SVC or static
synchronous compensator (SSC or S2C). Acronym of
STATCOM in electrical distribution system is D-
STATCOM operating under PWM control. Power industries
viz. GE, Siemens, ABB, Alsthom, Mitsubishi, Toshiba and
so on, with their in-house R&D facilities have given birth to
many STATCOM projects that are commercially in operation
in high-voltage transmission system. In addition to its stand-
alone usage in electrical network, this controller has been an
integral component of other state-of-the-art FACTS
controllers viz. UPFC and CSC. In the process of
STATCOM technology development, numerous converter
topologies, magnetics configurations, control algorithms,
switching principles and so on, have been reported in literature
for various applications in transmission and distribution
systems. A comprehensive review on the state-of-the-art
STATCOM controllers has been carried out focusing the new
horizon of research potentials in this field.
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