Transportation Research Part A 105 (2017) 14–26

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Transportation Research Part A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tra

The impact of policy measures on consumer intention to adopt MARK

electric vehicles: Evidence from China
⁎
Shanyong Wang, Jun Li , Dingtao Zhao
School of Management, University of Science and Technology of China, PR China

AR TI CLE I NF O AB S T R A CT

Keywords: Electric Vehicles (EVs) have been recognized as a promising means to reduce carbon emissions
Electric vehicles from the transport sector. To promote the adoption of EVs, great efforts have been made and a
Policy measures series of policy measures have been introduced. However, the widespread adoption of EVs is
Environmental concern likely to be insufficient. This study divides policy measures into three catalogs (i.e., financial
Adoption intention
incentive policy measures, information provision policy measures and convenience policy mea-
sures) and investigates how these policy measures motivate consumers to adopt EVs and how
such effects are moderated by consumers’ environmental concern. The results of a survey of 324
respondents suggest that three catalogs of policy measures are positively and significantly related
to EVs adoption intention, and convenience policy measures are the most important policy
measures to promote EVs. In addition, the results indicate that consumers’ environmental con-
cern plays a moderating role in the relationships between two catalogs of policy measures (fi-
nancial incentive policy measures and convenience policy measures) and EVs adoption intention.
Implications and suggestions for future research are provided.

1. Introduction

Transport sector has been one of the top contributors in increasing greenhouse gas emissions (Klöckner et al., 2013; Larson et al.,
2014; White and Sintov, 2017). The report of the International Energy Agency (IEA) suggests that transport sector contributes
approximately one-fourth of the total worldwide greenhouse gas emissions, which is predicted to increase from 23 to 50% by 2030
(IEA, 2009). Reducing carbon emissions from transport sector has a significant role in alleviating the serious environmental problems
(Schuitema et al., 2013; Larson et al., 2014). Electric vehicles (EVs), one type of energy-efficient transport innovations, have been
recognized as one of the most promising means in the transport sector to reduce carbon emissions (Klöckner et al., 2013; Schuitema
et al., 2013; Li et al., 2016).
Electric vehicles (EVs) are defined as the vehicles that derive motive power exclusively from onboard electrical battery packs that
can be charged with a plug through an electric outlet (Egbue and Long, 2012; Wang et al., 2017). Compared with conventional
gasoline vehicles, EVs have advantages in improving fuel efficiency and reducing carbon emissions (Lieven et al., 2011; Egbue and
Long, 2012). For example, EVs can lower carbon emissions by 30–50% and achieve 40–60% improvements in fuel efficiency on
average (Romm, 2006). Scholars and environmentalists regard EVs as a generic cure for many environmental issues (Graham-Rowe
et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2017). However, there are also some obstacles may impede consumers to adopt EVs, such as high purchasing
cost, short driving distance, long charging time and limited charging station (Egbue and Long, 2012; She et al., 2017; White and
Sintov, 2017). Thus, to stimulate consumers to uptake and use of EVs, great efforts have been done and wide packages of policy

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Management, University of Science and Technology of China, 96 Jinzhai Road, HeFei, Anhui Province, PR China.
E-mail address: laj2336@mail.ustc.edu.cn (J. Li).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2017.08.013
Received 14 February 2017; Received in revised form 10 June 2017; Accepted 10 August 2017
0965-8564/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Wang et al. Transportation Research Part A 105 (2017) 14–26

measures have been taken into account (Coad et al., 2009; Li et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2017). For instance, the Chinese government
has put forward the strategy of “Energy Saving and Electric Vehicles”. The policy measures of this strategy mainly focused on carrying
out pilots to subsidize EV buyers, promoting charging facilities construction and accelerating EVs commercialization (Wang et al.,
2016). In addition, other policy measures such as providing accurate information about technologies and performance attributes of
EVs and constructing dedicated parking space for EVs are also initiated (Potoglou and Kanaroglou, 2007; Coad et al., 2009; Li et al.,
2016).
Though these efforts and policy measures have been undertaken, the widespread adoption of EVs is likely to be insufficient. The
enthusiasm for consumers to adopt EVs still seems to be low (Coad et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2013; Li et al., 2016). According to the
statistics of China Association of Automobile Manufactures (CAAM),1 the number of whole vehicle sales was 24.6 million while the
number of EV sales was only 207,500 by the end of 2015. The market share of EVs is merely 0.8%. In Norway and U.S., the market
share of EVs only accounted for about 2% and 0.7% in 2015 (Li et al., 2016; White and Sintov, 2017). As we can see, EVs not only in
China but also in other developed countries are facing a dilemma of “hot policy” but “cold market” (Li et al., 2016). The low level
enthusiasm for consumers to adopt EVs highlights the necessity to explore the relationships between policy measures and the ac-
ceptance of EVs.
According to the Blue Book of China New Energy Vehicle (2015), the policy measures issued to promote EVs adoption are divided
into six catalogs: industry management, technology innovation, demonstration, infrastructure construction, financial subsidy and
preference tax (CATARC et al., 2015). Li et al. (2016) divided the EV-related policy measures into seven catalogs: macroscopic policy,
demonstration policy, subsidization policy, preference tax policy, technical support policy, industry management policy and infra-
structure policy. Considering the pertinence, practicability and the connecting link between the policy measures, several scholars
have combined them into two or three parts, such as information provision policy and financial incentive policy (Coad et al., 2009),
pilot policy and financial subsidy policy (Zhang et al., 2014), and demonstration policy, infrastructure construction policy and fiscal
support policy (Yuan et al., 2015). Based on the classifications mentioned above, three catalogs of EV-related policy measures were
divided in this study, namely financial incentive policy measures, information provision policy measures and convenience policy
measures, and we reckoned that this classification is better covering the present EV-related policies in China. Financial incentive
policy measures aim to lower the EVs purchasing cost and operating cost, such as direct subsidy policy, tax exemption policy and road
tolling exemption policy. Information provision policy measures aim to provide information about EVs to consumers, such as the
price, practicality, reliability, safety, driving range, charging time, battery life, fuel consumption, environmental performance and
other issues. Convenience policy measures aim to provide convenience to consumers when they use EVs. For example, facilitating the
infrastructure construction and permitting the owners of EVs to enjoy some “privileges” (e.g., EVs are permitted to access to high
occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes, allowed to own a dedicated parking space and unrestricted by the rules of even-and odd-numbered
license plates).
In fact, the effect of policy measures on EVs adoption has received considerable attention from scholars and practitioners
(Potoglou and Kanaroglou, 2007; Helveston et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2017). However, previous studies were mainly focus on
financial incentive policy measures; other policy measures were not considered (Zhang et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2017). Though the
financial incentive policy measures significantly affect the EVs adoption rate, the price signal can be seen only as one predictor of EVs
adoption (White and Sintov, 2017). Consumers’ adoption decisions cannot be understood without considering other policy measures,
such as information provision policy measures and convenience policy measures. Exploring the effects of these three catalogs of
policy measures on EVs adoption jointly would enrich previous studies and provide insights into promoting EVs adoption.
Furthermore, with the environmental degradation and the worsening of health problems, and with the increase of government
propaganda recent years, consumers’ environmental concern has increased (Wang et al., 2016). Environmental concern is a general
understanding and awareness toward environmental issues and it is an important determinant for making individual changes from
current behavior to a more environmentally friendly behavior (Bamberg, 2003; Schuitema et al., 2013). In fact, the market pene-
tration of EVs is not just relying on the supportive policy measures, consumers’ environmental concern and intention to adopt is also
important (Turrentine et al., 2011). Thus, developing a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between policy
measures, environmental concern and EVs adoption, and investigating how policy measures affect EVs adoption contingent upon the
consumers’ environmental concern would shed new light on the understanding of the underlying influential mechanism of policy
measures.
The main research motivation of the current study is to examine the effects of these three catalogs of policy measures and explore
the combined effects of policy measures and consumers’ environmental concern on EVs adoption so as to enrich the research on EV-
related policy measures and better understand the influential mechanism of policy measures. Meanwhile, this research aims to
provide a reference for relevant government agencies to improve current policy measures and increase consumers’ intention to adopt
EVs. This study makes several contributions to the current literature. Firstly, previous work mainly examined the effect of financial
incentive policy measures on EVs adoption. However, in this study, we extended prior work and divided the current EV-related policy
measures into three catalogs to evaluate the influences of financial incentive policy measures on EVs adoption alongside with in-
formation provision policy measures and convenience policy measures. Secondly, previous studies have indicated that consumers’
environmental concern has a significant effect on EVs adoption and regarded environmental concern as an internal driving factor
(Egbue and Long, 2012; Carley et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016). In this paper, we extended the study by considering the combined
effects of internal driving factor (environmental concern) and external driving factor (policy measures) rather than evaluated the

1
“See detail at http://www.auto-stats.org.cn/.

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separate influences of these factors. Finally, this study focuses merely on EVs, excluding HEVs (hybrid electric vehicles). There are
differences between EVs and HEVs. For example, HEVs still produce carbon emissions directly since that they utilize the combustion
engines and can be refueled at traditional gas stations (White and Sintov, 2017). Compared with EVs, consumers only need to operate
with very little change of habits when they adopt HEVs and thus more easily to accept HEVs. For these reasons, the previous research
results focused on HEVs adoption may not completely suit for EVs. This study can narrow the gap and expand research into EVs
adoption.
The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 deals with the literature review related to the policy measures and
the acceptance of EVs. Based on this review, the conceptual framework and hypotheses are proposed. Section 3 focuses on the
research methods. Data analysis and the results are presented in Section 4. In Section 5, we discuss the results. In the final section, we
conclude the research and point out the implications and limitations.

2. Theoretical framework and research hypotheses

According to the technology innovation diffusion theory, consumers are more reluctant to accept new technologies or products
when they are in infancy since consumers are unfamiliar with them, feel uncertainty and face high purchase price (Rogers, 2003).
This phenomenon is also suitable for EVs since EVs are one kind of energy-sustainable transport technology innovations and are in
infancy (Romm, 2006; Lieven et al., 2011). Thus, to improve the market penetration of EVs, some policy measures should be taken to
overcome these obstacles. In addition, it is worth noting that intention is the immediate determinant of actual behavior, and when an
appropriate measure of intention is achieved, it will provide the most accurate prediction of behavior (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980).
Several researches also indicated that intention really often predicts behavior and considered the intention as a proxy variable for
adoption behavior (Heath and Gifford, 2002). Moreover, the measurement of the level of actual adoption is somewhat difficult to
achieve (Schuitema et al., 2013). Thus, measuring adoption intention rather than actual purchase behavior in the present study is
appropriate.

2.1. Financial incentive policy measures and EVs adoption intention

As an innovative fuel-efficient vehicle, the price of EVs is significantly higher than conventional vehicles (Coad et al., 2009;
Lieven et al., 2011). In fact, most consumers are concerned with the purchase price and regarded the price as an attractive adoption
decision variable (Helveston et al., 2015; Bonges and Lusk, 2016). The high purchase cost is a major barrier to promote EVs (Egbue
and Long, 2012; Zhang et al., 2013; Helveston et al., 2015). For example, in a U.S.-based survey, more than 50% respondents listed
the purchase price as a major obstacle (Carley et al., 2013). To lower the purchase price, many financial incentives policy measures,
such as direct subsidies and preferential tax policy have been provided. The direct subsides can be provided by central or local
government and the local government subsidy standard can be different from region to region (Li et al., 2016). To some extent, local
government subsidy standard is basically equal to and even higher than central government subsidy standard. Meanwhile, the tax
such as added-value tax and vehicle purchasing tax can be exempted or rebated in respect of EVs.
To promote the EVs adoption, many countries have launched financial incentives policy measures. For example, the Chinese
government announced that it will pay a subsidy of up to $9000 (nearly RMB 60,000) to any consumers who purchase EVs (MOST
et al., 2015). The specified amount of subsidies that each vehicle received depends on the vehicles’ category, technology type and
vehicle efficiency performance (Gong et al., 2013). In Norway, there is no purchase tax, value added tax and road tolling on EVs
(Klöckner et al., 2013). In Ireland, a new vehicle registration tax was reduced to encourage consumers to purchase EVs (Sustainable
Energy Ireland, 2009). In U.S., government rebate programs have been implemented to encourage EVs adoption (White and Sintov,
2017).
Several studies have explored the effect of financial incentive policy measures on EVs adoption and sales. Coad et al. (2009)
divided consumers into extrinsically-motivated consumers and intrinsically-motivated consumers and found that financial incentive
schemes may be more persuasive than information-provision policies in promoting the adoption of EVs. Fearnley et al. (2015)
analyzed the electromobility incentives across Europe and found that the electromobility incentives are effective in motivating
consumers to adopt EVs and growing EVs market. Li et al. (2015) explored the factors affecting EVs adoption in 14 international
cities/regions and found that subsidies and tax incentives are indispensible in the development of EVs. Helveston et al. (2015)
designed a conjoint survey on EV preferences in the U.S. and China and found that with or without each country’s 2012–2013
subsidies, American consumers prefer low-range PHEVs despite subsidies, whereas Chinese consumers are willing to adopt today’s
EVs and mid-range PHEVs at similar rates relative to their respective gasoline counterparts. Wang et al. (2017) pointed out that when
the direct subsidies decreases, several indirect subsidies such as license fee exemption can be provided to promote EVs sales.
Based on prior literature, it is evident that financial incentive policy measures can lower the price and help consumers decrease
the cost of adopting EVs, thereby igniting their intention to adopt EVs (Potoglou and Kanaroglou, 2007; Li et al., 2016). It is
reasonable to speculate that if more financial incentive policy measures are provided, consumers are more inclined to adopt EVs.
Thus, this study hypothesizes that:
Hypothesis 1. There is a positive relationship between financial incentive policy measures and EVs adoption intention.

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2.2. Information provision policy measures and EVs adoption intention

Product information is a major decision variable used by marketers to influence product evaluations and purchase behaviors of
potential customers (Tybout et al., 1981). Traditional marketing theory pointed out that consumers are more inclined to obtain the
product information, such as price, quality, performance, reliability, etc., before they make purchase decisions (Day and Wensley,
1983; Murray, 1991). In general, product information provided by marketers enhances consumers understanding of the product and
reduces uncertainty and information search cost and thus to affect consumers purchase decisions (Tybout et al., 1981). Previous
studies have identified the effect of product information on promoting product sales. Blamey et al. (2000) indicated that the in-
formation about price, quality and reliability may kindle consumers purchase intention and encourage them to purchase products.
Wang (2009) deemed that consumers who are unfamiliar with product attributes were less likely to form intention to adopt; however,
if consumers are acquainted with the product, they were more likely to form intention to adopt. Coad et al. (2009) further noted that,
to some extent, the specific information of green products would motivate consumers’ purchase intention, change their behavior and
lead them to live a “low-carbon life”. Graham-Rowe et al. (2012) also found that the attribute information of vehicles has a significant
influence on consumers’ purchasing decisions.
As an innovative fuel-efficient vehicle, EVs are in infancy and many attribute information was not known or even mis-
understanding by consumers which may have a negative influence on EVs adoption. For example, Egbue and Long (2012) noted that
consumers tend to resist EVs since they have little knowledge about EVs performance and regarded these vehicles as alien or un-
proved. Consumers will likely be early adopters of EVs only if they familiar with EVs and perceive them to be superior in performance
compared to traditional gasoline vehicles. Wallis et al. (2013) noted that consumers unfamiliar with EVs, such as range anxiety,
uncertainties associated with battery life and other factors relating to new, may inhibit EVs uptake by consumers. She et al. (2017)
conducted a questionnaire survey in Tianjin, China and found that consumers are unsure about EVs performance, with safety,
reliability, and range per charge being the top three concerns. As a result, a large proportion of respondents are not interest in EVs
and hold a “wait and see” attitude rather than making adoption decisions.
In this sense, if the relevant government agencies and vehicle retailers take measures to provide more information about EVs, such
as the practicality, reliability, safety, driving range, charging time, battery life, environmental performance and other issues, con-
sumers will be more acquainted with EVs and intended to adopt EVs. Coad et al. (2009) reckoned that consumers are heterogeneous
and found that information-provision policies may be more effective than financial incentive schemes in encouraging intrinsically-
motivated consumers to adopt green cars. Egbue and Long (2012) pointed out that the policy decisions that consider consumers’
critical concerns about EVs (e.g., performance and driving range) will have a higher level of success. Wallis et al. (2013) focused on
efforts in UK which try to integrate information about EVs (driving range, charging time and vehicle types) into the color-coded Fuel
Economy Label to encourage car buyers to pay attention to the fuel economy and emissions of vehicles prior to or at the point of
purchase. They found that most car buyers were interested in seeing additional information relating to EVs on the Fuel Economy
Label and formed the purchase intention. Based on the literature, this study hypothesizes that:
Hypothesis 2. There is a positive relationship between information provision policy measures and EVs adoption intention.

2.3. Convenience policy measures and EVs adoption intention

Perceptions of convenience of using EVs affect consumers’ adoption decisions (White and Sintov, 2017). Most consumers ac-
knowledged that one of the barriers to adopt EVs is difficult to charge (She et al., 2017). White and Sintov (2017) realized that the
ability to charge EVs with minimal disruption to daily routines is seen as an important convenience factor associated with higher
possibility of adoption. Sun et al. (2017) noted that the availability of the charging infrastructure is the most significant factors
affecting the users’ opinions on using EVs. Wang et al. (2017) used a multiple linear regression method to analyze the factors that
affecting EVs sales and found that the sound charging infrastructure could make consumers feel easy and convenient to use EVs,
relieve consumers’ anxiety and improve their acceptance of EVs. Meanwhile, long charging time and limited EV range are also two
major barriers that made consumers feel inconvenient to use EVs and thus reduce the likelihood of adoption (White and Sintov,
2017). To overcome these disadvantages, some policies such as charging infrastructure construction policies and technical support
policies are issued by the local government (Li et al., 2016). The aims of these policies are to increase consumers’ perceptions of the
convenience of using EVs and improve their enthusiasm to adopt EVs.
Furthermore, it is worth noting that vehicles not only provide convenience and comfortability to consumers but also bring several
unwanted side effects such as congestion and air pollution (Santos et al., 2010). In recent years, to alleviate the traffic congestion and
its negative effects, several policy measures such as vehicle purchase restrictions and traffic restrictions based on even-and odd-
numbered license plates have been implemented in some cities, such as Beijing and Shanghai (Yu et al., 2015). However, to facilitate
the use and promote the penetration of EVs, the owners of EVs are unrestricted by the rules of even-and odd-numbered license plates
in these cities. Besides, other convenience measures have also implemented, such as EVs have rights to drive on bus lane and allowed
to own a dedicated parking space so as to easily parking and so on (Zhang et al., 2013). In fact, these convenience measures will make
consumers more convenient to use EVs and ignite their desire to purchase EVs. For example, Diao et al. (2016) noted that EVs are
exempted from purchase restrictions (license plate control policy) and driving restrictions in China and found that the advantages of
these traffic policies to promote EVs adoption are very prominent in mega-cities but are significantly smaller in second-tier cities. Sun
et al. (2017) conducted a questionnaire survey in Beijing, China and found that the policy of “No traffic restrictions for EVs”
significantly affect the users’ opinions on using EVs and adoption intention. Compared with conventional gasoline vehicles, adopt EVs

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S. Wang et al. Transportation Research Part A 105 (2017) 14–26

means to enjoy some “privileges” (Bianchessi et al., 2014).

Furthermore, many economic literatures assume consumers are rational in their decision making process and note that consumers
will intend to adopt new products if the cost is lower than the expected payoffs and benefits (Varian, 1992). In essence, the con-
venience policy measures can be seen as the extra benefit and welfare to consumers. Hence, consumers are more easily to form
adoption intention when the convenience policy measures are provided. Thus, this study hypothesizes that:
Hypothesis 3. There is a positive relationship between convenience policy measures and EVs adoption intention.

2.4. Environmental concern and its moderating effect on EVs adoption intention

Environmental concern refers to the degree to which consumers are aware of the problems about climate change and willing to
take measures to solve them (Bamberg, 2003). Environmental concern is an important determinant to affect consumers’ behavior
(Bamberg, 2003; Fujii, 2006; Rezvani et al., 2015). Consumers with high environmental concern are more likely to take measures to
protect environment and reduce ecological footprint through changing the original lifestyle and living a low-carbon life (Rezvani
et al., 2015). Several studies have confirmed that consumers’ environmental concern affects the purchase behavior of en-
vironmentally sound products and stressed the role of environmental concern in predicting this behavior. For example, Kahn (2007)
noted that environmentalists are more incline to buy green products and decrease energy consumption than non-environmentalists.
Lopes et al. (2014) found that consumers with high environmental concern are more likely to buy low-carbon products since they
regard the purchase as a means to protect the environment.
In EVs research, environmental concern is often evaluated by asking whether consumers view climate change as a serious problem
and whether they are willing to contribute personally to the solution, such as reducing traditional gasoline vehicle usage and
adopting EVs (Egbue and Long, 2012; Carley et al., 2013). Considering the environmental advantages and properties of EVs, several
studies have assumed that EVs are eco-innovations which have potential to reduce the negative influence on environment (Egbue and
Long, 2012; Bonges and Lusk, 2016). Hence, the adoption behavior of EVs has been seen as pro-environmental behavior and en-
vironmental concern are often considered in the analysis of consumers’ intention to adopt EVs (Egbue and Long, 2012; Rezvani et al.,
2015; Wang et al., 2017). Egbue and Long (2012) noted that environmentalist consumers are more easily to be motivated to adopt
EVs since they regarded EVs as an emission reduction tool to respond to their concerns about climate change. Larson et al. (2014)
indicated that EVs offer substantial advantages in reducing greenhouse gas and other emissions and found that consumers who
concerned about environmental issues are more likely to adopt due to the environmental image of EVs. Rezvani et al. (2015)
conducted a comprehensive overview of the drivers of adoption EVs and found that consumers’ environmental concern has been
theorized to affected consumers intention to adopt EVs. Wang et al. (2016) exploited an extended theory of planned behavior theory
to predict consumers’ willingness to purchase EVs and found that consumers’ environmental concern affects adoption intention
significantly. White and Sintov (2017) indicated that consumers who are more concerned about climate change are more willing to
pay more for vehicles with lower emission and likely to adopt EVs.
In addition, as a matter of fact, consumers are more likely to adopt green products if the values embedded in the products fit their
environmental expectations and awareness (Mondéjar-Jiménez et al., 2011). Given that EVs have potential to reduce the environ-
mental problems of the transport sector, it can also be predicted that consumers with a high level of environmental concern will be
more likely to adopt EVs to fit their environmental expectations and awareness. Based on the literature reviewed above, this study
hypothesizes that:
Hypothesis 4. There is a positive relationship between consumers’ environmental concern and EVs adoption intention.
The hypotheses developed above focus on exploring the effects of policy measures and consumers’ environmental concern on
consumers’ intention to adopt EVs separately. In fact, for adopting EVs, policy measures can be seen as external driving factor and
environmental concern can be seen as internal driving factor. Consumers are heterogeneous and their adoption behavior may not
only be affected by intrinsic motivational factor but also extrinsic motivational factor (Coad et al., 2009). Considering only one
motivational factor may limit the value of the study and even result in some controversial conclusions. For example, some studies
noted that consumers’ environmental concerns are not always effective to promote EVs. Graham-Rowe et al. (2012) found that
consumers with high environmental concern are less likely to adopt EVs. This is because that they have less information or knowledge
about EVs and doubt the environmental impacts of battery production and electricity generation.
Furthermore, some studies have noted that the effect of policy measures on EVs adoption contingent on consumers’ environmental
concern. Coad et al. (2009) conducted a questionnaire survey in Switzerland and analyzed consumers’ responses to financial in-
centive policies and information provision policies. The results indicated that financial incentive policies and information provision
policies can motivate consumers to adopt green vehicles and the utility of these policies depends on consumers’ attitude, evaluation
and green awareness. Krupa et al. (2014) indicated that though several policy measures have been launched by the government, the
share of EVs is limited. This is because that consumers do not accept the policy measures passively. Their knowledge, opinions about
these policy measures and awareness about climate changes will also affect their adoption intention and behavior. Li et al. (2016) also
noted that policy measures are not always effective to promote EVs. The effect may rely on consumers’ opinions about EV-related
policy measures and concern about the serious environmental problems. The joint effects of policy measures and environmental
concern on EVs adoption may be more significant.
Based on prior literature, though these studies noted the role of environmental concern in the relationships between policy
measures and consumers’ intention to adopt of EVs, the interactions between policy measures and environmental concern for EVs

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S. Wang et al. Transportation Research Part A 105 (2017) 14–26

Environmental
Environmental
Financial concern
concern
incentive policy
measures

Information Actual
Information Adoption Actual
provision policy Adoption Adoption
provision policy Intention Adoption
measures Intention Behavior
measures Behavior

Convenience
Convenience
policy measures
policy measures

Fig. 1. Research framework of EVs adoption intention.

adoption have not been explicitly studied. Such a void between empirical research and theoretical analysis results a significant
research gap. Thus, the present study responds to this research gap and proposes that consumers’ environmental concern moderates
the relationship between policy measures and adoption intention. The impact of policy measures on adoption intention may be
reinforced when consumers have a high level of environmental concern. Thus, this study hypothesizes that:
Hypothesis 5. Environmental concern positively and significantly moderates the relationships between (a) financial incentive policy
measures, (b) information provision policy measures and (c) convenience policy measures and EVs adoption intention.
Based on above analysis, the research framework is depicted in Fig. 1.

3. Data and methodology

3.1. Sample and data collection

A questionnaire survey method was employed to collect data to test the research hypotheses. The questionnaire was distributed to
customers in Auto 4S2 shops in 10 of the first promotion and pilot cities3 of EVs in China. The respondents may be suitable for the
present study for three reasons: (1) The respondents represented a diverse population across demographic and socioeconomic strata.
The respondents were drawn from customers in Auto 4S shops including faculty, civil servants, drivers, directors and managers,
clerical staffs and doctors; (2) These 10 cities are pilot cities to promote the development of EVs and consumers may be more familiar
with EVs and relevant policy measures; (3) Auto 4S shops sell not only a range of conventional vehicles but also EVs and customers in
Auto 4S shops may intend to purchase a vehicle (Zhang et al., 2013).
Data for the study were gathered in 10 pilot cities from mid-August to mid-November of 2014. The questionnaire survey is divided
into three steps. Firstly, the research team asked the customers in Auto 4S shops whether they are willing to fill out a questionnaire
voluntarily. Meanwhile, the time that needed to fill out the questionnaire was stated. In total, the research team asked 832 customers
in 10 pilot cities. Unfortunately, 412 customers refused to participate in the survey. The initial refusal rate is about 49.5%. The
remaining customers kindly accepted the invitation to fill out the questionnaire. Secondly, the research team asked the remaining
customers whether they knew the relevant policy measures and if not, the research team briefly introduced the policy measures.
Finally, the research team distributed 420 printed copies of the questionnaire to the remaining customers.
To ensure data collection timely and usefully, respondents were asked to complete a questionnaire immediately after having
received it in a showroom and then returned it to the research team when they finished within the time specified. Moreover,
respondents were instructed specifically not to interact with or observe the work of others and were assured anonymity. In carrying
out the research, some gifts (USB flash disk or shopping card) were provided as incentives to the respondents so as to increase the
response rate. Questionnaires with missing values on the main variables and those with the same answers on all different variables
were discarded. In total, there are 324 useable responses, resulting an overall net response rate of nearly 38.9%.
In addition, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to check whether there was any difference between data
collected from respondents in difference cities. The results showed that there were no significant differences between these 10 cities
at the 5% significance level for all constructs: three catalogs of policy measures, environmental concern and EVs adoption intention.
Thus, it is appropriate to combine these sets of data collected in 10 pilot cities as a single sample in the following data analysis. To test
the potential non-response bias, T-tests were conducted to compare the early respondents and late respondents in the sample. No

2
“4S” is the first letter of four English words: vehicle sales, spare parts supply, service, and information feedback. Auto 4S shops are authorized and established by
the vehicle manufacturers to sell a single brand of automobile and to provide customers with the parts cheaper, more specialized technical support and more in-depth
service. An auto 4S shop establishes a close relationship between production and marketing for vehicle manufacturers.
3
The 10 cities are Beijing, Shenzhen, Shanghai, Jinan, Chongqing, Wuhan, Changchun, Hefei, Dalian, and Hangzhou.

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Table 1
Demographic profile of respondents.

Demographics Frequency Percentage (%)

Gender
0. Female 144 44.4
1. Male 180 55.6

Age
1. Under 20 13 4.0
2. 20–30 97 29.9
3. 31–40 94 29.0
4. 41–50 78 24.1
5. 51 and above 42 13.0

Educational level
1. Senior high school or below 63 11.8
2. Associate degree or bachelor degree 168 50.8
3. Masters degree or PhD 93 37.4

Personal income (net monthly)

1. Less than¥4000 ($628) 28 8.6
2. ¥4000–¥8000 ($628–$1256) 132 40.7
3. ¥8001–¥12000 ($1256–$1884) 108 33.3
4. More than¥12000 ($1884) 56 17.4

Number of vehicles owned by the family

1. 0 127 39.2
2. 1 113 34.8
3. 2 56 17.3
4. More than 2 28 8.7

Total 324 100

significant differences were found. Thus, it can be concluded that non-response bias was not a major concern in this study.
The demographic data of these respondents, such as gender, age, educational level, personal income and number of vehicles
owned by the family are shown in Table 1.
As shown in Table 1, nearly half of the respondents are male (55.6%). About 58.9% of them are aged between 20 and 40. They are
well-educated and 50.8% of them have final education experience of associate degree or bachelor degree. About 40.7% of them have
personal monthly income of between RMB 4000 and RMB 8000 ($628 and $1256). The proportion of a family owning a vehicle is
34.8%. According to a report by the China Association of Automobile Manufactures (CAAM) and Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology (MIIT) of the People’s Republic of China,4 Chinese citizens aged between 25 and 40 are the main owners of vehicles, with
the percentage up to 55%, and the gender composition of the owners is 58% male versus 42% female. More than 52.3% of the owners
have an associate degree or above and 33.1% of the owners have personal monthly income of between RMB 5000 and RMB 8000
($785 and $1256). Only one-third of households own a vehicle. Therefore, the sample of this study is approximately congruent with
the current vehicle owner demographic profile.

3.2. Measures

Measures for three catalogs of policy measures were adapted from the existing scales from prior researches (Coad et al., 2009;
Ozaki and Sevastyanova, 2011). Each policy measures were measured by four items. Some of the wordings of scale items were
slightly modified in the context of adopting EVs. Four measurement items were used to measure the environmental concern. They
were adapted from the works of Fujii (2006), Ramayah et al. (2010) and Zhang et al. (2013). The adoption intention was measured by
3 items that adapted from the works of Ramayah et al. (2010) and Zhang et al. (2013). All the measurement items were measured by
a 5-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. These measurement items were listed in Appendix A. In addition,
the previous research indicated that the social-economic and demographic characteristics (such as age, education level, income, etc.)
of respondents may affect the intention to adopt green vehicles (Coad et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2013). In this research, five control
variables, namely gender, age, educational level, personal income per month and number of vehicles owned by the family were
considered.
In this research, an English questionnaire was first developed. It is widely believed that even a small change in the wording of one
item can have a substantial effect on how people respond to a scale (Robinson et al., 1991). So, a professional translator who is good
at English was hired to translate the questionnaire into Chinese to ensure the accuracy. Finally, the Chinese questionnaire was
translated back into English to ensure that there is no semantic discrepancy between the two English questionnaires. After the
questionnaire was developed, a pilot study was conducted. The participants filled out the questionnaire and gave us important

4
See detail at http://chinaafc.miit.gov.cn/n2257/n2341/index.html and http://www.evdays.com/html/201304/41558_2.html.

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Table 2
Reliability and validity tests of the constructs.

Constructs Items Loading Cronbach’s alpha value Composite reliability AVE

Financial incentive policy measures (FI) FI1 0.89 0.83 0.90 0.74
FI2 0.87
FI3 0.83
FI4 0.53 (dropped)

Information provision policy measures (IP) IP1 0.86 0.86 0.92 0.78
IP2 0.58 (dropped)
IP3 0.91
IP4 0.89

Convenience policy measures (CP) CP1 0.54 (dropped) 0.86 0.91 0.78
CP2 0.85
CP3 0.90
CP4 0.89

Environmental concern (EC) EC1 0.96 0.87 0.92 0.80

EC2 0.47 (dropped)
EC3 0.76
EC4 0.96

Adoption Intention (INT) INT1 0.83 0.80 0.88 0.71

INT2 0.85
INT3 0.85

Note: (1) AVE is short for Average Variance Extracted; (2) FI1-INT3 are the items that measured the constructs. Please see Appendix A.

feedback information. Then the feedback information was used to modify and refine the questionnaire.

4. Data analysis and results

Before conducting data analysis, Harman’s one-factor test was employed to check the possible common method bias. The results
of Harman’s one-factor test indicated that all the measure items could be divided into four factors, with eigenvalues greater than 1.0
and accounting for 74.02% of the variance. The first factor explained 17.34% of the variance and less than the benchmark 30%
(Harman, 1976). Therefore, the concern about common method bias was not significant in the present study.
Partial least squares (PLS) structural equation analysis was employed to test whether the survey data fit the conceptual model well
and to examine the research hypotheses. In the present study, Smart-PLS 3.0 and SPSS 19.0 software packages were used to conduct
data analysis. Two models are used in the PLS analysis: a measurement model and a structural model. In the following data analysis,
firstly, we estimate the measurement model and validate the reliability and validity of the constructs, and then we test the structural
model to estimate the relationships among the hypothesized constructs.

4.1. Measurement reliability and validity

Before testing the research hypotheses, we followed the suggestion of Hair et al. (2014) to test the reliability and validity of the
constructs. To test the reliability and validity, the loadings of all items should be obtained. (The loading and cross-loading table is
presented in Appendix B.) According to Hair et al. (2014), the loadings of items should be higher than the benchmark of 0.7. When
the loading lower than 0.7, the item should be dropped. The items retained and dropped in conjunction with the loadings are shown
in Table 2.
Construct reliability was used to test the internal consistency of the items of each construct and construct validity was used to
measure the level of the measurement scale that really reflects the constructs (Golafshani, 2003). In practice, construct reliability was
always assessed using the Cronbach’s alpha values and the composite reliability values (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Cronbach’s alpha
is a measure of internal consistency, that is, how closely related a set of items are as a group; composite reliability refers to what
extent a series of items can represent the latent construct (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Construct validity was always assessed using
the convergent validity and discriminant validity. Convergent validity refers to the degree to which two or more measures of con-
structs that theoretically should be related to each other are, in fact, observed to be related to each other (Hair et al., 2014). Average
variance extracted (AVE) was used to test the convergent validity. AVE measures the amount of variance that is captured by the
constructs in relation to the amount of variance due to the measurement error (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). Discriminant validity is
used to ensure that a reflective construct has the strongest relationships with its own indicators (Hair et al., 2014). The square roots of
AVEs and the relationship between correlations among constructs can be used to test the discriminant validity. In practice, the square
roots of the AVEs should be larger than the correlations among constructs.
The results of constructs reliability and validity are shown in Tables 2 and 3. In Table 2, Cronbach’s alpha values range from 0.80
to 0.87 and the values of composite reliability range from 0.88 to 0.92, which are all larger than 0.70. Hence, the construct reliability
is quite good. The AVE scores range from 0.71 to 0.80 and are above the benchmark value of 0.50 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). In

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Table 3
Means, standard deviation and correlations.

Constructs Means SD FI IP CP EC INT

Financial incentive policy measures (FI) 3.79 0.77 0.86

Information provision policy measures (IP) 3.70 0.84 0.41* 0.88
Convenience policy measures (CP) 3.84 0.92 0.50** 0.47** 0.88
Environmental concern (EC) 3.62 0.69 0.38* 0.33** 0.30** 0.89
Intention (INT) 3.14 0.84 0.46** 0.52** 0.52** 0.30** 0.84

Note: (1) Means are measured based on average factor scores; SD means standard deviation.
(2) The diagonal (bold) elements are the square roots of AVEs and the off-diagonal elements are the correlations among constructs.
(3) Significant at: *p < 0.05 and **p < 0.01.

Table 3, all the square roots of AVEs for each construct are greater than the correlations among constructs. The construct validity is
quite good. Thus, it can be concluded that the measurement model achieved adequate reliability and validity. The constructs in this
research are highly reliable and valid.

4.2. Hypothesis testing

As shown in Table 3, the relatively low inter-correlations between independent and moderate variables suggest that the multi-
collinearity might not be a major concern in the following regression analysis. In addition, collinearity tests indicate that all variance
inflation factors (VIFs) were less than 10.0, which suggests that multicollinearity was also not a problem. To test the hypothesized
relationships, hierarchical moderated regression analysis was used. Based on Aguinis (1995), before regression analysis the in-
dependent and moderator variables were mean-centered. The control variables were considered in the analysis. The hierarchical
moderated regression results are presented in Table 4.
The results in Table 4 (Model 3) show that financial incentive policy measures (β = 0.19, p < 0.01), information provision
policy measures (β = 0.15, p < 0.05) and convenience policy measures (β = 0.27, p < 0.01) have significant and positive impacts
on EVs adoption intention. These findings support Hypotheses 1–3. Meanwhile, the path coefficient from consumers’ environmental
concern to EVs adoption intention (β = 0.10, p < 0.05) is positive and significant. As such, hypothesis 4 is supported.
Furthermore, the moderating effects of environmental concern on the relationships between three catalogs of policy measures and
EVs adoption intention were tested. Specifically, the results show that consumers’ environmental concern can positively and sig-
nificantly moderated the relationship between financial incentive policy measures (β = 0.06, p < 0.05), convenience policy
measures (β = 0.01, p < 0.05) and EVs adoption intention. These findings provide support for Hypotheses 5a and 5c. However, as
shown in Model 3, the path coefficient of the moderating effect of environmental concern on the relationship between information
provision policy measures and EVs adoption intention (β = 0.14) were not significant. Thus, Hypothesis 5b is not supported. Finally,
it is worth noting that the control variable of the number of vehicles owned by the family significantly and positively affects EVs

Table 4
Results of hierarchical moderated regression analysis.

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient

Intercept 0.03 0.04 −0.02

Control variables
Gender −0.02 0.01 0.02
Age 0.04 0.04 0.03
Education level 0.02 0.02 0.02
Income −0.07 −0.06 −0.06
Number of vehicles owned by the family 0.02 0.02 0.09*

Independent variables
Financial incentive policy measures (FI) 0.19** 0.19**
Information provision policy measures (IP) 0.14 0.15*
Convenience policy measures (CP) 0.28** 0.27**

Moderator variable
Environmental concern (EC) 0.09 0.10*

Interacting effects
FP*EC 0.06*
IP*EC 0.14
CP*EC 0.01*
Adjusted R2 0.21 0.34 0.35
F 4.78* 19.06** 15.25**

Note: Significant at: *p < 0.05 and **

p < 0.01.

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adoption intention.

5. Discussion

The present study indicates that the three catalogs of policy measures are positively and significantly related to EVs adoption
intention. However, the convenience policy measures are seen as having the strongest effects on EVs adoption intention since its path
coefficient is larger than others (see Table 4). That is, though financial incentive policy measures and information provision policy
measures have significant effects on adoption intention, the convenience policy measures seem to be more important in consumers’
decision-making process. This finding is not difficult to understand in the Chinese context. At present, the insufficient charging
infrastructure construction is one of the main obstacles to hinder the development of EVs in China (Wang et al., 2017). When
consumers feel they are convenient to charge, they will be more likely to adopt. In addition, in recent years, the private motorized
vehicles have increased rapidly in China and caused several troublesome issues to the vehicle owners, such as difficult to search a
parking space to parking, need to comply with the traffic restrictions based on even-and odd-numbered license plates and so on (Yang
and Wang, 2011). In comparison, the owners of EVs would not face these difficulties since they enjoy the “privileges” that con-
venience policy measures provided (Bianchessi et al., 2014). Thus, considering the convenience, consumers are more likely to adopt
EVs.
Consumers’ environmental concern is positively and significantly related to EVs adoption intention. The widespread promotion of
EVs usually benefits from consumers’ environmental concern increase (Mondéjar-Jiménez et al., 2011). However, the results of
regression analysis (Table 4) indicate that the path coefficient from environmental concern to EVs adoption intention is relativity
small (β = 0.10, p < 0.05). It means that compared with policy measures, consumers’ environmental concern plays a limited role in
adoption intention.
Furthermore, the hierarchical moderated regression analysis suggests that consumers’ environmental concern positively and
significantly moderated the relationships between financial incentive policy measures, convenience policy measures and EVs
adoption intention. Consumers with high level of environment concern may be regarding the EVs purchase as a means to protect the
environment. Meanwhile, financial incentive policy measures lower the purchase price so as to allow consumers to afford these EVs
and convenience policy measures make consumers easy and convenient to use EVs. Therefore, considering these benefits, consumers
with high level of environmental concern may be more willing to purchase EVs and highlight the environmentally friendly ad-
vantages of EVs.
It is noteworthy that the moderating effect of environmental concern on the relationship between information provision policy
measures and EVs adoption is not significant. This is because that consumers with high level of environmental concern may be
interested in these environmentally friendly EVs and take the initiatives to search information about EVs. Thus, when provided the
information provision policy measures, consumers’ environmental concern may not significantly strengthen and moderated the
relationship between information provision policy measures and EVs adoption intention.
In addition, the control variable of the number of vehicles owned by the family is significantly and positively related to EVs
adoption intention. There are two reasons to explain this finding. One is that Chinese consumers are more likely to adopt a con-
ventional gasoline vehicle as the first vehicle and intend to adopt an EV as a second or third vehicle (Wang et al., 2016). Another is
that consumers who own more than one conventional gasoline vehicle may value the benefits of adopting EVs, such as purchasing
subsidies, exemption of tax, low fuel cost, driving privileges, etc. Thus, consumers from the family own more than one vehicle may be
more likely to purchase EVs.

6. Conclusions and limitations

The objective of this study is to explore how policy measures influence EVs adoption intention. The results generally support the
theoretical propositions on the relationships between policy measures and EVs adoption intention, and show how consumers’ en-
vironmental concern moderates the relationships. The present study has two theoretical findings and provides several managerial
implications. First, this study divided the policy measures into three catalogs: financial incentive policy measures, information
provision policy measures and convenience policy measures. This classification is important because they have different effects on
EVs promotion. The empirical results reveal that the three catalogs of policy measures are positively and significantly related to EVs
adoption intention. However, the importance of three policy measures on adoption intention is different. Based on their importance,
the three catalogs of policy measures are ranked as follows: convenience policy measures, financial incentive policy measures and
information provision policy measures. In the future, to promote the adoption of EVs, these policy measures should be carried out
continuously and if possible, more convenience policy measures should be provided, such as build more charging infrastructural
facilities and offer more parking spaces.
Second, the present study explored the moderating effects of consumers’ environmental concern on the relationships between
policy measures and EVs adoption intention. The results indicated that environmental concern strengthens the effects of financial
incentive policy measures and convenience policy measures. The findings suggested that the promotion of EVs may rely on the
combined effects of environmental concern and policy measures. Fostering and improving the public environmental protection
responsibility and morality might also be an effective means to promote EVs. However, the study found that compared with policy
measures, consumers’ environmental concern plays a limited role in their purchase decisions. It means that many consumers may be
unfamiliar with the environmentally friendly advantages of EVs and they adopt EVs is not for environmental considerations but for
other reasons. Thus, propagandize the environmentally friendly advantages of EVs and raise the consumers’ environmental

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consciousness still need to make great efforts.

Although this research provides some interesting findings and implications, it is important to highlight the limitations of the
current research. Firstly, this research focused on consumers’ adoption intention rather than actual adoption behavior. Just as noted
by Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), there is a gap between adoption intention and actual adoption behavior. Hence, to enrich the con-
clusions, a follow-up survey can be performed in the following studies to further investigate these respondents’ actual adoption
behavior. Secondly, this research didn’t distinguish the types and brands of EVs. In fact, the reactions of consumers to different types
and brands of EVs are different. The subsequent research could focus on how consumers respond to a particular type and brand of
EVs. Finally, the research results are only based on the quantitatively examined. The qualitative analysis, such as interview the
respondents and analyze the effects of specific policy measures are also needed for further validation.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant number 71601174 and 71571172), China
Postdoctoral Science Foundation (Grant number 2016M590583), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities and
National Social Science Foundation of China (15CGL043) for their generous financial support.

Appendix A

Constructs and measurement items.

Policy measures (Adapted from Coad et al., 2009; Ozaki and Sevastyanova, 2011)
(1) Financial incentive policy measures
Instruction: The Chinese central government pays a subsidy of up to RMB 60,000 (nearly $9430) to any consumer who purchases
EVs. The local governments also provide subsidies, such as, in Shanghai the buyers can obtain RMB 30,000 ($4710) subsidies;
In Guangzhou, the buyers can obtain RMB 10,000 ($1570) subsidies. In addition, the tax and road tolling of EVs were
exempted by the State Administration of Taxation
FI1: Government direct subsidy policy is attractive to me to adopt an EV
FI2: Exemption from road tolling is valuable to me to adopt an EV
FI3: Exemption from purchase tax is helpful to me to adopt an EV
FI4: Exemption from value added tax is useful to me to adopt an EV
(2) Information provision policy measures
Instruction: EVs are one kind of energy-sustainable transport technology innovations and are in infancy. Many consumers lack of
knowledge about EVs and are unfamiliar with them. Nowadays, the relevant government agencies and vehicle retailers are
taking measures to provide more information about EVs, such as the price, practicality, reliability, safety, driving range,
charging time, battery life, fuel consumption, environmental performance and other issues
IP1: Information on EV practicality and reliability is useful to me to adopt an EV
IP2: Information on EV driving ranges is important to me to adopt an EV
IP3: Information on EV charging time and battery life is helpful to me to adopt an EV
IP4: Information on EV fuel consumption and environmental performance is valuable to me to adopt an EV
(3) Convenience policy measures
Instruction: The relevant government agencies have provided several policy measures to allow the buyers of EVs to enjoy some
“privileges” to facilitate the penetration of EVs, for example, EVs are permitted to access to high occupancy vehicle (HOV)
lanes, allowed to own a dedicated parking space and unrestricted by the rules of even-and odd-numbered license plate
CP1: EVs are permitted to access to high occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes is important to me to adopt an EV
CP2: EVs are permitted to own a dedicated parking space and thus easy to parking is helpful to me to adopt an EV
CP3: EVs are unrestricted by the rules of even-and odd-numbered license plates is useful to me to adopt an EV
CP4: EVs are not required to line up when conducting the vehicle annual inspection is attractive to me to adopt an EV

Environmental concern (Adapted from Fujii, 2006; Ramayah et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2013)
EC1. I think the environmental problems are becoming more and more serious in recent years
EC2. I think human beings should live in harmony with nature in order to achieve sustainable development
EC3. I think we are not doing enough to save scare natural resource from being used up
EC4. I think everyone has the responsibility to protect the environment

Intention to adopt an EV (Adapted from Ramayah et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2013)
INT1. I am willing to adopt an EV when adopting a vehicle in the near future
INT2. I intend to adopt an EV when adopting a vehicle in the near future
INT3. I plan to adopt an EV when adopting a vehicle in the near future

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S. Wang et al. Transportation Research Part A 105 (2017) 14–26

Note: The variables were measured using 5-point Likert-type scales with 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree.

Appendix B

Loading and cross-loading table.

Construct Item FI IP CP EC INT

Financial incentive policy measures (FI) FI1 0.89 0.52 0.44 0.34 0.42
FI2 0.87 0.54 0.48 0.32 0.39
FI3 0.83 0.59 0.45 0.36 0.43
FI4 0.53 0.26 0.26 0.12 0.23
Information provision policy measures (IP) IP1 0.52 0.86 0.62 0.33 0.45
IP2 0.38 0.58 0.43 0.20 0.35
IP3 0.55 0.91 0.67 0.30 0.46
IP4 0.55 0.89 0.74 0.33 0.51
Convenience policy measures (CP) CP1 0.35 0.38 0.54 0.19 0.27
CP2 0.50 0.70 0.85 0.35 0.47
CP3 0.41 0.70 0.90 0.28 0.46
CP4 0.44 0.65 0.89 0.25 0.49
Environmental concern (EC) EC1 0.35 0.33 0.28 0.96 0.28
EC2 0.20 0.28 0.31 0.47 0.13
EC3 0.30 0.26 0.27 0.76 0.26
EC4 0.35 0.33 0.28 0.96 0.28
Adoption Intention (INT) INT1 0.32 0.38 0.42 0.20 0.83
INT2 0.39 0.43 0.38 0.26 0.85
INT3 0.47 0.57 0.54 0.31 0.85

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