Managing breeding, health
and nutrition to produce
first class replacements
by Dr Beate Maassen-Francke,
GEA Farm Technologies GmbH.
uccessful calf and heifer management –
S young stock management – is an essen-
tial investment for the future profitabil-
ity of any farm. At the same time, it is a
costly business – the investment phase of a
calf being reared to a heifer lasts often more
than two years. The costs differ in each
country, but in general it is the second
largest investment on a dairy farm.
Different studies show costs from €1600-
2000 per heifer. Taking a 24 month rearing
period into account a rearing day costs
€2.20-2.80.
According to Boersema et al, the bench-
marks for successful calf and heifer care for
Holstein Friesians are:
G Calf mortality <5%.
G First age at calving: 24 months at a weight
of 540-580kg.
G Herd culling rate: 25%.
G Average herd calving interval <13
months.
To reach these targets risk factors like, for
example, diseases, bad housing conditions
or failures in management, have to be min-
imised.
There is not one solution that fits all –
because there are different types of produc-
tion techniques and different kinds of facili-
ties for rearing calves and heifers. But, there
is potential in each young stock period for
being profitable by optimising animal com-
fort, health, natural behaviour and nutrition
without neglecting labour efficiency and cost
considerations. In this article, the influence
of nutrition and housing on the health status
of calves and heifers is analysed.
Nutrition and health
Healthy calves are the basis for perfor-
mance-oriented and economic dairy farm-
ing. Often, calf mortality rates are too high
(> 5%) due to respiratory diseases and
intestinal infections.
To give the new born calf a good start
administering colostrum is the essential key,
because the first milk contains vital antibod-
ies against bacteria and viruses. Without giv-
ing enough colostrum with sufficient content
International Dairy Topics — Volume 9 Number 6
Precision calf farming – rearing the future.
of immune factors the calf can be a victim of needs and offer calf nutrition that is in sync
pathogens. with the natural physiological needs of the
Two litres of colostrum should be given in animal.
the first hour after birth and not later than The device mixes, warms and distributes
three hours to allow for good absorption of either milk replacer or fresh milk to a dedi-
the immunoglobulins (IgG) to reach a satis- cated feed stall on demand.
factory passive immunity. Being electronically identified, the calves
Good quality colostrum shows an IgG are constantly monitored which helps the
quantity of >15g/l in serum which corre- calves to stay healthy and reduces veterinary
sponds to >50mg/ml in milk. Otherwise the costs due to early detection of diseases.
risk for a calf to get sick during the whole The feeding is based on an optimum feed
rearing period is increased extraordinarily. schedule that meters multiple feedings
throughout the day.
Continued on page 8
Milk or milk replacer
Fig. 1. Keep the balance between risks
During the milk or milk replacer period the and corrective actions.
calves develop from a monogastric animal to
a ruminant.
The proportion of rumen to abomasum Risk factors Corrective actions
changes from 25:75 to 65:35 after 12
weeks. Optimal
During the first five weeks the organic hygiene
development of the intestines – kidney,
liver, heart, and lungs – is at its peak. Optimal
Therefore physiological appropriate feeding Diseases feeding
is a main issue: this means multiple feeding
and correct feed distributions throughout Barn equipment
Bad housing according to age,
the day. The feed has to always be fresh and conditions optimal climate
offered in small portions at the correct tem-
perature and concentration. Efficient
Insufficient
The optimum milk or milk replacer feeding management labour and herd
temperature is 39°C: too low and the risk management
of delayed curding increases which can
cause diarrhoea, if the temperature is too
high, the stomach mucosa can be damaged.
Automatic calf feeders help to fulfill the
7
Continued from page 7
The following schedule leads to good daily
gains: during the first four weeks four feed-
ings a day of a minimum of 1.5 litres (maxi-
mum 2.0 litres) – energy content should be
in the range of 19.3 MJ ME/kg DM for fresh
milk and 16 MJ ME/kg DM for milk replacer.
Over the next six weeks the feed amount
should be a minimum of two litres (maxi-
mum 2.5 litres) for each feeding. In addition,
roughage and water have to be given ad libi-
tum. Automatic concentrate feeders offer
individual feeding around the clock with low
labour input.
There are systems available with a connec-
tion to the automatic calf feeder and the
herd management system to feed precisely
8 International Dairy Topics — Volume 9 Number 6
and reliably in a synchronised way. To make
whole fresh milk and colostrum richer in
nutrients, a system like the calf milk purifier
can be used. It adapts the smart technology
of ultraviolet light to kill bacteria while
retaining important nutrients and immune
factors in milk and colostrum.
The risk of infection by possible pathogens
is minimised as if using pasteurisation. As no
heat is used the milk keeps its proteins and
vitamins.
The automatic feeder and the purifier
make the day-to-day feeding easier and min-
imises the routine tasks involved in raising
calves.
Calves develop faster as a ruminant, expe-
rience higher weight gains, attain a heavier
Concen
Calving Colostrum Milk period rough
Fig. 2. Young stock periods.
weight by first insemination and achieve bet-
ter health for an economic way of calf rais-
ing.
Puberty and reproduction
Target growth curves differ according to the
breed, but the goal is to reach an average
daily weight gain of >800g/day for an opti-
mal breeding age at 15 months.
In practice, insufficient weight gains in the
first year of age are often tried to be com-
pensated for in the second year in order to
reach a satisfactory weight at first calving at
24 months.
But this results in an increased risk of fat-
tening of the udder tissue and the birth canal
with decreased reproduction performance
in many cases.
Different literature references show the
following reproduction performance targets
for heifers: pregnancy at all inseminations
>95%; <10% shall have more than three
inseminations; less than 25% should be
assisted at first calving.
In order to optimise heifer rearing costs,
the daily weight gain should not be more
than 750g. Energy rations should be
restricted to 9.5 MJ ME/kg DM. Pasturing
can be an option to specific production
schemes by paying attention to regular
anthelmintic therapy as well as to sufficient
supply of minerals and trace elements.
The calf milk purifier using ultraviolet
light to reduce bacteria load in milk and
colostrum.
 end of the period. Being already in groups
the weaning period is much easier to handle
for group housed calves.
They have already learned how to behave
ntrate in a group – the early social development
Pasture Reproduction Pregnancy and social interacting are good conditions
hage
for their later life in a free stall barn.
During puberty the space requirement
increases to 2-3m²/animal.
Animal friendly barn equipment with good
access to feed and water troughs, special
cubicles according to the age of the young
stock and innovative ventilation technique is
Those pre-conditions are essential for essential for good housing and climate con-
breeding first class replacement heifers in ditions.
good condition, reaching a first calving age The described combination of well aligned
of 24 months and a higher milk yield in the and designed products for young stock fulfils
first lactation.
the demand for performance based solu-
tions in precision livestock farming.
The feeding management being physiologi-
cally appropriate and housing conditions
supporting the natural behaviour leads to
healthy, fast growing calves and high yielding
heifers. Shortcomings of hygiene and envi-
ronmental conditions often result in scours
and respiratory diseases and economic
losses.
Perfect colostrum and nutrition manage-
ment, good ventilation, optimal heat balance
and low bacterial pressure are beneficial for
the immune defence of the calf and protect
the animal through the whole young stock
period for an overall successful investment
in the future. I

Housing and health

Another major reason for economic loss
due to infections and bad health status are
bad housing conditions.
High humidity combined with high concen-
tration of noxious odours and dust,
draughts and overcrowding lead to a high
risk of infection. To reduce this risk the
design of housing should be synchronised to
the age of the young stock.
Traditional calf rearing, emphasising low
calf mortality rates, is labour intensive and
often considered an animal welfare issue.
Group housing offers significant labour sav-
ings and health improvements.
Calves can be placed in group housing
starting at one week of age or under excep-
tional management conditions, even imme-
diately after the calves have dried up and
received colostrum.
Group size depends on calf age structure.
As a rule of thumb: the more equal the age
structure, the bigger the group; the younger
the calves, the smaller the group.
Innovative feeding systems where four
calves drink simultaneously offers an eco-
nomic solution for 120 calves with 30 calves
per group.
The group pen should be divided into a
feeding, walking, and lying area. As the
calves spend 80% of their time lying down, a
dry and draught free environment is neces-
sary. Relative humidity needs to stay
between 50 and 70%.
Areas for feeding and walking need to be
kept dry and non-slip. A comfortable and
dry lying area with straw or larger particu-
late bedding fulfills the needs of a hygienic
and calf friendly environment.
Large doors improve labour efficiency in
manure removal, bedding and calf traffic.
Separation gates at appropriate locations
provide an easy way of sorting special need
calves.
Group pens can be separated by solid pan-
els or concrete walls to prevent licking and
nose-to nose contact. The all in- all out
method offers optimal hygiene and protec-
tion against diseases. The pens should be
disinfected and left empty for 5-7 days at the

International Dairy Topics — Volume 9 Number 6 9