Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 140

Thomas Kvist

Editor

Apical Periodontitis
in Root-Filled Teeth

Endodontic Retreatment
and Alternative Approaches

123
Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth
Thomas Kvist
Editor

Apical Periodontitis in
Root-Filled Teeth
Endodontic Retreatment and
Alternative Approaches
Editor
Thomas Kvist
Department of Endodontology
University of Gothenburg The Sahlgrenska Academy
Gothenburg
Sweden

ISBN 978-3-319-57248-2    ISBN 978-3-319-57250-5 (eBook)


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017957215

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018


This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or
part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way,
and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature


The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents

1 Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   1
Thomas Kvist
2 Incidence, Frequency, and Prevalence ������������������������������������������   7
Fredrik Frisk
3 Aetiology of Persistent Endodontic Infections
in Root-Filled Teeth�������������������������������������������������������������������������  21
Luis E. Chávez de Paz
4 Consequences������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  33
Fredrik Frisk and Thomas Kvist
5 Diagnosis ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  43
Thomas Kvist and Peter Jonasson
6 Decision Making������������������������������������������������������������������������������  55
Thomas Kvist
7 Surgical Retreatment����������������������������������������������������������������������  73
Peter Jonasson and Magnús Friðjón Ragnarsson
8 Non-surgical Retreatment ��������������������������������������������������������������  89
Charlotte Ulin
9 Prognosis ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  103
Thomas Kvist
10 Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth Replacement����������������������  117
Pernilla Holmberg
Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������  133

v
List of Contributors

Luis E. Chávez de Paz, DDS, MS, PhD Division of Endodontics,


Department of Dental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
Fredrik Frisk, DDS, PhD Department of Endodontology, Institute for
Postgraduate Dental Education, Jönköping, Sweden
Department of Endodontology, Institute of Odontology, University of
Gothenburg, The Sahlgrenska Academy, Göteborg, Sweden
Pernilla Holmberg, DDS  Department of Oral Prosthodontics and National
Oral Disability Centre, Institute for Postgraduate Dental Education,
Jönköping, Sweden
Peter Jonasson, DDS, PhD Department of Endodontology, Institute of
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg,
Sweden
Thomas Kvist, DDS, PhD Department of Endodontology, Institute of
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg,
Sweden
Magnús Friðjón Ragnarsson, DDS Endodontist in private practice,
Reykjavik, Iceland
Charlotte Ulin, DDS Specialist Clinic of Endodontics, Public Dental
Service Västra Götaland, Göteborg, Sweden

vii
Introduction
1
Thomas Kvist

Our discussion will be adequate if it has as much clearness as the subject-matter admits
of, for precision is not to be sought for alike in all discussions,… for it is the mark of an
educated man to look for precision in each class of things just so far as the nature of the
subject admits.
Aristotle (350 BC) Nicomachean Ethics. Translated by W D Ross

Abstract
Diagnosis and treatment of the pathological conditions of the dental pulp
and the periradicular tissues is the primary focus of Endodontology. Over
more than 100 years, clinical experience and scientific research have gen-
erated a substantial base of critical knowledge. Reports published in jour-
nals and textbooks have indeed established the principles for endodontic
therapy. As a consequence, endodontics has become a well-established
and natural branch of restorative dentistry. Billions of teeth are saved from
extraction. However, the powerful diagnostic and treatment potential char-
acterizing endodontology, today has resulted in new clinical, scientific and
ethical challanges.

1.1 Contemporary Endodontics restorative dentistry. Billions of teeth are saved


from extraction and dentistry, at least in devel-
Diagnosis and treatment of the pathological con- oped countries, has abandoned the “Pull and be
ditions of the dental pulp and the periradicular Damned Road” [1].
tissues is the primary focus of Endodontology. The advancement of new instruments and tech-
Over more than 100 years, clinical experience niques for diagnosis and treatment in endodon-
and scientific research have generated a sub- tics has been a predominant feature of research
stantial base of critical knowledge. Reports and development over the past 25 years. By vir-
published in journals and textbooks have tue of the strong technological expansion in the
indeed established the principles for endodon- discipline, endodontic therapy is currently a very
tic therapy. As a consequence, endodontics has feasible and attractive discipline that allows the
become a well-­established and natural branch of prudent and skillful endodontists and many gen-
eral dental practitioners to properly manage most
teeth in need of endodontic treatment.
However, in a “globalized world,” the power-
T. Kvist, PhD, DDS ful diagnostic and treatment potential character-
Department of Endodontology, Institute of
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy,
izing endodontics, as well as most other disciplines
University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden in medicine and dentistry, today have resulted in
e-mail: kvist@odontologi.gu.se new clinical, scientific, and ethical challenges.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_1
2 T. Kvist

1.2  he Continued High


T including preventive measures. Saving teeth by
Prevalence of Caries endodontic treatment risks to become a privi-
in a Growing and Aging lege only for a few [5].
Population

For most of the twentieth century, the incidence 1.4  he Lack of Solid Evidence
T
of dental caries declined in many developed for Many Methods
countries, but from a worldwide perspective, of Diagnostic and Treatment
dental caries remains the most prevalent human Procedures in Endodontics
ailment. In 2010 it was calculated that 2.4 billion
people were affected by untreated caries in the Several careful analyses of the evidence basis for
permanent dentition. At the same time, the global the methods that we apply in endodontics have
population is growing and the life expectancy is demonstrated extensive shortcomings. The situa-
increasing while tooth loss is decreasing. tion is worrying for diagnostic and treatment
Consequently, the need for “saving teeth” by procedures as well as for evaluation of the results
endodontic therapy is inexhaustible in the fore- of our methods [6]. This is not least when it
seeable future [2]. comes to the presence of apical lesions in root-
In many countries, people keep their teeth lon- filled teeth.
ger, and with increasing age, the prevalence of
the number of teeth in need of endodontic treat-
ment increases [3]. At the same time, the medical 1.5  he Importance of Technical
T
and technical challenges and d­ ifficulties may be Skills and Good Clinical
very extensive for the c­ linician [4]. Judgment

Endodontics is not only about applying best sci-


1.3  he Increasing Costs
T entific evidence to clinical practice. As a mat-
and Fair Distribution ter of fact, the operator’s clinical expertise and
of High-Quality Dental Care patient’s preferences in any clinical situation are
equally important. There are different forms of
Modern endodontics is associated with seem- skills a good clinician must acquire. The techni-
ingly constant pressure in increasing cost of cal skill a clinician must gain in order to render
delivering endodontic care. During my practice proper treatments can only partially be gained
lifetime, 30 years, I have seen the necessary from research or “reading.” Therefore, practi-
armamentarium for root canal treatment go cal training on models, careful implementation
from some hand files, gutta-percha, chloro- of new clinical methods and watching skillful
form, a few spreaders, and analog X-rays to colleagues at work, and reflecting on what has
ever more expensive technology like micro- been learned are consistently important for the
scopes, Ni-Ti machine driven instruments, development of a skillful endodontist. The clini-
ultrasonics, apexlocators, and CBCT imaging cal situation also demands that dentists exercise
equipment. Whatever new technology the good clinical judgment. This means “to do the
future brings, it is unlikely to reduce the cost of right thing at the right moment.” In the tradition
delivering care. So, one of the big challenges of the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle,
in the future will be staying current with tech- the ability has been termed “phronesis” and can
nological innovations and scientific develop- be translated to “practical wisdom.” In order to
ment while keeping costs low enough for poor, provide patients with proper clinical care, an
retired, disabled, low, or flat income people to endodontist cannot rely on clinical research only
be able to keep teeth that are in need of end- but needs also the practical skills of a craftsman,
odontic procedures. If not, fewer people can where clinical and moral judgements are integral
afford the cost of high-quality dental care, components [7].
1 Introduction 3

1.6  he Still Large Proportion


T 1.9  he Possible Link
T
of Root-Filled Teeth Between General Health
with Less than Entirely and Root Canal Infections
Satisfactory Treatment
Results The availability of information of varying quality
has likely contributed partly to regenerate the
Despite the technological developments in our interest in a possible association between end-
discipline, so far, there is no convincing evidence odontic infections and general health. Our disci-
to suggest that the overall prognosis of root canal pline is facing an inevitable task to better describe
treatments has increased over a period of and evaluate any such connection [11].
50 years. In epidemiological studies, the preva-
lence of apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth
repeatedly is reported to be 25–50% or even 1.10 The Awareness
more. The gap between “what is possible to of the Complexity of Biofilm
achieve” and “what is actually achieved” has to Infections
be analyzed from cognitive, psychological, and
ethical perspectives [8]. The increased understanding of the complexity and
diversity of the biofilms that are present in necrotic
root canals and many root-filled teeth has chal-
1.7 The Implant Threat lenged the view that root canal treatment is about
getting root canals sterile. However, the essential
The history of the dental implant era is not yet objective of endodontic treatment still remains, to
completely written, but the long-term perfor- combat bacterial populations within the root canal,
mance of replacements seems to be equal to at least to significantly reduce to levels that are com-
tooth-supported constructions. The technique is patible with periradicular tissue healing [12, 13].
nowadays spread worldwide. So far the overall
costs of replacing an endodontically involved
tooth with an implant are often higher than 1.11 T
 he Two Sides
those of a root canal therapy. But when more of the CBCT-Coin
and less expensive are brought to the market,
the implant technology may prevail over end- With new technologies, like the advent of CBCT,
odontics and, in particular, when primary root it also stands clear that postoperative situations
canal treatment has failed [9]. without symptoms and even teeth-­unobjectionable
conditions, as can be assessed on an intraoral
X-ray, may still prove to have signs of residual
1.8  he Internet as a Source
T inflammation and thus accommodate intraoral
of Patients’ Information microorganisms. These observations put your
finger on a crucial point. What should be regarded
Patients’ increased abilities to retrieve informa- as a period or sick and what needs to be treated
tion resulted in a public that is more demanding and what does not need to be addressed? [14, 15]
of better outcomes to treatment [10]. The To retreat or not to retreat, that’s the question?
response from governments and authorities
could be more regulatory intervention to con-
trol perceived lapses in quality and ethics
among dentists. While the intent would be 1.12 What Is a Disease?
noble, the implementation will probably lead to
an increase in administration time and less time It has been argued that both modern medicine and
to devote to professional development and dentistry face fundamental ethical problems if too
patient care. rigorous and consistent concepts of disease prevail.
4 T. Kvist

The discussion about different concepts of disease ness and sickness” [17]. The triad and its implications
goes back to ancient philosophy and has bewil- on dentistry were elaborated by Hofmann and
dered and engaged philosophers ever since. This Eriksen [18]. Kvist et al. [19] made initial attempts
book about apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth to apply the theory to the problem of asymptomatic
can only hint at the central questions. For further root-filled teeth with apical periodontitis. In a
reading, the interested reader should seek in books Chapter in Molar Endodontics edited by Peters
on philosophy of medicine [16]. 2017, I again and more profoundly discussed “the
Two fundamentally different concepts of dis- triad” from a theoretical point of view [20].
ease can by tradition be recognized. The issue of “apical periodontitis in root-filled
teeth” is very well suited as an example of how
The naturalist theory defines disease in terms of “the triad” can be applied to a human ailment and
biological processes. Disease is a value-free give some new perspectives of this “dilemma”
concept, existing independently of its social that in different ways characterized and plagued
and cultural context. Disease is discovered, our discipline for so many years (Table 1.1).
studied, and described by means of science.
The normativist theory, on the other hand, Disease means the disorder in its’ physical form,
declares that there is no value-free concept of the biological nature, and the clinical and
disease. Rather than discovered, the concept paraclinical findings (histology, microbiology,
of disease is invented. It is contextual and radiography, etc.).
given by convention. Illness is used to describe a person’s own experi-
ence of the disease, how it feels, and what suf-
These theories address different aspects and pose ferings it gives now or in the future. Illness
different challenges to medicine and dentistry. But also includes anxiety and anguish.
the two predominant concepts have been challenged Sickness is the third label; it tries to capture the
for several reasons. For example, they do not neither social role of a person who has illness or dis-
one separately or together fully acknowledge all ease (or both) in a particular cultural context.
important perspectives on human disorders. A dif- What is eligible for being “sick” can conse-
ferent approach is to apply the “triad of disease, ill- quently vary over time and between societies.

Table 1.1  An attempt to apply the triad of disease, illness, and sickness to root-filled teeth with apical periodontitis
Disease Illness Sickness
Phenomena studied Pathophysiological, Pain, swelling, or other Criteria for classification and
histological, microbiological, symptoms present now grading of disease
and radiographic events or in the future
Validity Objective Subjective Intersubjective
Purpose from the To study the medical facts of To decide upon common criteria
To identify and describe
professions’ point of apical periodontitis in order to for classification, define different
the incidence, frequency,
view improve knowledge of how to and intensity for severities of disease, and
prevent and cure construct decision aids to guide
patient-related outcomes
clinical action
(pain, swelling, spread)
Purpose from To get an explanation of the To value and accept or To understand what is regarded
patients’ point of situation not accept the situation
“sick,” respectively “healthy,” and
view to be helped to make a clinical
decision in his or her situation
Example of issues The biofilm in root-filled teeth. Factors that can predict Reassessment of the criteria for
of concern regarding The immunological response future pain or negative “success” and “failure” following
“apical periodontitis to persistent root canal impact on general health root canal treatment
in root-filled teeth” infection
The three approaches to disease do not replace but complement each other. It is also the case that they are strongly
intertwined. However, using the matrix of “disease,” “illness,” and “sickness” possibly makes it easier to understand and
to identify and rationalize the different natures of questions and discussions.
1 Introduction 5

1.13 The Authors As for the references, it has been our ambition
not to mention all the published works that have
The endodontists contributing to this book about dealt with an issue or topic. Our objective has
apical periodontitis have that common denomi- instead been carving out a number of key refer-
nator that they are or were in some way affiliated ences. With these as a starting point, it is easy to, via
with the Department of Endodontics or Oral various search functions in publicly accessible data-
Microbiology at the University of Gothenburg. bases such as PubMed, search further for more ref-
This means that many of the ideas, experiences, erences. The general international trend with more
and knowledge conveyed in this book, for many and more magazines and publications also means
years and at a large number of hours, have been that every reference list pretty soon tends to become
worn and soaked in conjunction with lectures, outdated. Those interested who want to keep them-
seminars, courses, and conferences. selves updated must constantly follow the develop-
In addition, we, who contributed as authors to ment by taking advantage of new publications.
this book, have been cooperating and discussing
with many other endodontists, other specialists
(dentists and physicians), general practitioners,
philosophers, educators, and psychologists
References
throughout the years. No one mentioned and no 1. Ingle J. “Pull and be damned Road” Preface to first
one forgotten. edition in “Endodontics” 1965. In: Ingle J, Bakland L,
However, a few people have in particular, but in Baumgartner C, editors. Ingle’s endodontics6, 6th ed.
different ways over the years contributed to the PMPH-USA; 2008.
2. Kassebaum NJ, Bernabé E, Dahiya M, Bhandari B,
strong clinical and research environment that has Murray CJ, Marcenes W. Global burden of untreated
been “our school.” They have been our inspiration, caries: a systematic review and metaregression. J Dent
and their contribution has been particularly signifi- Res. 2015;94:650–8.
cant for creating, developing, and retaining end- 3. Norderyd O, Koch G, Papias A, Köhler AA, Helkimo
AN, Brahm CO, Lindmark U, Lindfors N, Mattsson A,
odontics as a strong discipline in Gothenburg, Rolander B, Ullbro C, Gerdin EW, Frisk F. Oral health
Sweden, Scandinavia, and the world. Late of individuals aged 3–80 years in Jönköping, Sweden
Professor Bure Engström, late Professor Åke during 40 years (1973–2013). II. Review of clinical and
Möller, Professor Gunnar Bergenholtz, Professor radiographic findings. Swed Dent J. 2015;39:69–86.
4. Murray CG. Advanced restorative dentistry—a prob-
Gunnar Dahlen, and Professor Claes Reit all have lem for the elderly? An ethical dilemma. Aust Dent
been invaluable, each in his own way. J. 2015;60(Suppl 1):106–13.
We are all grateful and proud to have been 5. Callahan D. Health care costs and medical technol-
able to pursue parts of our professional education ogy. In: Crowley M, editor. From birth to death and
bench to clinic: the Hastings Center bioethics briefing
and training in this inspiring setting. book for journalists, policymakers, and campaigns.
DDS Pernilla Holmberg is a prosthodontists Garrison, NY: The Hastings Center; 2008. p. 79–82.
and has a background in Malmö and Jönköping, 6. Swedish Council on Health Technology Assessment.
being two other dental colleges in Sweden with Methods of diagnosis and treatment in endodontics—
a systematic review. Report no. 203; 2010. p. 1–491.
strong research and clinical environments. http://www.sbu.se
7. Bergenholtz G, Kvist T. Evidence-based endodontics.
Endod Top. 2014;31:3–18.
1.14 The Book 8. Dahlström L, Lindwall O, Rystedt H, Reit C. “It’s
good enough”: Swedish general dental practitioners
on reasons for accepting sub-standard root filling
I hope that the various contributions to this book quality. Int Endod J. 2017; https://doi.org/10.1111/
will provide both a comprehensive and in-depth iej.12743. [Epub ahead of print].
description of the issues, which from different 9. Bateman G, Barclay CW, Saunders WP. Dental dilem-
mas: endodontics or dental implants? Dent Update.
aspects appear when dentists or doctors, their 2010;37:579–82. 585–6, 589–90 passim
patients, and other dental and health services are 10. Rossi-Fedele G, Musu D, Cotti E, Doğramacı

faced with “apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth.” EJ. Root canal treatment versus single-tooth implant:
6 T. Kvist

a systematic review of internet content. J Endod. 16. Wulff HR, Pedersen SA, Rosenberg R. Philosophy of
2016;42:846–53. medicine: an introduction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell
11. Khalighinejad N, Aminoshariae MR, Aminoshariae Scientific; 1990.
A, Kulild JC, Mickel A, Fouad AF. Association 17. Hofmann B. On the triad disease, illness and sickness.
between systemic diseases and apical periodontitis. J Med Philos. 2002;27:651–73.
J Endod. 2016;42:1427–34. 18. Hofmann BM, Eriksen HM. The concept of disease: ethi-
12. Wu MK, Dummer PM, Wesselink PR. Consequences cal challenges and relevance to dentistry and dental edu-
of and strategies to deal with residual post-treatment cation. Eur J Dent Educ. 2001;5:2–8. discussion 9–11.
root canal infection. Int Endod J. 2006;39:343–56. 19. Kvist T, Heden G, Reit C. Endodontic retreatment
13. Siqueira JF Jr, Rôças IN. Clinical implications and strategies used by general dental practitioners. Oral
microbiology of bacterial persistence after treatment Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod.
procedures. J Endod. 2008;34:1291–301. 2004;97:502–7.
14. Wu MK, Shemesh H, Wesselink PR. Limitations of 20. Kvist T. The outcome of endodontic treatment. In:
previously published systematic reviews evaluat- Peters OA, editor. The guidebook to molar endodon-
ing the outcome of endodontic treatment. Int Endod tics. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg;
J. 2009;42(8):656–66. 2017.
15. Haridas H, Mohan A, Papisetti S, Ealla KK. Computed
tomography: will the slices reveal the truth. J Int Soc
Prev Community Dent. 2016;6(Suppl 2):S85–92.
Incidence, Frequency,
and Prevalence
2
Fredrik Frisk

As our world continues to generate unimaginable amounts of data, more data lead to
more correlations, and more correlations can lead to more discoveries.
Hans Rosling (1948–2017) was a Professor of International Health,
Department of Public Health Sciences/Global Health (IHCAR),
Karolinska Institute, and founder of the Gapminder Foundation.

Abstract
Epidemiological studies may provide important information on frequency
and prevalence of apical periodontitis and root-filled teeth. They may also
present data on outcome of endodontic treatment in community dental
care along with determining factors. Results from epidemiological studies
can be used to generate hypotheses to be tried in clinical studies in which
causal relationships may be established.
The prevalence of apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth is high and
statistically determined by root filling quality and, to a lesser extent, resto-
ration quality. The long-term retention of root-filled teeth may be depen-
dent on the restoration.
Data on incidence of apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth or exacer-
bation of apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth are scarce or lacking due
to methodological difficulties.

2.1 Introduction What relevance may epidemiological data have


for the clinician and for the patient? It may help
Wherever studied apical periodontitis is a fre- to answer some questions about, for example,
quent finding in root-filled teeth. Epidemiological endodontic treatment; which prognosis is
data and research may not be seen as an impor- expected and what are the determining factors? Is
tant adjunct by the clinician. Epidemiology is the condition prevalent and which symptoms
concerned with groups of individuals while may be expected? What are the risks involved if
the clinician focuses on the individual patient. treated or left untreated? Health planners and
policy makers may use data to allocate resources
F. Frisk, DDS, PhD in order to use them effectively. They need
Department of Endodontology, Institute for answers to some questions as well; is the condi-
Postgraduate Dental Education, Jönköping, Sweden tion becoming more or less prevalent? Is the con-
Department of Endodontology, Institute of dition becoming more difficult to treat? Is there a
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University need for educational efforts in order to make
of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
treatment more effective?
e-mail: fredrik.frisk@rjl.se

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 7


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_2
8 F. Frisk

Data from population surveys inform us that canal treatment. A common misconception when
there is a positive correlation between poor root comparing results from clinical studies and pop-
filling quality and apical periodontitis. Although ulation surveys is that general practitioners fre-
educational efforts and technical improvement quently are unsuccessful in clinical endodontics,
have resulted in better root filling quality, no while endodontists are highly successful.
decrease in apical periodontitis in root filled teeth Available data do not support such a notion.
is seen. One explanation may be that more molar However, interpreted correctly, data from popu-
teeth are endodontically treated, and most patients lation surveys may be representative for the
retain their own teeth when they get older, making result of endodontic treatment in community
endodontic treatment even more challenging. routine dental care (effectiveness). Data from
Even though crucial information is lacking in clinical studies may represent what can be
comparison to controlled clinical studies, popula- achieved with endodontic treatment (efficacy).
tion surveys are critical to investigate periapical Data from contemporary population surveys
status and outcome of endodontic treatment in are presented as means from a population and do
the general population in community dental care. not support conclusions as to which interventions
Therefore, it is important that they are spread to that provide effective treatment results. For
include as many populations as possible and example, rotary instrumentation is widely con-
repeated to take time trends into account and ren- sidered as a valuable adjunct in endodontic treat-
der updates on disease prevalence. ment and has been used, and widely spread, in
clinical practice for well over a decade. The ben-
efit on a population level in terms of outcome
2.2  opulation Surveys vs.
P (prevention and healing of apical periodontitis,
Clinical Studies tooth retention) and cost-effectiveness has yet to
be shown.
Most clinicians find endodontic treatment to be a
complicated and delicate procedure. Thus, tech-
nical difficulties may account for a high preva- 2.3 Epidemiological Study
lence of apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth. Design
Population surveys confirm that clinicians
repeatedly fail to meet high demands on the In endodontic epidemiology, mainly cross-­sectional
technical quality of the root filling as interpreted and longitudinal studies are used. Below, the reader
on a radiograph. When investigated in popula- will find a brief presentation of these study designs
tion surveys, the radiograph is usually the only as well as an introduction of some terms which
source of information. Nevertheless, data from may need clarification. Prevalence and frequency
population surveys frequently confirms the are synonymous terms. In this text prevalence will
established view on root filling quality and its mean the percentage of individuals (with apical
impact on the periapical status. However, in periodontitis) and frequency will mean percentage
comparison to the clinical study, crucial infor- of teeth (with apical periodontitis) at a certain point
mation about the endodontic treatment per- in time. Incidence will mean percentage of teeth
formed is lacking. Clinicians contributing with (getting apical periodontitis) during a determined
data to clinical studies most often work in educa- period of time.
tion and specialist centers with excellent facili-
ties for endodontic treatment. Moreover, they are
aware of their participation in the study which 2.3.1 Cross-Sectional Studies
may contribute to a higher level of motivation,
further affecting treatment quality. Consequently, The most common study in endodontic epidemi-
data from clinical studies may contribute to an ology is the cross-sectional study. A synony-
unrealistic expectation on the outcome of root mous term is prevalence study. It measures the
2  Incidence, Frequency, and Prevalence 9

prevalence (individual level) or frequency (tooth This is of great importance since data from one
level) of a certain entity at a given point in time. setting cannot be interpreted as representative
The entity to be measured is required to be for another setting.
chronic or long-lasting such as apical periodon- As can be seen in Table 2.1, the prevalence
titis or root-­filled teeth. Acute events, short-last- and frequency of apical periodontitis differ
ing conditions, or exacerbations are not eligible between different studies. Of course, this can be
for the cross-sectional study since the time for due to varying prevalence of disease in differ-
examination may not coincide with the event or ent populations and an indicator of poor treat-
condition to be studied. In the context of apical ment quality or poor accessibility to dental care.
periodontitis in root-filled teeth, a major draw- It may also reflect the use of different defini-
back is the lack of knowledge about the end- tions for a healthy and diseased periapical area,
odontic treatments in the teeth studied. If a respectively. Also, extraction frequency needs to
certain tooth has a periapical destruction, it be taken into account. Thus, a low prevalence of
should be crucial to know when the treatment apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth may not
was performed and which periapical status the necessarily represent high treatment quality. It
tooth had at the outset of treatment. Is the peri- may merely be a result of extraction of teeth with
apical destruction developing or healing? If a persistent apical periodontitis. Also, selection of
tooth appears to have a healthy periapex, apical teeth with prerequisites for a favorable outcome
periodontitis may be developing even though it (no preoperative apical periodontitis, no tech-
is not radiographically detectable. A longitudinal nical complications, or technically demanding
study on this issue reported that the number of ­treatment) may influence the results.
developing and healing periapical destructions
were almost the same and thus minimizing the
problem [1] whereas another study did not sup- 2.3.2 Longitudinal Studies
port this conclusion [2]. Another drawback is
that causality cannot be studied in a cross-sec- These studies follow a number of subjects over a
tional study since the relation between two vari- period of time. A synonymous term is cohort
ables is studied at one point in time only. study. In the context of population surveys, no
However, cross-sectional studies are frequently intervention is done—all subjects go about their
used to investigate associations between differ- ordinary life and treatments as usual. The condi-
ent variables such as root filling quality and peri- tion to be studied needs to be frequent enough in
apical status. Frequently, poor root filling quality order to provide a sufficient number of cases to
is found to be associated with periapical destruc- be compared with non-cases. A “case” is an indi-
tions, but in a cross-sectional study it cannot be vidual, or a tooth, with the condition under study,
established as a cause, or risk factor, for apical for example apical periodontitis. Also, the length
periodontitis. It may serve as an indicator of of time between baseline and follow-up needs to
poor treatment quality and/or ineffective end- be adjusted in relation to what is intended to be
odontic treatment. Thus, poor root filling quality investigated. It needs to be long enough for the
may be the aggregate result of poor access prep- event under study to take place and short enough
aration, poor aseptic technique, poor instrumen- to be registered before the event is impossible to
tation, and poor irrigation. identify. Apical periodontitis is prevalent enough
Cross-sectional studies on root-filled teeth to produce a sufficient number of cases. However,
and apical periodontitis are spread geographi- a healthy tooth may develop apical periodontitis
cally uneven. A large fraction of the total num- and be root canal treated and even extracted
ber of studies has been conducted in between baseline and follow-up if the time span
Scandinavia. However, during recent years sev- is too long. Under such circumstances a lot of
eral studies from mainly European countries, information is lost and should warrant shorter
but also from other continents, have emerged. follow-up periods.
10
Table 2.1  Cross-sectional studies reporting on prevalence of root-filled teeth (RF) and apical periodontitis (AP), frequency of apical periodontitis and frequency of apical peri-
odontitis in root-filled teeth.”
Prevalence Prevalence Frequency Frequency
Study Country Radiograph Sample RF (%) AP (%) AP total (%) AP RF (%)
Bergenholtz et al. [34] Sweden Apical/FMR Patient 57 6.1 30.5
Boltacz-Rzepkowska [35] Poland Apical/FMR Patient 25
Boucher et al. [36] France Apical/FMR Patient 62 7.4 29.7
Buckley and Spångberg [37] USA Apical/FMR Patient 4.1 31.3
Chen et al. [38] USA Panoramic Population 38.8 45.6 5.1 35.5
Da Silva et al. [39] Australia Panoramic Patient 21.4
De Cleen et al. [40] Netherlands Panoramic Patient 44.6 6.0 39.2
De Moor et al. [41] Belgium Panoramic Patient 63.1 6.6 40.4
Dugas et al. [42] Canada Apical/FMR Patient 34.3 3.1 45.4
Dutta et al. [6] Scotland CBCT Patient 39.2 5.8 47.4
Eckerbom et al. [43] Sweden Apical/FMR Patient 83.5 63 5.2 26.4
Eriksen and Bjertness [45] Norway Apical/FMR Population 56 3.5 36.5
Eriksen et al. [46] Norway Apical/FMR Population 24 14 0.6 38.1
Estrela et al. [47] Brazil Apical/FMR Patient 38
Georgopoulou et al. [48] Greece Apical/FMR Patient 65.6 85.5 13.6 60
Gulsahi et al. [49] Turkey Panoramic Patient 23.8 1.4 18.2
Hollanda et al. [50] Brazil Panoramic Patient 21.4
Hommez et al. [51] Belgium Apical/FMR Patient 32.5
Huumonen et al. [52] Finland Panoramic Population 61
Ilić et al. [53] Serbia Panoramic Patient 85 93.8 51.8
Jersa and Kundzina [54] Latvia Panoramic Patient 87 72 7 31
Jimenez-Pinzon et al. [55] Spain Apical/FMR Patient 40.6 61.1 4.2 64.5
Kabak and Abbott [56] Belarus Panoramic Patient 80 12 45
Kalender et al. [57] Cyprus Panoramic Patient 64 68 7 62
Kamberi et al. [58] Kosovo Panoramic Patient 12.3 46.3
Kirkevang et al. [59] Denmark Apical/FMR Population 52 42.3 3.4 52.2
Kim [60] South Korea Panoramic Patient 22.8
Loftus et al. [61] Ireland Panoramic Patient 31.8 33.1 2.0 25.0
Lupi-Pegurier et al. [62] France Panoramic Patient 7.3 31.5
Marques et al. [63] Portugal Panoramic Population 22 26 2 21.7
F. Frisk
Matijevic et al. [64] Croatia Panoramic Patient 75.9 8.5
Moreno et al. [65] Colombia Apical/FMR Patient 49
Paes da Silva et al. [5] Brazil CBCT Patient 51.4 3.4 35.4
Peciuliene et al. [66] Lithuania Apical/FMR Patient 43.1
Persic et al. [67] Croatia/Austria Panoramic Patient 47.3/62.1
Peters et al. [68] Netherlands Panoramic Patient 2.5 24.1
Petersson et al. [69] Sweden Apical/FMR Patient 93 77 8.7 26.5
Saunders et al. [71] Scotland Apical/FMR Patient 54 67.7 4.9 58.1
Sunay et al. [72] Turkey Panoramic Patient 47 4.2 53.5
Skudutyte-Rysstad et al. [73] Norway Apical/FMR Population 23 16 1.1 43
Sidaravicius et al. [74] Lithuania Apical/FMR Population 72 70 7.2 35
Tavares et al. [12] France Apical/FMR Patient 33
2  Incidence, Frequency, and Prevalence

Touré et al. [75] Senegal Apical/FMR Patient 35.5 59.6 4.6 56.1 (roots)
Tercas et al. [76] Brazil Apical/FMR Patient 67.5 5.9 42.5
Tolias et al. [77] Greece Panoramic Population 62.3
Tsuneishi et al. [78] Japan Apical/FMR Patient 86.5 69.8 40
Weiger et al. [79] Germany Panoramic/Apical Patient 3.0 61
Ödesjö et al. [80] Sweden Apical/FMR Population 43.2 2.9 24.5
Özbaş et al. [81] Turkey Apical/FMR Patient 1.6 38
11
12 F. Frisk

Longitudinal studies measuring the inci- may be examined with regard to pulpal sensitiv-
dence of apical periodontitis are scarce. They are ity to confirm the diagnosis. In an epidemiologi-
expensive to conduct and difficult to manage. A cal study exclusively based on radiographs, this
major problem is loss to follow-up. If too many information is lacking but it is usually considered
participants are prevented from participating, uncontroversial since the most probable diagno-
or choose not to, it should be questioned as to sis is apical periodontitis [3]. Older studies inves-
whether the remaining sample is representative tigating root-filled teeth and apical periodontitis,
for the population. more often than today, used apical radiographs.
During recent decades panoramic radiographs
have emerged as a simpler and more economical
2.3.3 Methodology technique. Also, and more important, it exposes
the individual with a lower radiation dose com-
2.3.3.1 Selection pared to a full mouth examination using apical
When reviewing studies in the field of endodon- radiographs. In the context of epidemiological
tic epidemiology, it is apparent that the most studies, the panoramic radiograph has been dem-
common individual studied is the one who seek onstrated as reasonably effective as the apical
dental care at a dental school and have been radiograph when apical periodontitis is studied
examined with full-mouth radiographs and/or [4]. It performs worse than the apical radiograph
panoramic x-rays. This is a convenient approach when root filling quality is studied. Cone beam
since researchers do not have to make an effort to CT (CBCT) is a rather new technique which has
invite individuals to the examination. Also, if shown to be promising as an adjunct in endodon-
individuals examined are exposed to radiation in tic diagnostics. However, it has not been used in
the context of seeking dental care, there will be a endodontic epidemiology other than in a few stud-
lesser ethical dilemma as to whether the radio- ies [5, 6]. It may be viewed as doubtful if it is jus-
logical examination was justified or not. However, tifiable to expose healthy individuals with a much
it is reasonable to assume that individuals seek- larger radiation dose (compared to a full mouth
ing dental care are not representative for the examination) when studying the prevalence and
whole population. This assumption may be espe- frequency of apical periodontitis. Apical peri-
cially true for patients seeking dental care at a odontitis is a prevalent condition and not life-­
dental school. These patients may have more threatening other than for selected patients. It
extensive treatment needs and may have smaller may thus be argued that CBCT is not suited for
financial resources than the population as a screening. Others claim that it is justifiable and
whole. Thus, in order to render samples represen- advocate the use of CBCT in epidemiological
tative for the population, researchers should con- studies, highlighting the drawbacks with two-­
sider other approaches such as studying a dimensional techniques [5].
randomized sample of individuals. If large It is acknowledged that when studying apical
enough, the randomized sample may be regarded periodontitis or root filling quality, researchers
as representative for the population from which it have to consider a variation both between observ-
was sampled. Studies using randomized samples ers and also within observers over time [7]. This
are in minority in endodontic epidemiology. is often referred to as inter- and intraobserver
Despite the methodological considerations dis- variation, respectively. In order to cope with the
cussed, the number of studies using convenience problem, two different strategies have been
sampling is still in majority. developed to reduce observer variation when
studying apical periodontitis.
2.3.3.2 Radiographic Examination Reit and Gröndahl [8] suggested that observer
Does the periapical destruction always represent variation may be reduced if the number of
apical periodontitis? In a clinical context non-­ false-­ positive findings is kept to a minimum
root-­filled teeth with a periapical destruction by instructing the observers to only register a
2  Incidence, Frequency, and Prevalence 13

Fig. 2.1  PAI-Reference scale with scores 1–5 and corresponding radiological and histological periapical expressions [10]

p­ eriapical destruction when certain, introducing Table 2.2  Text reference for the periapical expression
a five-scale index where score 1 = “periapical according to modified Strindberg criteria as adopted by
destruction of bone definitely not present” and Reit and Hollender [7]
5 = “periapical destruction of bone definitely 0 = Normal periapical condition
present.” This index is also called the PRI-index 1 = Increased width of the periodontal membrane
(probability index). Reit [9] found that calibra- space. Lamina dura continuous
tion of observers had only limited benefits in 2 = Increased width of the periodontal membrane
space. Lamina dura diffuse
reducing observer variation.
3 = Periapical radiolucency
Örstavik et al. [10] presented the periapical
index (PAI). In contrast to Reit [9] it is proposed
that observers should be calibrated, and in con- compared to the “golden standard,” observers
trast to Reit and Gröndahl [8] there is no overall may use PAI in their study.
strategy to reduce false-positive findings. PAI An alternative to PAI, when defining a healthy
works as follows: observers are presented with a and diseased periapex, modified Strindberg crite-
five-graded scale with radiographs with differ- ria may be used [7, 11]. There is only a text refer-
ent periapical expressions ranging from periapi- ence to describe the periapical expression
cal health (score 1) to an aggravating periapical (Table 2.2).
condition (score 2–5) (Fig. 2.1). The periapical Studies evaluating the different approaches
expressions on the radiographs have been vali- are scarce. However, Tavares et al. [12] used both
dated with the histological periapical expression PAI and modified Strindberg criteria. There is no
in a previous study using biopsies from an information as to which strategy that was adopted
autopsy material [3]. For the purpose of calibra- when the modified Strindberg criteria were used.
tion of observers to PAI, observers are instructed Authors reported approximately the same preva-
to use the scale when observing 100 radio- lence of apical periodontitis within the same
graphs. When in doubt, observers are instructed sample regardless of method used. Tarcin et al.
to assign a higher score. The reason for this is [13] reported on results from comparing PAI,
findings from Brynolf [3] where the histological PRI, and modified Strindberg criteria. PAI had
periapical expression always was more severe higher interobserver agreement, reflecting the
than the radiological periapical expression. The use of reference radiographs. When dichotomiz-
registrations are then compared to a “golden ing PAI and PRI, both inter- and intraobserver
standard” constructed by a panel of observers agreement were higher than for the original
who have assigned “true” scores to all 100 5-scale PAI- and PRI-indices, respectively, and
teeth. If the observer variation is low enough for the modified Strindberg criteria.
14 F. Frisk

2.4  esults from Population


R rotary or reciprocating instrumentation improve
Surveys: What We Know the treatment quality with regard to instrumenta-
and What We Don’t tion and root filling quality. This is often high-
lighted in endodontic literature and marketing of
2.4.1 F
 requency and Prevalence endodontic armamentarium. However, asepsis
of Apical Periodontitis and biological necessities (a complex bacterial
and Root-Filled Teeth flora protected in a biofilm, need for copious irri-
gation with sodium hypochlorite) may need
A growing number of cross-sectional studies boosted attention.
provide us with data on apical periodontitis in In longitudinal studies only small variations in
root-­filled teeth. However, longitudinal data are the frequency of apical periodontitis with increas-
scarce, and thus knowledge on the natural course ing age is seen. Results from different studies are
of the root-filled tooth with untoward events and inconclusive [1, 15–17]. The frequency of root-­
healing pattern is incomplete. filled teeth increases. This result is consistent
Cross-sectional studies display a wide range between studies. Kirkevang et al. [15] also dem-
in the frequency of root-filled teeth and apical onstrated that the increase was less marked in
periodontitis, both on the tooth level (frequency) younger age groups and that they received their
as well as the individual level (prevalence). As root fillings later in life indicating an improve-
previously discussed this may reflect differences ment in oral health. Studies reporting on changes
between populations but also differences in in the frequency of root-filled teeth with apical
study design and definitions of outcome mea- periodontitis with increasing age show conflict-
sures. Within the studies data often reveals an ing results.
increasing frequency of root-filled teeth and api-
cal p­ eriodontitis with increasing age. They also
report on a decreasing number of teeth. The lat- 2.4.2 R
 isk Indicators for Apical
ter may explain the increasing frequency alone Periodontitis in Root-Filled
but also the number of root-filled teeth increases Teeth
with age [14].
Repeated cross-sectional studies show a trend 2.4.2.1 Tooth-Specific Risk Indicators
toward decreasing frequency of apical periodon- Is it possible to identify a set of criteria indicating
titis and root-filled teeth for comparable age higher risk for persisting or developing apical
groups. This is probably a result of a concomitant periodontitis in root-filled teeth?
decrease in caries frequency and is thus expected In epidemiological studies, the most common
and uncontroversial. A more unexpected finding predictor for apical periodontitis in root-filled
is that the frequency of apical periodontitis in teeth is poor root filling quality. This association
root-filled teeth is unchanged over time. Changes is demonstrated in almost all studies pertaining to
in treatment protocols, new techniques and mate- apical periodontitis and root-filled teeth. It should
rials, and an increasing knowledge in microbiol- be acknowledged that poor root filling quality is
ogy and immunology should be expected to not a cause of apical periodontitis. It merely
improve the results of endodontic treatment. serves as an indicator or predictor for ineffective
What may be possible reasons for this inconsis- treatment or prevention of the root canal infec-
tency? Clinicians today probably treat more tion. As previously mentioned repeated cross-­
advanced and challenging cases than in earlier sectional studies report that the root filling quality
decades. Frisk et al. [14] showed that molars has improved over time without a concomitant
were more often treated than premolars and inci- decrease in the frequency of apical periodontitis
sors in 2003. In 1973 it was the other way around. in root-filled teeth. Thus, other reasons for persis-
Undeniably technically advanced systems for tent apical periodontitis and ineffective treatment
2  Incidence, Frequency, and Prevalence 15

or prevention of the root canal infection must be smoking and apical periodontitis. The reported
considered. The quality of restoration has gained association between smoking and apical peri-
some attention as a risk indicator and has been odontitis in root-filled teeth may, to some extent,
studied by several authors. While data are incon- be explained by factors related to study design
clusive as to whether poor restoration quality is and quality: small samples, misclassification of
an independent risk indicator for apical periodon- nonsmokers, and poor control of possible con-
titis in root-filled teeth, the combination of ade- founders. Additionally, diabetes has been reported
quate restoration and adequate root filling to be associated with apical periodontitis on both
increases the chance for periapical healing [18]. individual level and tooth level [21]. Also, dental
Less studied is the impact of type of restoration care habits may be associated with apical peri-
on periapical status in root-filled teeth. A recent odontitis, whereas socioeconomic status has not
study reported that large composite fillings and been confirmed as a predictor [22, 23].
large mixed fillings (amalgam and composite) Patients with irregular dental habits and smok-
were predictive of apical periodontitis when con- ers may be suspected to be at higher risk for hav-
trolling for root filling quality [19]. ing root-filled teeth with apical periodontitis.
Results are inconclusive as to whether type and There is no evidence to claim that endodontic
quality of restorations in root-filled teeth predicts treatment of a specific tooth among these patients
a higher risk for apical periodontitis. Root filling should have a worse prognosis compared to other
quality remains as the most significant predictor groups of patients. It may be speculated that the
for apical periodontitis in population surveys. higher prevalence of apical periodontitis may be
explained by behavioral factors such as dental
2.4.2.2 Individual-Specific Risk care habits and a different attitude to health and
Indicators dental care.
Is it possible to identify individuals with a spe-
cific set of risk factors or risk indicators for apical
periodontitis in root-filled teeth? 2.4.3 I ncidence of Apical
Conditions and behavioral factors have been Periodontitis in Root-Filled
studied as risk indicators for apical periodontitis Teeth
in root-filled teeth in a few studies. Smoking has
repeatedly been reported as a predictor for apical Is it possible to predict which root-filled teeth
periodontitis. In a systematic review five out of that are at higher risk for developing apical
six cross-sectional studies reported a statistically periodontitis?
significant association between smoking and In Table 2.3 incidence data for apical peri-
periapical bone lesions [20]. There is no estab- odontitis in root-filled teeth are listed. Those
lished biological mechanism between smoking teeth were root-filled and without radiological
and apical periodontitis, and present studies do evidence of apical periodontitis at base line.
not disclose any causal relationship between Data on when the teeth were endodontically

Table 2.3  Data from longitudinal (follow-up) studies


Follow-up Incidence of root Incidence of AP Loss of
(years) canal treatmenta in root-filled teeth root-filled teeth
Kirkevang et al. [15] 11 1.7% (140/8258) 32% (67/208) 13.9% (56/402)
Petersson et al. [24] 11 3.3% (70/2100) 12.4% (17/137) 12.4% (32/258)b
Eckerbom et al. [44] 20 5.5% (155/2825) 28.8% (113/393)
Petersson et al. [70] 20 8% (23/273) 35% (159/449)
a
Retreatments excluded
b
Root-filled teeth and pulpotomized teeth included
16 F. Frisk

treated and on which indication is not available.


According to Petersson et al. [24] the root filling Take Home Lessons
quality was a significant predictor for develop- • Use data from epidemiological studies
ment of apical periodontitis. Kirkevang et al. to improve endodontic treatment and
[25] did not find poor root filling quality to be care of patients with endodontic condi-
predictive for development of apical periodonti- tions. Do not use it to compare data on
tis, but instead increased the risk for persistent outcome from clinical studies conducted
apical periodontitis. in education or specialist clinics.
As can be seen, data from population surveys • Use data from epidemiological studies
do not identify factors that consistently pre- to compare with your own and your col-
dict which root-filled teeth will develop apical leagues’ clinical experience. Is your
periodontitis. experience at variance with epidemio-
logical data?
• There is a great potential for improve-
2.4.4 Loss of Root-Filled Teeth ment of the outcome of endodontic
treatment. Besides adequate root canal
Longitudinal studies conclusively show that treatment, careful case selection and
root-­filled teeth are at higher risk to be lost treatment planning including choice of
than non-­root-­filled teeth [26]. Studies investi- adequate restoration may improve the
gating the reasons for loss of root-filled teeth outcome.
have reported that other reasons than apical
periodontitis are more frequent. Caries, failed
restorations, amount of tooth substance, and
marginal periodontitis have been reported as Benchmark Papers
risk factors for loss of root-­filled teeth [27–29]. • Frisk F, Hugoson A, Hakeberg
On an individual level, one study reported that M. Technical quality of root fillings and
high age, number of lost teeth, and amount of periapical status in root filled teeth in
plaque were predictive of loss of root-filled Jönköping, Sweden. Int Endod J.
teeth [30]. Interestingly, endodontic factors 2008;41:958–68. This repeated cross
represent a small fraction of reasons for extrac- sectional study reported on the fre-
tion of root-filled or endodontically treated quency of apical periodontitis in root
teeth. Several studies have reported on the ben- filled teeth on three occasions over a
efit of crown restoration on root-filled teeth. 20-year period. The results also high-
Aquilino and Caplan [31] showed that crown lighted that an improved root filling
placement on molars increased survival sig- quality has not resulted in a lower fre-
nificantly compared to root-filled molars with- quency of apical periodontitis in root
out full crown coverage. Landys-Borén et al. filled teeth.
[32] reported similar results but not limited to • Kirkevang LL, Vaeth M, Wenzel A. Ten-­
molars. Fransson et al. [33] also reported on year follow-up of root filled teeth: a
a higher survival rate for teeth with indirect radiographic study of a Danish popula-
restorations compared to direct restorations. tion. Int Endod J. 2014;47:980–8. One
However, the difference was small, 93.1 and of few longitudinal studies that reports
89.6%, respectively. on incidence of apical periodontitis in
Root-filled teeth with substantial loss of tooth root filled teeth and related factors.
substance and root-filled molars without full • Gillen BM, Looney SW, Gu LS,
crown coverage seem to be at higher risk of being Loushine BA, Weller RN, Loushine RJ,
lost. Individuals with poor dental habits seem to Pashley DH, Tay FR. Impact of the
be at higher risk for loss of root-filled teeth.
2  Incidence, Frequency, and Prevalence 17

5. Paes da Silva Ramos Fernandes LM, Ordinola-­


quality of coronal restoration versus the Zapata R, Húngaro Duarte MA, Alvares Capelozza
AL. Prevalence of apical periodontitis detected in
quality of root canal fillings on success cone beam CT images of a Brazilian subpopulation.
of root canal treatment: a systematic Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2013;42:80179163.
review and meta-analysis. J Endod. 6. Dutta A, Smith-Jack F, Saunders WP. Prevalence of
2011;37:895–902. Recommended read- periradicular periodontitis in a Scottish subpopulation
found on CBCT images. Int Endod J. 2014;4:854–63.
ing for anyone pondering the associa- 7. Reit C, Hollender L. Radiographic evaluation of end-
tion between the quality of the odontic therapy and the influence of observer varia-
restoration and apical periodontitis in tion. Scand J Dent Res. 1983;91:205–12.
root filled teeth. The paper provides a 8. Reit C, Gröndahl HG. Application of statistical deci-
sion theory to radiographic diagnosis of endodonti-
systematic review of the literature as cally treated teeth. Scand J Dent Res. 1983;91:213–8.
well as a meta-analysis. The authors 9. Reit C. The influence of observer calibration
conclude that the combination of ade- on radiographic periapical diagnosis. Int Endod
quate root filling and adequate restora- J. 1987;20:75–81.
10. Örstavik D, Kerekes K, Eriksen HM. The periapi-
tion increase the chance for a healthy cal index: a scoring system for radiographic assess-
periapical condition. ment of apical periodontitis. Endod Dent Traumatol.
• Örstavik D, Kerekes K, Eriksen 1986;2:20–34.
HM. The periapical index: a scoring 11. Strindberg LZ. The dependence of the results of

pulp therapy on certain factors. Acta Odontol Scand.
system for radiographic assessment of 1956;14(Suppl 21):1–175.
apical periodontitis. Endod Dent 12. Tavares PB, Bonte E, Boukpessi T, Siqueira JF Jr,
Traumatol. 1986;2:20–34. An important Lasfargues JJ. Prevalence of apical periodontitis in
paper introducing the PAI-index which root canal-treated teeth from an urban French popula-
tion: influence of the quality of root canal fillings and
over time have found an increasing coronal restorations. J Endod. 2009;35:810–3.
number of users in epidemiological and 13. Tarcin B, Gumru B, Iriboz E, Turkaydin DE,

clinical studies. Recommended reading Ovecoglu HS. Radiologic assessment of periapi-
for those who are planning a study cal health: comparison of 3 different index systems.
J Endod. 2015;41:1834–8.
including evaluation of periapical sta- 14. Frisk F, Hugoson A, Hakeberg M. Technical quality
tus in radiographs and wants to under- of root fillings and periapical status in root filled teeth
stand how observation variation may be in Jönköping, Sweden. Int Endod J. 2008;41:958–68.
handled. 15. Kirkevang LL, Vaeth M, Wenzel A. Ten-year follow-
­up observations of periapical and endodontic status in
a Danish population. Int Endod J. 2012;45(9):829–39.
16. Eckerbom M, Andersson JE, Magnusson T. A longi-
tudinal study of changes in frequency and technical
standard of endodontic treatment in a Swedish popu-
References lation. Endod Dent Traumatol. 1989;5:27–31.
17. Frisk F, Hakeberg M. A 24-year follow-up of root
1. Petersson K. Endodontic status of mandibular premo- filled teeth and periapical health amongst middle aged
lars and molars in an adult Swedish population. A lon- and elderly women in Göteborg, Sweden. Int Endod
gitudinal study 1974–1985. Endod Dent Traumatol. J. 2005;38(4):246–54.
1993;9(1):13–8. 18. Gillen BM, Looney SW, LS G, Loushine BA, Weller
2. Kirkevang LL, Vaeth M, Hörsted-Bindslev P, RN, Loushine RJ, Pashley DH, Tay FR. Impact of the
Wenzel A. Longitudinal study of periapical and quality of coronal restoration versus the quality of
endodontic status in a Danish population. Int Endod root canal fillings on success of root canal treatment:
J. 2006;3:100–7. a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Endod.
3. Brynolf I. A histological and roentgenological study 2011;37:895–902.
of the periapical region of human upper incisors. 19. Frisk F, Hugosson A, Kvist T. Is apical periodontitis
Odontol Revy. 1967;18(Suppl 11):1–176. in root filled teeth associated with the type of restora-
4. Ahlqwist M, Halling A, Hollender L. Rotational pan- tion? Acta Odontol Scand. 2015;73(3):169–75.
oramic radiography in epidemiological studies of 20. Walter C, Rodriguez FR, Taner B, Hecker H,

dental health. Comparison between panoramic radio- Weiger R. Association of tobacco use and peri-
graphs and intraoral full mouth surveys. Swed Dent apical pathosis—a systematic review. Int Endod
J. 1986;10(1–2):73–84. J. 2012;45(12):1065–73.
18 F. Frisk

21. Segura-Egea JJ, Jiménez-Pinzón A, Ríos-Santos JV, ity of endodontic treatment in the Northern Manhattan
Velasco-Ortega E, Cisneros-Cabello R, Poyato-­Ferrera elderly. J Endod. 2007 Mar;33(3):230–4.
M. High prevalence of apical periodontitis amongst 39. Da Silva K, Lam JM, Wu N, Duckmanton P.

type 2 diabetic patients. Int Endod J. 2005;38:564–9. Cross-sectional study of endodontic treatment
22. Kirkevang LL, Wenzel A. Risk indicators for api- in an Australian population. Aust Endod J. 2009
cal periodontitis. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. Dec;35(3):140–6.
2003;31:59–67. 40. De Cleen MJ, Schuurs AH, Wesselink PR, Wu MK.
23. Frisk F, Hakeberg M. Socio-economic risk indica- Periapical status and prevalence of endodontic treat-
tors for apical periodontitis. Acta Odontol Scand. ment in an adult Dutch population. Int Endod J. 1993
2006;64:123–8. Mar;26(2):112–9.
24. Petersson K, Håkansson R, Håkansson J, Olsson B, 41. De Moor RJ, Hommez GM, De Boever JG, Delmé KI,
Wennberg A. Follow-up study of endodontic status in Martens GE. Periapical health related to the quality
an adult Swedish population. Endod Dent Traumatol. of root canal treatment in a Belgian population. Int
1991;7(5):221. Endod J. 2000 Mar;33(2):113–20.
25. Kirkevang LL, Vaeth M, Wenzel A. Ten-year fol- 42. Dugas NN, Lawrence HP, Teplitsky PE, Pharoah MJ,
low-­up of root filled teeth: a radiographic study of a Friedman S. Periapical health and treatment quality
Danish population. Int Endod J. 2014;47:980–8. assessment of root-filled teeth in two Canadian popu-
26. Zhong Y, Garcia R, Kaye EK, Cai J, Kaufman
lations. Int Endod J. 2003 Mar;36(3):181–92.
JS, Trope M, Wilcosky T, Caplan DJ. Association 43. Eckerbom M, Andersson JE, Magnusson T. Frequency
of endodontic involvement with tooth loss in the and technical standard of endodontic treatment in a
Veterans Affairs Dental Longitudinal Study. J Endod. Swedish population. Endod Dent Traumatol. 1987
2010;36:1943–9. Oct;3(5):245–8.
27. Vire DE. Failure of endodontically treated teeth: clas- 44. Eckerbom M, Flygare L, Magnusson T. A 20-year
sification and evaluation. J Endod. 1991;17:338–42. follow-up study of endodontic variables and apical
28. Zadik Y, Sandler V, Bechor R, Salehrabi R. Analysis status in a Swedish population. Int Endod J. 2007
of factors related to extraction of endodontically Dec;40(12):940–8.
treated teeth. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral 45. Eriksen HM, Bjertness E. Prevalence of apical peri-
Radiol Endod. 2008;106(5):e31. odontitis and results of endodontic treatment in mid-
29. Touré B, Faye B, Kane AW, Lo CM, Niang B, Boucher dle-aged adults in Norway. Endod Dent Traumatol.
Y. Analysis of reasons for extraction of endodontically 1991 Feb;7(1):1–4.
treated teeth: a prospective study. J Endod. 2011;37:1512–5. 46. Eriksen HM, Berset GP, Hansen BF, Bjertness E.

30. Caplan DJ, Weintraub JA. Factors related to loss
Changes in endodontic status 1973–1993 among
of root canal filled teeth. J Public Health Dent. 35-year-olds in Oslo, Norway. Int Endod J. 1995
1997;57:31–9. May;28(3):129–32.
31. Aquilino SA, Caplan DJ. Relationship between crown 47. Estrela C, Leles CR, Hollanda AC, Moura MS, Pécora
placement and the survival of endodontically treated JD. Prevalence and risk factors of apical periodontitis
teeth. J Prosthet Dent. 2002;87:256–63. in endodontically treated teeth in a selected population
32. Landys-Borén D, Jonasson P, Kvist T. Long-term sur- of Brazilian adults. Braz Dent J. 2008;19(1):34–9.
vival of endodontically treated teeth at a public dental 48. Georgopoulou MK, Spanaki-Voreadi AP, Pantazis N,
specialist clinic. J Endod. 2015;41:176–81. Kontakiotis EG. Frequency and distribution of root
33. Fransson H, Dawson VS, Frisk F, Bjørndal L,
filled teeth and apical periodontitis in a Greek popula-
EndoReCo, Kvist T. Survival of root-filled teeth in the tion. Int Endod J. 2005 Feb;38(2):105–11.
Swedish adult population. J Endod. 2016;42:216–20. 49. Gulsahi K, Gulsahi A, Ungor M, Genc Y. Frequency
34. Bergenholtz G, Malmcrona E, Milthon R. Endodontic of root-filled teeth and prevalence of apical periodon-
treatment and periapical state. I. Radiographic study titis in an adult Turkish population. Int Endod J. 2008
of frequency of endodontically treated teeth and fre- Jan;41(1):78–85.
quency of periapical lesions. Tandlakartidningen. 50. Hollanda AC, de Alencar AH, Estrela CR, Bueno
1973 Jan;65(2):64–73. MR, Estrela C. Prevalence of endodontically treated
35. Bołtacz-Rzepkowska E, Pawlicka H. Radiographic
teeth in a Brazilian adult population. Braz Dent J.
features and outcome of root canal treatment carried 2008;19(4):313–7.
out in the Łódź region of Poland. Int Endod J. 2003 51. Hommez GM, Coppens CR, De Moor RJ. Periapical
Jan;36(1):27–32. health related to the quality of coronal restorations
36. Boucher Y, Matossian L, Rilliard F, Machtou P.
and root fillings. Int Endod J. 2002 Aug;35(8):680–9.
Radiographic evaluation of the prevalence and techni- 52.
Huumonen S, Vehkalahti MM, Nordblad A.
cal quality of root canal treatment in a French sub- Radiographic assessments on prevalence and tech-
population. Int Endod J. 2002 Mar;35(3):229–38. nical quality of endodontically-treated teeth in the
37. Buckley M, Spångberg LS. The prevalence and tech- Finnish population, aged 30 years and older. Acta
nical quality of endodontic treatment in an American Odontol Scand. 2012 May;70(3):234–40.
subpopulation. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral 53. Ilić J, Vujašković M, Tihaček-Šojić L, Milić-Lemić
Radiol Endod. 1995 Jan;79(1):92–100. A. Frequency and quality of root canal fillings in an
38. Chen CY, Hasselgren G, Serman N, Elkind MS,
adult Serbian population. Srp Arh Celok Lek. 2014
Desvarieux M, Engebretson SP. Prevalence and qual- Nov–Dec;142(11–12):663–8.
2  Incidence, Frequency, and Prevalence 19

54. Jersa I, Kundzina R. Periapical status and quality


68. Peters LB, Lindeboom JA, Elst ME, Wesselink PR.
of root fillings in a selected adult Riga population. Prevalence of apical periodontitis relative to endodon-
Stomatologija. 2013;15(3):73–7. tic treatment in an adult Dutch population: a repeated
55. Jiménez-Pinzón A, Segura-Egea JJ, Poyato-Ferrera cross-sectional study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol
M, Velasco-Ortega E, Ríos-Santos JV. Prevalence of Oral Radiol Endod. 2011 Apr;111(4):523–8.
apical periodontitis and frequency of root-filled teeth 69. Petersson K, Lewin B, Hakansson J, Olsson B,

in an adult Spanish population. Int Endod J. 2004 Wennberg A. Endodontic status and suggested treat-
Mar;37(3):167–73. ment in a population requiring substantial dental care.
56. Kabak Y, Abbott PV. Prevalence of apical peri-
Endod Dent Traumatol. 1989 Jun;5(3):153–8.
odontitis and the quality of endodontic treatment in 70. Petersson K, Fransson H, Wolf E, Håkansson J.

an adult Belarusian population. Int Endod J. 2005 Twenty-year follow-up of root filled teeth in a
Apr;38(4):238–45. Swedish population receiving high-cost dental care.
57. Kalender A, Orhan K, Aksoy U, Basmaci F, Er F, Int Endod J. 2016 Jul;49(7):636–45.
Alankus A. Influence of the quality of endodontic 71. Saunders WP, Saunders EM, Sadiq J, Cruickshank
treatment and coronal restorations on the prevalence E. Technical standard of root canal treatment in an
of apical periodontitis in a Turkish Cypriot popula- adult Scottish sub-population. Br Dent J. 1997 May
tion. Med Princ Pract. 2013;22(2):173–7. 24;182(10):382–6.
58. Kamberi B, Hoxha V, Stavileci M, Dragusha E, Kuçi 72. Sunay H, Tanalp J, Dikbas I, Bayirli G. Cross-sectional
A, Kqiku L. Prevalence of apical periodontitis and evaluation of the periapical status and quality of root
endodontic treatment in a Kosovar adult population. canal treatment in a selected population of urban
BMC Oral Health. 2011 Nov 29;11:32. Turkish adults. Int Endod J. 2007 Feb;40(2):139–45.
59. Kirkevang LL, Hörsted-Bindslev P, Ørstavik D,
73. Skudutyte-Rysstad R, Eriksen HM. Endodontic status
Wenzel A. Frequency and distribution of end- amongst 35-year-old Oslo citizens and changes over a
odontically treated teeth and apical periodontitis 30-year period. Int Endod J. 2006 Aug;39(8):637–42.
in an urban Danish population. Int Endod J. 2001 74.
Sidaravicius B, Aleksejuniene J, Eriksen HM.
Apr;34(3):198–205. Endodontic treatment and prevalence of apical peri-
60. Kim S. Prevalence of apical periodontitis of root
odontitis in an adult population of Vilnius, Lithuania.
canal-treated teeth and retrospective evaluation of Endod Dent Traumatol. 1999 Oct;15(5):210–5.
symptom-related prognostic factors in an urban South 75. Touré B, Kane AW, Sarr M, Ngom CT, Boucher Y.
Korean population. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Prevalence and technical quality of root fillings in
Oral Radiol Endod. 2010 Dec;110(6):795–9. Dakar, Senegal. Int Endod J. 2008 Jan;41(1):41–9.
61. Loftus JJ, Keating AP, McCartan BE. Periapical status 76. Terças AG, de Oliveira AE, Lopes FF, Maia Filho
and quality of endodontic treatment in an adult Irish EM. Radiographic study of the prevalence of apical
population. Int Endod J. 2005 Feb;38(2):81–6. periodontitis and endodontic treatment in the adult
62. Lupi-Pegurier L, Bertrand MF, Muller-Bolla M,
population of São Luís, MA, Brazil. J Appl Oral Sci.
Rocca JP, Bolla M. Periapical status, prevalence and 2006 Jun;14(3):183–7.
quality of endodontic treatment in an adult French 77. Tolias D, Koletsi K, Mamai-Homata E, Margaritis
population. Int Endod J. 2002 Aug;35(8):690–7. V, Kontakiotis E. Apical periodontitis in association
63. Marques MD, Moreira B, Eriksen HM. Prevalence of with the quality of root fillings and coronal restora-
apical periodontitis and results of endodontic treat- tions: a 14-year investigation in young Greek adults.
ment in an adult, Portuguese population. Int Endod J. Oral Health Prev Dent. 2012;10(3):297–303.
1998 May;31(3):161–5. 78. Tsuneishi M, Yamamoto T, Yamanaka R, Tamaki

64. Matijević J, Cizmeković Dadić T, Prpic Mehicic G, N, Sakamoto T, Tsuji K, Watanabe T. Radiographic
Ani I, Slaj M, Jukić Krmek S. Prevalence of api- evaluation of periapical status and prevalence of end-
cal periodontitis and quality of root canal fillings in odontic treatment in an adult Japanese population.
population of Zagreb, Croatia: a cross-sectional study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod.
Croat Med J. 2011 Dec 15;52(6):679–87. 2005 Nov;100(5):631–5.
65. Moreno JO, Alves FR, Gonçalves LS, Martinez AM, 79. Weiger R, Hitzler S, Hermle G, Löst C. Periapical
Rôças IN, Siqueira JF Jr. Periradicular status and status, quality of root canal fillings and estimated end-
quality of root canal fillings and coronal restorations odontic treatment needs in an urban German popula-
in an urban Colombian population. J Endod. 2013 tion. Endod Dent Traumatol. 1997 Apr;13(2):69–74.
May;39(5):600–4. 80. Ödesjö B, Helldén L, Salonen L, Langeland K.

66.
Peciuliene V, Rimkuviene J, Maneliene R, Prevalence of previous endodontic treatment, techni-
Ivanauskaite D. Apical periodontitis in root filled cal standard and occurrence of periapical lesions in
teeth associated with the quality of root fillings. a randomly selected adult, general population. Endod
Stomatologija. 2006;8(4):122–6. Dent Traumatol. 1990 Dec;6(6):265–72.
67. Persić R, Kqiku L, Brumini G, Husetić M, Pezelj- 81. Özbaş H, Aşcı S, Aydın Y. Examination of the preva-
Ribarić S, Brekalo Prso I, Städtler P. Difference in lence of periapical lesions and technical quality of
the periapical status of endodontically treated teeth endodontic treatment in a Turkish subpopulation. Oral
between the samples of Croatian and Austrian adult Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2011
patients. Croat Med J. 2011 Dec 15;52(6):672–8. Jul;112(1):136–42.
Aetiology of Persistent Endodontic
Infections in Root-Filled Teeth
3
Luis E. Chávez de Paz

The 4th sort of creatures … which moved through the 3 former sorts, were incredibly
small, and so small in my eye that I judged, that if 100 of them lay one by another, they
would not equal the length of a grain of course sand; and according to this estimate, ten
hundred thousand of them could not equal the dimensions of a grain of such course sand.
There was discovered by me a fifth sort, which had near the thickness of the former, but
they were almost twice as long.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1676—in a letter to about what he saw when looking to
plaque from his own teeth through one of the first microscopes.

Abstract
Post-treatment endodontic infections are caused by microorganisms form-
ing biofilm structures that remain deep-seated in root canals or extra-­
radicular surfaces. Bacteria in biofilms are difficult to eliminate as they are
protected from both the host immune response and antimicrobials. As
revealed by culture microbiological analysis and high-throughput DNA
sequencing, the microbiota in post-treatment endodontic infections is
composed by oral pathogens mixed with species that are considered
‘harmless’ or ‘transient’ commensals. However, our knowledge concern-
ing the mechanisms that lead to the survival of these mixed microbial
communities in root-filled teeth as well as the mechanisms by which they
participate in post-treatment infections have only recently begun to
advance. This chapter explores clinical and basic biological aspects to gain
deeper understanding of microbial etiological factors that play a role in
persisting infections of endodontically treated teeth.

3.1 Introduction the surfaces of the root canals. The use of antimi-
crobials in the form of irrigants complements the
Endodontic treatment aims to remove bacteria physical action to remove root canal bacteria.
from infected root canals by mechanical instru- However, in spite of these mechanical/chemical
mentation in combination with chemical antimi- efforts and the host’s innate and adaptive defence
crobial agents. These treatment procedures apply mechanisms, post-treatment endodontic infec-
physical forces to remove bacteria by direct con- tions occur with relative high frequency (see
tact of hand- or machine-driven instruments on Chap. 2). These persistent infections are usually
clinically silent and are characterized by chronic
inflammatory reactions taking place in the tissues
L.E. Chávez de Paz, DDS, MS, PhD
Division of Endodontics, Department of Dental
surrounding the apexes of roots.
Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden The underlying pathogenesis of persistent
e-mail: luis.chavez.de.paz@ki.se endodontic infections is associated with the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 21


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_3
22 L.E. Chávez de Paz

Original root canal Environmental


microbiota disturbances

Simplification Resilience

Fig. 3.1  Ecological moments that determine the selection cause a simplification of the original root canal microbiota.
of a post-treatment root canal community. Environmental Further disturbances such as lack of nutrients and interac-
disturbances such as mechanical instrumentation, irriga- tions with the host’s immune cells lead to the formation of
tion with antimicrobials and inter-appointment medication a resilient microbiota.

presence of microbial biofilm communities that


­
ota [9]. The first process occurs directly after or
interact with host cells triggering an inflamma- during root canal treatment, where the applica-
tory and immune response [1–3]. Persisting tion of antibacterial solutions, dressings, etc.,
microbial biofilm communities formed on den- triggers a simplification of the original root canal
tinal walls or on extra-radicular cementum are microbiota [9]. These environmental changes
difficult to eliminate in part due to their high tol- select for a subset of the microbiota with a high
erance/resistance to host defences and antimicro- resistance and tolerance (see below). The second
bials. Clinical studies have established that these process comprises the resilience of the remain-
microbial communities are mainly composed by ing community, where physiological adaptive
Gram-­positive facultative anaerobic bacteria [4– factors play a crucial role to establish as a resil-
7]. Streptococcus, Lactobacillus and Actinomyces ient microbial community [9]. Figure 3.1 illus-
are examples of species that are considered nor- trates these ecological processes as they are
mal inhabitants of the oral cavity and that have central to understand how bacteria may survive
been also isolated from root-filled teeth with api- after treatment. This chapter will describe the
cal periodontitis. Other nonoral species such as main components of this ecological hypothesis
Enterococcus faecalis have also been found with as they have a direct implication in the aetiology
relatively high frequency [4–8]. Overall, the of post-­treatment infections: formation of bio-
microbiota remaining after endodontic proce- films, localization of microbial communities
dures is proposed to be a subpopulation of the beyond the reach of chemomechanical treat-
original root canal microbiota. Therefore, the ment, interactions with the host and resistance
mechanisms by which this resistant subpopula- and tolerance of bacteria.
tion is selected are of interest as it may reveal
important pathogenic traits included in the adap-
tation and survival of these microorganisms. 3.2 Root Canal Biofilms

The biofilm concept recognizes biofilm forma-


3.1.1 Ecological Scenario tion as a key mechanism linked to microbial
survival, and its application in endodontics has
There are two main ecological processes to take led to the understanding of their involvement
into consideration that might affect the composi- in the pathogenesis of endodontic infections
tion and function of the post-treatment microbi- [1–3]. In general, biofilm formation reflects an
3  Aetiology of Persistent Endodontic Infections in Root-Filled Teeth 23

e­ ssential mechanism of microbial adaptation to form the active conditioning film paving the way
environmental conditions. Bacteria in biofilms for subsequent microbial colonization [18].
are surrounded by a matrix of bacterial exopoly- Plasma constituents, such as plasminogen, may
saccharides and exogenous substances (polysac- endow with primary receptors for adhesion on
charides, proteins, mineral crystals, extracellular root canal surfaces [18]. This previous hypothesis
DNA) [10, 11] that protect them from the host’s is supported by the fact that several oral species
immune defences. Antibodies and phagocytes have an affinity to bind to plasminogen via very
have difficulties to penetrate into the biofilm and specific lysine-dependent mechanisms. Among
may even undergo deactivation whilst inside the the most common plasminogen-specific binding
matrix [10, 11]. Bacteria in biofilms are also less receptors in oral species are enolase and GAPDH.
susceptible to the action of antibiotics, which The conditioning film may not only influence
may contribute to the development of chronic the initial adhesion of colonizing cells, but it will
infections and relapses [12, 13]. also influence the production of signalling mole-
Several studies have described the presence of cules that control cell physiology and resistance
biofilms formed in infected root canals [14–16]. to antimicrobials. In a recent study, it was found
Biofilm structures have been reported to be that biofilms formed by root canal bacteria on
formed alongside the canal walls, inside dentinal surfaces preconditioned with collagen showed
tubules, apical deltas and periapical areas [1–3]. irregular architectures, which apparently also
The presence of these microbial structures has influenced their responsiveness to the exposure
been associated with different clinical states with antimicrobials [19]. Biofilms formed on
including post-treatment endodontic infections collagen-coated surfaces by Streptococcus gor-
[14–16]. donii, E. faecalis and Lactobacillus paracasei
Of importance is to understand the biological showed a much higher resistance to NaOCl than
basis of biofilm formation as it is possible that those biofilms formed on non-coated surfaces.
various microbial genetic regulatory pathways Interestingly, it was found that the levels of dehy-
involved may also play a crucial role in mecha- drogenase and esterase activities of biofilm cells
nisms of resistance to host immune defences and which adhered to collagen-coated surfaces were
antimicrobial treatment [12]. Notwithstanding very low, a finding which may partially explain
the characterization of biofilms in infected root their high resistance to antimicrobials. The meta-
canals, the mechanisms behind their formation in bolic downregulation of biofilm cells on surfaces
root canals have not been well established. As coated with collagen may give some indications
most of the species found in root canals are also as to how the surface condition may influence
found in the oral cavity, it is reasonable to specu- bacterial physiology and consequently resistance
late that the formation of microbial biofilms in to antimicrobials.
root canals may have similar mechanisms as oral
biofilms. Figure 3.2 depicts the main events
occurring during the formation of a biofilm. 3.2.2 Secondary Colonizers

Secondary colonizers co-aggregate to adhering


3.2.1 Initial Adherence to Surfaces cells after the first colonizers have irreversibly
adhered to the surfaces [17]. The newcomers will
In the oral ecosystem, the deposition of salivary form close metabolic relationships with the
components provides a set of receptor molecules adhered cells, developing microenvironments for
which are primary recognized by the early colo- the establishment of bacteria with special require-
nizers, such as streptococci and actinomyces ments such as obligate anaerobes [17]. Bacteria
[17]. In root canals of teeth, the presence of with plenty of receptors that are recognized by
plasma constituents, which increase exponen- many other organisms, such as fusobacteria, play
tially due to inflammatory transudation, may a key role in forming a link between primary
24 L.E. Chávez de Paz

Fig. 3.2 Schematic a Surface


depiction of the coating
temporal sequence of
biofilm formation. (a)
Clean surfaces are seconds
coated with
environmental
molecules. (b) Pioneer
microorganisms adhere b Initial
to the conditioned adhesion
surface, utilizing minutes
different cell-surface
interactions. (c)
Incorporation of
secondary colonizers by
adhesion to the pioneers
by utilizing different
c Secondary
colonization
engaging adhesins. (d)
The production of hours
extracellular polymeric
substance (matrix)
results in the formation
of mature biofilms
where intermicrobial
signalling and
intergeneric
d Growth/
maturation
co-aggregation leads to
the development of days/weeks
complex communities

c­olonizing species and later colonizing patho- The presence of E. faecalis in post-treatment
gens [17]. In infected root canals, the presence of infected root canals has received much attention
fusobacteria has been widely reported and has since this is an organism that shows, among other
been linked with the occurrence of cases with interesting capacities, high tolerance to alkaline
most severe inflammatory symptoms [6]. In such pH [21–23]. Although the majority of these obser-
cases, fusobacteria were found in combination vations have been made in vitro, its high tolerance
with highly proteolytic organisms, e.g. Prevotella to alkaline has been clinically linked to a potential
and Porphyromonas. Hence, it is likely that the resistance to treatment with inter-­ appointment
surface receptors from fusobacteria promote the dressings containing calcium hydroxide [5, 7].
colonization of these proteolytic pathogens in However, the origin of E. faecalis in infected root
root canals. A similar case is seen in microbio- canals has remained highly controversial because
logical screening of sites of periodontal inflam- this organism is not commonly found in untreated
mation, where fusobacteria appear just before the necrotic pulps and has been until recently consid-
pathogenic “red” complex consisting of ered a ‘transient’ microorganism in the oral flora
Porphyromonas gingivalis, Treponema denticola [24]. E. faecalis has been isolated from teeth pre-
and Tannerella forsythia [20]. senting post-­treatment infections with a prevalence
3  Aetiology of Persistent Endodontic Infections in Root-Filled Teeth 25

of 24% and 70% in studies utilizing traditional dense and large biofilms [31]. This phenomenon
culture-­based techniques [4–7, 25, 26] and was explained to be due to the ability of many oral
between 66 and 77% when molecular methods bacteria to synthesize dextrans (including the insol-
were applied [27, 28]. In a recent series of studies uble 1,3-α-D-glucan mutan) and levans using
[29], it was determined that E. faecalis is not sucrose as a substrate. It has also been observed
likely to be derived from the endogenous com- that mixed biofilms grown on limited nutrients that
mensal flora of the gastrointestinal tract and that are then switched to a rich medium change consid-
even the chances for nosocomial transmission erably in their structural appearance [32].
during a root canal treatment from contaminated
high-touch surfaces in dental operatory were
slight. It was stated, however, that E. faecalis in 3.3 Extra-radicular Colonization
root canal infections are most likely food-borne
since strains from root canals and food items Contrary to the traditional view of extra-radicular
shared common genotypic patterns [29]. tissues being always free of bacteria, compelling
clinical evidence now exists on bacteria form-
ing biofilms on extra-radicular surfaces [33–36].
3.2.3 Growth and Maturation Although most of the studies are described as
case reports, it is reasonable to conclude from the
During growth and maturation of the biofilm, available information that the formation of extra-­
the concentration of chemical signals produced radicular biofilms occurs with relative frequency.
by metabolism provokes a range of phenotypic Although still unclear, the formation of extra-­
differentiations among the species forming radicular biofilms seems to be a consequence of
microbial communities [13, 30]. These different massive infection of the root canal system associ-
phenotypes trigger molecular responses that are ated with prolonged exposure of the canal space
generated as chemical signals corresponding to to the oral environment [34]. Of interest is, how-
secondary metabolites, also known as quorum ever, that most cases presenting extra-radicular
sensing. The quorum sensing of microbial cells biofilms are associated with sinus tracts which
in biofilms recognizes the proximity of cells may indicate inclusion of oral fluids during bio-
reaching a critical number in a limited space in film formation. The latter hypothesis is sustained
the environment and that ultimately results in with the finding of calculus-like extra-radicular
the autoinduction and synthesis of the extracel- biofilms [33, 34, 36]. Figure 3.3 shows a case of
lular matrix [10]. The biofilm matrix is mainly maxillary right central and lateral incisors with
composed of polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic deficient root canal treatments and presenting
acids and lipids and is a key feature to the matu- calculus-like material covering the apexes of
ration of biofilm formation. The matrix will roots [33]. Upon clinical inspection, an open fis-
constitute the backbone of the biofilm’s three- tula was detected in the apical area of teeth 11
dimensional structure and will allow the free and 12. Both teeth were sensitive to percussion,
circulation of metabolites and wastes among and the apical mucosa was sensitive to palpation.
cells and microcolonies. The structure cohesive- Radiographic examination showed a large peri-
ness conferred by the matrix permits that the apical lesion with a thick layer of radiopaque
biofilm community to respond like a mass and material covering both root tips. Treatment
behave as a group [10]. included orthograde retreatment followed by api-
The composition of the matrix varies depending cal surgery. As it is visualized in the clinical pho-
on the bacterial species, the environmental condi- tograph, during surgery both root tips presented a
tions and the metabolites available. The presence calculus-like material covering the root surfaces.
of high levels of nutrients can lead to very dense Examination by scanning electron microscopy
biofilms. For instance, in oral biofilms the presence (SEM) of the resected specimens confirmed the
of high levels of sucrose in the media yields very presence of mineralized biofilms in the apexes,
26 L.E. Chávez de Paz

a b c

d e

Fig. 3.3  Case presenting extra-radicular biofilm forma- defect and a dark calculus-like structure covering the apex
tion in the form of calculus. (a) Preoperative radiograph of teeth 12 and 11. (e) Representative scanning electron
shows extensive calcifications on the apex of 12 and 11. microscopy (SEM) micrograph showing clusters of cells
(b) Post-operative radiograph taken after orthograde root forming extra-radicular mineralized biofilm structures.
canal retreatment. (c) Postsurgical radiograph. (d) Clinical Case is published in [33]
photograph during surgical procedure shows the bone

where cells were embedded in mineralized matrix 3.4 Host-Microbe Interactions


in a very similar fashion as supra- or sub-gingival
calculus. One of the possible explanations for the The presence of biofilms in root-filled teeth leads
occurrence of these mineralized structures is the to a chronic inflammatory reaction in the peria-
long-standing sinus tract which may have allowed pex which is characterized by the proliferation of
passage of fluids from the oral environment, macrophages, lymphocytes and plasma cells [37,
including minerals and salts that could form these 38]. Chronic apical lesions become encapsulated
solid mineralized masses. in collagenous connective tissue which is stimulated
3  Aetiology of Persistent Endodontic Infections in Root-Filled Teeth 27

by the upregulation of connective tissue growth that the unfavourable conditions inside the gran-
factors (TGF-β) [37, 38]. In this chronic phase uloma, such as nutrient limitation and low oxy-
which can remain symptomless for long periods gen tension, trigger the metabolic downshift of
of time, activated T cells produce cytokines that M. tuberculosis into dormancy [46]. Of critical
downregulate the output of pro-­ inflammatory interest is, however, that under specific circum-
cytokines (IL-1, IL-6 and TNF-α), leading to the stances M. tuberculosis re-establishes its meta-
suppression of osteoclastic activity and reduced bolic and replicative activity by the activation of
bone resorption [37, 38]. Upon a secondary inva- a complex cascade of enzymes regulated by
sion of microorganisms, the lesion can spontane- resuscitation-promoting factors (Rpf) [46].
ously turn into an acute inflammatory reaction Although it has not been established if Rpf
by rapid recruitment of PMNs, a feature that is orthologs are present in Actinomyces or other
characterized by a rapid restitution of apical endodontic pathogens, the reactivation from a
bone resorption. And the previous silent clinical dormant state seems to be an interesting hypoth-
situation may suddenly turn into a symptomatic esis to clarify the occurrence of exacerbations of
phase. chronic infections. This hypothesis was tested in
The chronic inflammatory lesion associated an experimental study, where biofilm cultures of
to failed-root canal treatments is in many cases S. anginosus and L. salivarius were forced to
associated to the presence of well-developed enter a state of dormancy by exposing them to
fibrous capsules consisting of dense collagenous nutrient deprivation [47]. Dormant cells were
fibres that are firmly attached to the root surface then forced to reactivate by exposure to fresh
[37, 38]. These chronic lesions, also known as nutrients, but even after 96 h the cells remained
granulomas, do not normally harbour micro- metabolically inactive. This observation high-
organisms but only in special cases: (a) acute lights the null physiological response of dormant
inflammatory phase [39], (b) periapical actino- cells even in the presence of fresh nutrients,
mycosis [40–42], (c) transient contamination which may act as a mechanism to resist further
during root canal instrumentation [43, 44] and disturbances.
(d) infected periapical cysts with cavities open
to the root canal [45]. The main function of the
apical granuloma is thus to contain and encap- 3.5 Resistance vs. Tolerance
sulate the advancement of the infection. In the
lumen of the granuloma, macrophages, including The increased survival rate of bacteria is one of
blood-­derived macrophages, epithelioid cells and the fundamental causes of endodontic treatment
multinucleated giant are aimed to kill bacteria. failure and because chronic infections present as
However, complete eradication of bacteria does a complicated challenge [1–3]. In order to under-
not always occur. As it has been described in few stand the mechanisms by which bacteria survive,
case reports [40–42], species of Actinomyces and it is important to differentiate two main concepts:
Propionibacterium (formerly Arachnia) have resistance and tolerance. As it is illustrated in
been found forming clusters within the lumen Fig.  3.4, resistance comprises the mechanisms
of the granulation mass. Although the mecha- that are specifically exerted by bacteria in the
nisms behind clustering formation are not clear, presence of antimicrobials and that are aimed to
it may seem that clustering occurs as a micro- inactivate them. Common resistance mechanisms
bial strategy to persist within the granuloma and include physical prevention of the antimicrobials
perhaps to reactivate and escape under special from reaching its target (e.g. low diffusion
circumstances. through the biofilm matrix), alteration of the tar-
The survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis get such that it is no longer recognized by the
in granulomatous tissues is a good example for antimicrobial (e.g. modification of cell receptors)
understanding the mechanisms behind bacterial and inactivation of the antibiotic properties to
survival within a granuloma. It has been proposed obstruct its ability to interact with its target [48].
28 L.E. Chávez de Paz

Exposure to ex vivo, it is consensus that the use of different


antimicrobials
chemicals with antimicrobial properties for disin-
fection may be to different extents effective to
affect the root canal microbiota [49, 50].
Cell death However, it is clear that a portion of the microbi-
ota, especially those that are deep-seated in hard-­
to-­reach areas and forming multispecies biofilm
communities, may resist and remain viable after
Resistance treatment with antimicrobials [14, 36].
A key feature on antimicrobial resistance is
the differences between cells growing in plank-
tonic or in biofilm conditions. In planktonic cul-
tures, antimicrobials can gain direct access to
Tolerance
bacterial cells, whereas in biofilms they encoun-
ter diffusion-reaction limitations through the
matrix so that they hardly can reach the deepest
layers of the biofilm in their active form [12, 13].
For example, a recent study showed that biofilms
Fig. 3.4  Schematic illustrating the differences between
microbial resistance and tolerance. (a) Cell death is nor- formed by root canal isolates L. paracasei and E.
mally expected after treatment of a bacterial population faecalis that were exposed to chlorhexidine, cells
with an antimicrobial. (b) Resistance is regulated by in the upper layers of the biofilms, were more
mechanisms that are specifically exerted by bacteria to affected than those in the deeper layers [19]. A
restrain the interaction of antimicrobials with cells. (c)
Tolerance comprises mechanisms of phenotypic adapta- similar finding has also been reported to occur in
tion in the presence of antimicrobials upon interaction dental plaque biofilms in which chlorhexidine
with the cells showed the highest antimicrobial effect in the
outermost layers of dental plaque but failed to
Tolerance is fundamentally different as it does kill cells in the deeper layers of the biofilms [51].
not affect the ability of the antimicrobial to inter-
act with its target. Although the molecular events
that lead to antimicrobial tolerance in bacteria are 3.5.2 T
 olerance of Endodontic
not yet clear, the mechanisms that are involved Microorganisms
seem to be mainly controlled by phenotypic
adaptive processes (e.g. metabolic downregula- The post-treatment microbiota comprises a sub-
tion or adaptation) [48]. Phenotypic tolerance is set of species that have a high tolerance towards
elicited as a result of environmental factors (such environmental changes provoked by antimicrobi-
as nutrient deprivation and pH changes) that als, lack of nutrients and the host immune cells.
affect antimicrobial-induced killing, whereas In this case, tolerance is distinguished by the
genotypic tolerance can arise from specific capacity of bacteria to adapt their phenotype in
genetic changes within the tolerant bacteria [48]. order to endure changes in environmental condi-
tions [13]. Although most of the mechanisms of
tolerance by root canal bacteria have not been
3.5.1 R
 esistance of Endodontic clarified, it seems that some mechanisms maybe
Microorganisms coordinated concurrently from a main general
stress response with the interplay of various regu-
The killing effect of antimicrobials (individually latory processes taking place at the same time
or in combinations) has been thoroughly evalu- [21, 22].
ated in microbiological research in endodontics. One of the most studied characteristics among
Although most of the studies have been performed bacterial isolates remaining in root canals after
3  Aetiology of Persistent Endodontic Infections in Root-Filled Teeth 29

treatment is their ability to tolerate an alkaline an advantage for their survival in the oral com-
environment, which is provoked after the appli- munity at the times of carbohydrate famine.
cation of CaOH2 as an inter-appointment medica- Similar patterns have been found also for other
tion. Some members of the post-treatment oral bacteria where complementary patterns of
microbiota, such as E. faecalis, are well known to glycosidase and protease activities are able to
have an intrinsic tolerance to alkaline, e.g. by degrade glycoproteins in a synergistic manner
exertion of proton pumps [23], or release of stress [57]. These complex metabolic patterns have
proteins [52]. Interestingly, it has been recently been proposed to play a role in the catabolism of
demonstrated that tolerance to alkaline may be glycoproteins such as mucins from saliva [58] or
intrinsic for a greater portion of the original root plasminogen from serum [18].
canal population [53]. In this study by Lew et al., Specific stress-regulator mechanisms such as
more than 60% of untreated infected root canals ‘the stringent response’ may be involved in the
harboured alkaline-tolerant bacteria with most of regulation of the nutritional needs of root canal
them being Gram-positive organisms [53]. From bacteria [59]. The stringent response encom-
a general perspective, however, the tolerance of passes a massive switch in the transcription pro-
root canal bacteria to alkaline stress has been file of bacteria, which is coordinated by the
observed to be regulated by extracellular release alarmones guanosine tetraphosphate (ppGpp)
of housekeeping enzymes, such as phosphocar- and guanosine pentaphosphate ((p)ppGpp) [59].
rier HPr, the heat shock chaperone DnaK, FBA In E. faecalis, these alarmones play an important
and GAPDH [22]. Although the physiological role in low-nutrient survival [60]. Furthermore,
role of these housekeeping enzymes outside the the alarmone system (p)ppGpp has also a pro-
cell is unknown, most of these enzymes have also found effect on the ability of E. faecalis to form,
been found to be associated with the bacterial develop and maintain stable biofilms [60]. These
response to other similar environmental stresses improved understandings of the alarmone mech-
such as acid challenge [54]. Interestingly, a recent anisms underlying biofilm formation and survival
transcriptomic study observed that during alka- by post-treatment organisms such as E. faecalis
line stress, E. faecalis expressed as much as 613 may facilitate the identification of pathways that
genes. From these newly expressed genes, 211 could be targeted to treat chronic root canal
genes were found to be differentially upregu- infections.
lated, and 402 genes were differentially down- In general, basic research on mechanisms of
regulated [55]. Fifteen of these upregulated genes resistance and tolerance in combination with
were found to be involved in amino acid trans- clinical studies is expected to reveal general
port, a characteristic that gives clear insights into mechanisms of microbial survival in order to pro-
the metabolic demands of E. faecalis when vide a clearer understanding of the pathogenesis
exposed to alkaline stress. of post-treatment infections and to develop more
The ability to tolerate an environment with efficient ways to treat them.
scarce or limited nutrients demands an efficient
control of the mechanisms that regulate the nutri-
tional needs of root canal bacteria. These nutrient-­ Take-Home Lessons
adaptive capabilities have been observed in some • Microorganisms surviving in endodon-
oral bacteria that coincidentally have been also tically treated root canals remain assem-
isolated from cases with persistent root canal bled in biofilm communities and are the
infections. For example, in the saccharolytic main cause of apical periodontitis in
organism Streptococcus oralis, a number of pro- root-filled teeth.
teolytic enzymes have been found to be upregu- • In biofilms a number of factors will play
lated upon exposure to carbohydrate-deprived a role in microbial survival such as the
environments [56]. This particular ability in S. low diffusion of antimicrobial agents,
oralis to digest proteins could be considered as
30 L.E. Chávez de Paz

the entry of cells into low-energy states, micro-organisms, many of which are
differentiation into tolerant subpopula- normal oral commensals’.
tions and the expression of biofilm-­ • Nair PN. Pathogenesis of apical periodon-
specific antimicrobial resistance genes. titis and the causes of endodontic failures.
• Microbial resistance and tolerance Crit Rev. Oral Biol Med. 2004;15:348–81.
to antimicrobials are multifactorial, ‘A thorough and comprehensive review
complex and very difficult to predict of different histo-­pathological aspects of
in multispecies communities where apical periodontitis’.
more than one mechanism plays a part • Svensäter G, Bergenholtz G. Biofilms in
simultaneously. endodontic infections. Endod Topics.
• Further research is required as for most 2004;9:27–36. ‘A pioneer review paper
of the root canal bacteria we do not yet on microbial biofilms in endodontics,
have a minimal view of the regulatory which by means of sound biologically-­
processes involved in biofilm formation, based hypotheses introduces the biofilm
phenotypic adaptation or antimicrobial concept in endodontics’.
tolerance.

References
Benchmark Papers
• Molander A, Reit C, Dahlén G, Kvist 1. Chávez de Paz LE. Redefining the persistent infection
in root canals: possible role of biofilm communities.
T. Microbiological status of root-filled
J Endod. 2007;33:652–62.
teeth with apical periodontitis. Int 2. Ricucci D, Siqueira JF Jr. Biofilms and apical peri-
Endod J. 1998;31:1–7. ‘This paper odontitis: study of prevalence and association with
includes a thorough culture-based clinical and histopathologic findings. J Endod.
2010;36:1277–88.
microbiological analysis of root filled
3. Svensäter G, Bergenholtz G. Biofilms in endodontic
teeth with persistent apical periodontits. infections. Endod Topics. 2004;9:27–36.
From the 100 cases studied, 117 species 4. Engström B, Hård AF, Segerstad L, Ramström G,
were recovered from which 47% were Frostell G. Correlation of positive cultures with the
prognosis for root canal treatments. Odontol Revy.
Enterococcus faecalis. A relative high
1964;15:257–70.
frequency of other Gram-positive spe- 5. Möller ÅJR. Microbiological examination of
cies was also reported. This study brings root canals and periapical tissues of human
forward the role of a resistant flora in teeth. Methodological studies. Odontol Tidskr.
1966;74(Suppl):1–380.
post-treatment endodontic infections’.
6. Molander A, Reit C, Dahlén G, Kvist
• Chávez de Paz LE, Dahlén G, Molander T. Microbiological status of root-filled teeth with api-
A, Möller A, Bergenholtz G. Bacteria cal periodontitis. Int Endod J. 1998;31:1–7.
recovered from teeth with apical peri- 7. Sundqvist G, Figdor D, Persson S, Sjögren
U. Microbiologic analysis of teeth with failed end-
odontitis after antimicrobial endodontic
odontic treatment and the outcome of conservative
treatment. Int Endod J. 2003;36:500–8. re-treatment. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral
‘This paper yields information on the Radiol Endod. 1998;85:86–93.
selective process triggered by root canal 8. Chávez de Paz LE, Dahlén G, Molander A, Möller
A, Bergenholtz G. Bacteria recovered from teeth with
treatment on the root canal microbiota.
apical periodontitis after antimicrobial endodontic
Based on a comprehensive microbio- treatment. Int Endod J. 2003;36:500–8.
logical analysis this work indicates that 9. Chávez de Paz LE, Marsh PD. Ecology and physiol-
the use of antimicrobials and intracanal ogy of root canal microbial biofilm communities. In:
Chavez de Paz LE, Sedgley CM, Kishen A, editors.
medication selects for the most-resistant
The root canal biofilm. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg; 2015. p. 3–22.
3  Aetiology of Persistent Endodontic Infections in Root-Filled Teeth 31

10. Flemming HC, Wingender J. The biofilm matrix. Nat 27. Rocas IN, Siqueira JF Jr. Characterization of micro-
Rev Microbiol. 2010;8:623–33. biota of root canal-treated teeth with posttreatment
11. Hobley L, Harkins C, MacPhee CE, Stanley-Wall
disease. J Clin Microbiol. 2012;50:1721–4.
NR. Giving structure to the biofilm matrix: an over- 28. Sakamoto M, Siqueira JF Jr, Rocas IN, Benno

view of individual strategies and emerging common Y. Molecular analysis of the root canal microbiota
themes. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2015;39:649–69. associated with endodontic treatment failures. Oral
12. Mah TF. Biofilm-specific antibiotic resistance. Future Microbiol Immunol. 2008;23:275–81.
Microbiol. 2012;7:1061–72. 29. Vidana R. Origin of intraradicular infection with

13. Stewart PS, Franklin MJ. Physiological heterogeneity Enterococcus faecalis in endodontically treated teeth.
in biofilms. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2008;6:199–210. Stockholm, Sweden: Karolinska Institutet; 2015.
14. Arnold M, Ricucci D, Siqueira JF Jr. Infection in 30. Wimpenny J, Manz W, Szewzyk U. Heterogeneity in
a complex network of apical ramifications as the biofilms. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2000;24:661–71.
cause of persistent apical periodontitis: a case report. 31. Kolenbrander PE, London J. Adhere today, here

J Endod. 2013;39:1179–84. tomorrow: oral bacterial adherence. J Bacteriol.
15. Ricucci D, Siqueira JF Jr. Recurrent apical peri-
1993;175:3247–52.
odontitis and late endodontic treatment failure 32. Möller S, Sternberg C, Andersen JB, Christensen

related to coronal leakage: a case report. J Endod. BB, Ramos JL, et al. In situ gene expression in
2011;37:1171–5. mixed-culture biofilms: evidence of metabolic inter-
16. Vieira AR, Siqueira JF Jr, Ricucci D, Lopes
actions between community members. Appl Environ
WS. Dentinal tubule infection as the cause of recur- Microbiol. 1998;64:721–32.
rent disease and late endodontic treatment failure: a 33. Jaramillo D, Diaz A, Alonso-Ezpeleta O, Segura-

case report. J Endod. 2012;38:250–4. Egea JJ. Biofilm on external root surfaces associated
17. Kolenbrander PE, Palmer RJ Jr, Periasamy S,
with persistent apical periodontitis: report of two
Jakubovics NS. Oral multispecies biofilm develop- cases. Endodoncia. 2015;33:28–36.
ment and the key role of cell-cell distance. Nat Rev 34. Ricucci D, Candeiro GT, Bugea C, Siqueira JF Jr.
Microbiol. 2010;8:471–80. Complex apical intraradicular infection and extrara-
18. Kinnby B, Booth NA, Svensäter G. Plasminogen bind- dicular mineralized biofilms as the cause of wet canals
ing by oral streptococci from dental plaque and inflam- and treatment failure: report of 2 cases. J Endod.
matory lesions. Microbiology. 2008;154:924–31. 2016;42:509–15.
19. Chávez de Paz LE, Bergenholtz G, Svensäter G. The 35. Su L, Gao Y, Yu C, Wang H, Yu Q. Surgical endodon-
effects of antimicrobials on endodontic biofilm bacte- tic treatment of refractory periapical periodontitis
ria. J Endod. 2010;36:70–7. with extraradicular biofilm. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral
20. Hajishengallis G, Lamont RJ. Beyond the red complex Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2010;110:e40–4.
and into more complexity: the polymicrobial synergy 36. Wang J, Jiang Y, Chen W, Zhu C, Liang J. Bacterial
and dysbiosis (PSD) model of periodontal disease eti- flora and extraradicular biofilm associated with the
ology. Mol Oral Microbiol. 2012;27:409–19. apical segment of teeth with post-treatment apical
21. Appelbe OK, Sedgley CM. Effects of prolonged
periodontitis. J Endod. 2012;38:954–9.
exposure to alkaline pH on Enterococcus faecalis 37. Nair PN. Pathogenesis of apical periodontitis and

survival and specific gene transcripts. Oral Microbiol the causes of endodontic failures. Crit Rev Oral Biol
Immunol. 2007;22:169–74. Med. 2004;15:348–81.
22. Chávez de Paz LE, Bergenholtz G, Dahlén G,
38. Nair PN. On the causes of persistent apical periodon-
Svensäter G. Response to alkaline stress by root canal titis: a review. Int Endod J. 2006;39:249–81.
bacteria in biofilms. Int Endod J. 2007;40:344–55. 39. Ramachandran Nair PN. Light and electron micro-
23.
Evans M, Davies JK, Sundqvist G, Figdor scopic studies of root canal flora and periapical
D. Mechanisms involved in the resistance of lesions. J Endod. 1987;13:29–39.
Enterococcus faecalis to calcium hydroxide. Int 40. Happonen RP. Periapical actinomycosis: a follow-

Endod J. 2002;35:221–8. ­up study of 16 surgically treated cases. Endod Dent
24. Sedgley C, Buck G, Appelbe O. Prevalence of
Traumatol. 1986;2:205–9.
Enterococcus faecalis at multiple oral sites in end- 41. Pasupathy SP, Chakravarthy D, Chanmougananda S,
odontic patients using culture and PCR. J Endod. Nair PP. Periapical actinomycosis. BMJ Case Rep.
2006;32:104–9. 2012;2012:bcr2012006218.
25.
Hancock HH III, Sigurdsson A, Trope M, 42. Sjögren U, Happonen RP, Kahnberg KE, Sundqvist
Moiseiwitsch J. Bacteria isolated after unsuccessful G. Survival of Arachnia propionica in periapical tis-
endodontic treatment in a North American popula- sue. Int Endod J. 1988;21:277–82.
tion. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol 43. Letters S, Smith AJ, McHugh S, Bagg J. A study of
Endod. 2001;91:579–86. visual and blood contamination on reprocessed end-
26. Pinheiro ET, Gomes BP, Ferraz CC, Sousa EL,
odontic files from general dental practice. Br Dent
Teixeira FB, Souza-Filho FJ. Microorganisms from J. 2005;199:522–5. discussion 13
canals of root-filled teeth with periapical lesions. Int 44. Subramaniam P, Tabrez TA, Babu KL. Microbiological
Endod J. 2003;36:1–11. assessment of root canals following use of rotary and
32 L.E. Chávez de Paz

manual instruments in primary molars. J Clin Pediatr teria from primary infected root canals. J Endod.
Dent. 2013;38:123–7. 2015;41:451–6.
45. Nair PN. New perspectives on radicular cysts: do they 54. Svensäter G, Sjögreen B, Hamilton IR. Multiple stress
heal? Int Endod J. 1998;31:155–60. responses in Streptococcus mutans and the induction
46. Gengenbacher M, Kaufmann SH. Mycobacterium
of general and stress-specific proteins. Microbiology.
tuberculosis: success through dormancy. FEMS 2000;146(Pt 1):107–17.
Microbiol Rev. 2012;36:514–32. 55. Ran S, Liu B, Jiang W, Sun Z, Liang J. Transcriptome
47. Chávez de Paz LE, Hamilton IR, Svensäter G. Oral bac- analysis of Enterococcus faecalis in response to alka-
teria in biofilms exhibit slow reactivation from nutri- line stress. Front Microbiol. 2015;6:795.
ent deprivation. Microbiology. 2008;154:1927–38. 56. Beighton D, Smith K, Hayday H. The growth of bac-
48. Bayles KW. The biological role of death and
teria and the production of exoglycosidic enzymes in
lysis in biofilm development. Nat Rev Microbiol. the dental plaque of macaque monkeys. Arch Oral
2007;5:721–6. Biol. 1986;31:829–35.
49. Wang Z, Shen Y, Haapasalo M. Dental materials with 57. Bradshaw DJ, Homer KA, Marsh PD, Beighton

antibiofilm properties. Dent Mater. 2014;30:e1–16. D. Metabolic cooperation in oral microbial com-
50. Xhevdet A, Stubljar D, Kriznar I, Jukic T, Skvarc munities during growth on mucin. Microbiology.
M, et al. The disinfecting efficacy of root canals 1994;140(Pt 12):3407–12.
with laser photodynamic therapy. J Lasers Med Sci. 58. Wickström C, Herzberg MC, Beighton D, Svensäter
2014;5:19–26. G. Proteolytic degradation of human salivary MUC5B
51. Zaura-Arite E, van Marle J, ten Cate JM. Conofocal by dental biofilms. Microbiology. 2009;155:2866–72.
microscopy study of undisturbed and chlorhexidine-­ 59.
Dalebroux ZD, Swanson MS. ppGpp: magic
treated dental biofilm. J Dent Res. 2001;80:1436–40. beyond RNA polymerase. Nat Rev Microbiol.
52. Flahaut S, Hartke A, Giard JC, Auffray Y. Alkaline 2012;10:203–12.
stress response in Enterococcus faecalis: adaptation, 60. Chávez de Paz LE, Lemos JA, Wickström C, Sedgley
cross-protection, and changes in protein synthesis. CM. Role of (p)ppGpp in biofilm formation by
Appl Environ Microbiol. 1997;63:812–4. Enterococcus faecalis. Appl Environ Microbiol.
53. Lew HP, Quah SY, Lui JN, Bergenholtz G, Hoon 2012;78:1627–30.
Yu VS, Tan KS. Isolation of alkaline-tolerant bac-
Consequences
4
Fredrik Frisk and Thomas Kvist

Science is the knowledge of consequences, and dependence of one fact upon another.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679). English philosopher

Abstract
Persistent or emerging apical periodontitis is a common finding in root-­
filled teeth. The consequences thereof may have implications for the
patient in terms of pain, tooth loss, spread of infection and additional
costs. However, inconclusive data from several studies also suggests sys-
temic effects of apical periodontitis. Obviously, these pathologies will cor-
respondingly influence the everyday work of dentists. Also, it may have
consequences for society and third-party payers. From a cost-benefit point
of view, it is not unequivocal which should be the treatment of choice
when a root-filled tooth is diagnosed with apical periodontitis.

4.1 Introduction there may be many reasons to question the exact


numbers in single studies, a great many root-­
Chapter 2 thoroughly reviewed the incidence and filled teeth present with signs of apical periodon-
prevalence of apical periodontitis in root-filled titis. Considering the great number of root-filled
teeth. From this it stands clear that, even though teeth in populations with access to dental care,
the condition is found in every other adult. In this
chapter we will scrutinize the consequences of
apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth.

F. Frisk, DDS, PhD (*)


Department of Endodontology,
Institute for Postgraduate Dental Education, 4.2  ifferent Types of
D
Jönköping, Sweden Consequences and Different
Department of Endodontology, Institute of Stakeholders
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy,
University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden A fact may have different consequences and
e-mail: fredrik.frisk@rjl.se affect different parties. Three main categories of
T. Kvist, DDS, PhD consequences without clear boundaries between
Department of Endodontology, them may be identified in relation to apical peri-
Institute of Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy,
University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden odontitis in root-filled teeth: biological, psycho-
e-mail: kvist@odontologi.gu.se logical and economic. Obviously, it seems most

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 33


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_4
34 F. Frisk and T. Kvist

important to investigate the consequences for 4.3.1.3 Local Spread of Disease


those directly affected by the condition, the It is well known that odontogenic infections
patients. However, also their doctors, the den- may have the potential for life-threatening
tists, will be affected, since the situation is sup- spread to other parts of the body [6]. In a study
posed to be handled with in some way or the from the United States approximately 61,000
other. Thirdly, also third-party payers like reim- hospitalizations of patients were primarily
bursement organizations, insurance companies attributed to periapical abscesses during a
or public and tax-­funded health organizations 9-year study period [7]. The mortality was
are affected by apical periodontitis in root-filled reported to be approximately 1‰ (66 patients).
teeth. In the following we will discuss the dif- In a study from Finland, Grönholm et al. [8]
ferent categories of consequences from different evaluated clinical and radiological findings in a
point of views. group of 60 patients with hospital stay due to
periapical periodontitis. They found that unfin-
ished root canal treatment was the major risk
4.3 Consequences for Patients factor for hospitalization. Root-­filled teeth with
apical periodontitis were the source only in 7
4.3.1 Biological (12%) of the 60 cases. It has been calculated
that the amount of root-filled teeth only in
4.3.1.1 Persistent Pain United States is about 420 million [9] and that
Surprisingly little is known about the frequency approximately 36% of these present with signs
of pain from root-filled teeth. From the obtain- of apical periodontitis [10]. Pooling the infor-
able data in follow-up studies from university or mation from these different sources would
specialist clinics, in a systematic review, the fre- result in an estimated risk of severe event,
quency of persistent pain >6 months after end- requiring hospitalization, because of a root-
odontic therapy was estimated to be 5% [1]. In filled tooth with apical periodontitis to be
this context it is also important to point out that a approximately 1 in 200,000 on a yearly basis.
painful condition associated with a root-filled
tooth not necessarily is due to the presence of 4.3.1.4 Loss of Tooth
apical periodontitis [2, 3]. Two longitudinal studies in Scandinavian popula-
tions found that 12–13%, respectively, of the
4.3.1.2 Flare-Ups of Asymptomatic teeth that were root filled at the base-line exami-
Lesions nation were extracted at follow-up approximately
The incidence and severity of exacerbation of 10 years later [11, 12]. In the Danish population,
apical periodontitis from root-filled teeth have it was found that teeth with apical periodontitis
met only scarce attention from researchers. A low (non-root filled and root filled) had a six times
risk of painful exacerbations (1–2%) was reported higher risk of being lost than teeth without apical
from a cohort of 1032 root-filled teeth followed periodontitis [13]. In a selected Swedish popula-
over time by Van Nieuwenhuysen et al. [4]. In a tion, the 20-year survival rate of root-filled teeth
report from a university hospital clinic in was 65% [14]. The finding of apical periodontitis
Singapore where 127 patients with 185 non-­ at baseline was among variables associated with
healed root-filled teeth were recruited [5], flare-­ low odds for tooth survival. However, it is diffi-
ups occurred only in 5.8% over a period of cult to tell whether the observed correlations are
20 years. Less severe pain was experienced by causative or a consequence of biased selection of
another 40% over the same time period. The inci- cases for extraction. Observations from other
dence of discomforting clinical events was sig- studies suggest that other causes than apical peri-
nificantly associated with female patients, odontitis such as periodontal disease, caries or
treatments involving a mandibular molar or max- root fracture are frequently present when root-­
illary premolar and preoperative pain. filled teeth are extracted [15, 16].
4 Consequences 35

4.3.1.5 Systemic Effects subjects with apical periodontitis were more


The possible association between systemic dis- likely to have CVD than subjects in the final
eases and inflammatory processes of endodontic adjusted logistic regression model [25].
origin has been debated for more than 100 years. Other systemic diseases that have attracted
However, evidence is poor, and only a few scien- attention are diabetes mellitus, chronic liver dis-
tific studies of good quality are available [17]. ease and different types of blood disorders [17].
A possible correlation between apical peri- At present time the association between end-
odontitis and cardiovascular disease (CVD) and odontic disease and different systemic conditions
coronary heart disease (CHD), respectively, has rests on shaky scientific ground. However, the
been of certain focus. One study found an associa- thinkable biological mechanisms behind a link
tion between apical periodontitis and CHD in are present [26]. It is obvious that relationships
middle-aged and younger men (<40) over a between endodontic infections and general health
32-year period [18]. In one cross-sectional study, and well-being should be in focus of future
an analysis of female patients demonstrated no research in endodontology.
increased risk of CHD among those with apical
periodontitis, after adjustment for established risk
factors [19]. Yet another study comprised analysis 4.3.2 Psychological Consequences
of a large number of health professionals receiv-
ing medical care [20]. A weak association to CHD The psychological effects include aspects of
was reported with respect to individuals with one knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, values, preferences,
or two root fillings. quality of life and satisfaction. Quality of life is
One case-controlled clinical trial showed a concerned with the degree to which a person
positive association between the number of enjoys the important possibilities of life [27].
inflammatory lesions of endodontic origin with Surprisingly few studies have addressed these
acute myocardial infarction or unstable angina “patient-centred” outcomes of endodontic treat-
compared with healthy controls [21]. One study ments [28]. Disease of pulpal origin negatively
evaluated whole-body computed tomography affects quality of life primarily through physical
examinations of 531 patients retrospectively. The pain and psychological discomfort, and root canal
atherosclerotic burden of the abdominal aorta treatment results in distinctive improvement [29].
was quantified using a calcium scoring method. The impact on daily life activities (eating,
Chronic apical periodontitis correlated positively speaking, sleeping, contact with people, etc.) by
with the aortic atherosclerotic burden. In regres- painful exacerbations of persistent periapical
sion models, apical lesions in teeth without end- lesions in root-filled teeth was reported in the
odontic treatment were found to be an important previously mentioned study from Singapore [5].
factor but so did not apical radiolucencies in root-­ Among the 127 patients with apical periodontitis
filled teeth [22]. One study investigated whether in a root-filled tooth recruited for the study only
an association between chronic oral infections 33 patients (38 teeth) had experienced some kind
and the presence of an acute myocardial infarc- of impact over a period 38 years. But only five
tion exists. The results showed that patients, who patients reported substantial impact.
have experienced a myocardial infarction, had The attitudes towards asymptomatic persistent
more missing teeth and a higher number of lesions among patients affected have only met
inflammatory processes of endodontic origin scarce attention. In two studies value judgements
than healthy individuals [23]. In a retrospective towards an asymptomatic root-filled tooth with a
study the presence of apical periodontitis and periapical lesion were investigated by methods
root-filled teeth was associated with long-term used in the context of expected utility theory [30,
risk of incident cardiovascular events, including 31]. In both studies elicited subjective values
cardiovascular-related mortality [24]. Finally, in towards asymptomatic apical periodontitis and
a pair-matched, cross-sectional designed study, root-filled teeth showed great variation.
36 F. Frisk and T. Kvist

4.3.3 Economic Aspects prevailing dental care reimbursement system


encourage one of the options at the expense of the
A great many teeth with pulpitis and apical peri- other regardless of cost-effectiveness in the long
odontitis, even in countries with well-developed term. Thirdly, cost-effectiveness analyses com-
dental care, often do not come under dental treat- pare relative costs and outcomes but do not take
ment. They remain unrecognized, because they into account individual patient values. One can,
are asymptomatic or are considered among the with good reason, assume that individuals who
ordinary discomforts of daily living. Or, the already paid for root canal treatment once are
patient may be suffering from both pain and other reluctant to pay for retreatment, in particular, if
symptoms for a prolonged period of time but the tooth is asymptomatic. Data from the many
because of economic limitations has not been epidemiological studies, showing that root-filled
able to seek dental care [32]. Cost is a significant teeth with persistent apical periodontitis are very
barrier to receiving dental care and a very impor- common, suggest that patients and their dentists,
tant factor in patients’ treatment choices. The in many cases, assess the cost-benefit ratio to be
“willingness to pay” for root canal treatment in too low to undertake any operation whatsoever.
order to save an asymptomatic nonvital lower
first molar was studied in a population of 503
patients in England [33]. Only, 53% of the sam- 4.4 Consequences for Dentists
ple wished to save the tooth with a mean “will-
ingness to pay” of £373. The variation in The high prevalence of apical periodontitis
willingness to pay was found to be substantial among adult patients is a challenge for dentists in
and influenced by income. Initial cost may cap- several ways. In the following, some important
ture patients’ attention, but that is only the begin- issues, from the dentist’s point of view, will be
ning. The original cost of tooth retention through briefly mentioned. Most of these aspects are
root canal treatment and restoration is usually more thoroughly addressed in the other chapters
considered to be lower than tooth replacement of this book. Here, some aspects not covered
using implants or fixed dental prostheses [34]. elsewhere are discussed.
However, the lifetime cost model for different
options should also include treatment failures. In
a cost-effectiveness model from the United 4.4.1 Diagnosis
Kingdom, regarding a maxillary incisor, it was
calculated that saving a tooth by root canal treat- When a patient presents with a root-filled tooth
ment, followed by non-surgical retreatment if causing pain and swelling or chronic clinical
indicated, was cost-effective. However, surgical findings in the form of redness, tenderness and
retreatment was not found to be cost-effective fistulas, it is usually relatively straightforward to
[35]. On the other hand, an American cost-­ diagnose a persistent, recurrent or arising apical
effectiveness modelling study, for a root-filled periodontitis. However, the most common situa-
treated molar in need of re-intervention, ranked tion is that the root-filled tooth is both subjective
surgical retreatment, non-surgical retreatment, and clinically asymptomatic but an X-ray reveals
replacement using a fixed dental prosthesis and that bone destruction remains. It is difficult to
replacement using an implant, from the greatest determine how long is the time that may be
to smallest cost-effectiveness [36]. There are sev- required for such a healing process in a particular
eral problems involved in using these data in a case. The diagnosis of periapical tissues based on
clinical situation for an individual patient’s point intra-oral radiographs has repeatedly unmasked
of view. First of all, the calculations are highly considerable inter- and intra-observer variation.
sensitive to different care providers’ fees for the Besides the time aspect and observer variation,
interventions put into the algorithms. Secondly, it there is also a problem of determining what
is possible that the benefits available under the should be considered as a sufficient healing of
4 Consequences 37

bone destruction to constitute successful end- importance to inform about the possible risks of
odontic treatment. And as a consequence also the treatment procedures and explain that treat-
what establishes a “failure” and hence an indica- ment may not always lead to a successful result,
tion for retreatment is far from unambiguous. even though it is performed in accordance with all
the rules. This should be a part of the informed
consent procedure. A malpractice claim might be
4.4.2 Liability perceived as a criticism of the dentist’s compe-
tence and skills but also as a sign of a downfall in
According to the limited data available in the lit- communication with the patient.
erature, claims concerning endodontics are com- If a root canal treatment “failure” is diagnosed
mon among dental professional liability cases despite a reasonable high-standard treatment pro-
[37, 38]. The high prevalence of root fillings of cedure, and the patient understands and accepts
poor quality, as pointed out in numerous studies, the situation, there is also little to argue about.
makes this hardly surprising. However not all The problem is limited to a decision-making
claims are justified. All healthcare, including problem if and how the pathology should be
endodontics, need to weigh the benefits of vari- treated.
ous measures against the risks. The goal of all If both the patient and dentist are aware and
dental care is of course that it will be of benefit agree about that the initial endodontic treatment
to those who receive it. But sometimes the pro- was of poor quality, it seems appropriate to find a
cedures per definition are resulting in injuries or way forward to rectify what can be corrected
damage. Some “damage” is planned, as when the while the patient is held economically indemni-
affected tooth is opened by removal of hard tis- fied. Depending on which country, different laws
sue in order to get access to the root canal sys- and practices set the framework for possible
tem. Unnecessary injuries may occur as a result insurance claims, compensation claims or other
of incompetence, negligence or by a single mis- legal procedures.
take. Even the most skilful, well-educated and Sometimes when a patient switches dentist,
experienced dentist can make mistakes some- the new dental team discovers that previously
times. Some endodontic treatments can also be performed dental care is not of good quality. In
very complicated, with more built-in risk for our particular branch of dentistry, this is almost
complications than others. These injuries are the rule rather than the exception when a patient
regrettable but are an inherent risk of endodontic is referred from a general dental practitioner to a
procedures that one can seek to reduce over time specialist in endodontics, especially when it
through improved treatments, better education comes to root-filled teeth. The patient, however,
and more hands-on instruction. But injuries that may be completely unaware of the quality defi-
occur because of carelessness, incompetence or ciencies that exist. Perhaps it will be obvious,
because the caregiver has not complied with in also for the patient, when the examination and
the scientific and technological developments in possible treatment by the specialist is starting.
the profession are avoidable in a completely dif- The question of how to act in such a situation
ferent way and cannot be viewed as acceptable. is difficult. Based on the principle of informed
And as a result of quality deficiencies in the pri- consent and patient’s right to autonomy in health-
mary endodontic treatment, a suspicion or accu- care, it seems, at first, as obvious quality defects
sation of malpractice may emerge when a in prior treatment should be mentioned. However,
persistent apical periodontitis is diagnosed in a diagnosis, treatment selection and execution in
root-filled tooth. endodontics are not an exact science. It is p­ ossible
When treating diseases of infectious and that circumstances that the patient has forgotten
inflammatory disease emanating from the pulp, or chosen to hide would put the poor quality of
unsuccessful outcome may occur despite profes- treatment in a new light. Furthermore, many
sional excellence in every detail. It is of p­ aramount ­endodontic specialists’ practice depends on good
38 F. Frisk and T. Kvist

relations with the dentists who provide them with while endodontists suggest tooth retention by
the referrals. A good way can be to work to make non-surgical or surgical retreatment.
it natural to contact each other in a dialogue about Bigras et al. [39] compared the clinical
possible mistakes, incorrect routines and con- decision-­making choices of general dentists to
structive suggestions for changes for the better in prosthodontists, endodontists, oral surgeons and
the future. Of course, each dentist is responsible periodontists when presented with patient sce-
for ensuring that the patient’s interests are put narios where a root-filled tooth was presented
first. However, the dentists who are considering with a need for intervention. When asked whether
to criticize a colleague before a patient or to par- to endodontically retreat or replace the specific
ticipate in any legal process of insufficient qual- tooth with an implant, the retreatment option was
ity of treatment performed should consider the selected by 96% of the endodontists, 48% of the
conditions carefully. May the poor quality be general dentists, 36% of the prosthodontists, 31%
explained by the different ways to interpret treat- of the oral surgeons and 24% of the periodontists.
ment needs and outcome or is it obvious that the Similar to Di Fiore et al. [40], there was an
treatment did not live up to current standards. increase in the selection of implants, for all par-
ticipant groups, as the prosthetic and endodontic
complexities of the clinical situations increased.
4.4.3 N
 eed for Training On the other hand, if a clinician has endeav-
and Armamentarium oured to develop particular skills in a limited field
of dentistry, like modern endodontic surgery,
For everyone who attended in congresses and there is a tendency for selecting this treatment
conferences on endodontics in recent years, it is option whenever found appropriate. Hardly sur-
obvious that there are a variety of instruments prising, von Arx et al. [41] settled that apical sur-
and equipment to the field of endodontic retreat- gery was the most frequently made treatment
ment. It is also offered a variety of courses, both decision in teeth referred to a specialist in apical
theoretical and hands-on to learn how these surgery.
instruments are used. Development in the area
has been almost explosive in the last 20 years.
There are also a number of published books that, 4.4.4 Need for Specialists
more or less in detail, describe how to perform,
both surgical and non-surgical, endodontic Based on the comparison between studies of the
retreatment procedures. The range is so wide that outcome of root canal treatment performed by
it is difficult even for a specialist in the subject specialists and supervised dental students and, on
endodontics to keep up with developments and the other hand, epidemiologic surveys of various
have an overview of available armamentarium. populations, it is generally established that there
For a general dentist, it seems almost impossible. is a discrepancy regarding treatment outcome
The situation is particularly pronounced for sur- between what it is possible to achieve in certain
gical retreatment procedures where the use of the clinical settings and what is actually achieved in
operating microscope, ultrasonic technology and daily practice [42]. In order to improve the over-
modern cements, the MTA and similar, seems to all results of endodontic treatment rate and for
be a prerequisite for achieving the good results of the benefit of patients in general dental practice,
the operations performed. Parallel to this devel- it has been suggested that difficult cases should
opment there is a wider exposure of all practitio- be referred to dentists with advanced knowledge
ners to lectures and advertising pertaining to and training [43–45].
implant placement. It is therefore barely surpris- However, surveys of referral-based endodon-
ing that general dentists and dental specialists tic practices have revealed that the major propor-
within other areas quite widely opt out retreat- tion of cases seized consists of symptomatic teeth
ment options in favour of solutions with implants, and teeth in need of re-intervention [46, 47].
4 Consequences 39

4.5  onsequences for the Third


C studies and c­ linical studies and within the dif-
Party ferent types of studies warrants a critical
appraisal of this notion [51].
Dentists in most countries have been trained at Also, the cost-effectiveness aspects of root
universities or dental schools. Usually training canal treatment compared to other solutions have
takes several years and is considered demand- only been sporadically investigated [35].
ing. The professional role of a dentist is usu- What further makes it difficult for the com-
ally surrounded by high prestige. Knowledge munity and third parties is the ambiguity among
and skills in endodontology are within the academic representatives of endodontics not
compulsory scope of each training to become completely agreeing on what should constitute a
a dentist. To be able to diagnose pulpitis, pulp successful treatment outcome (see Chap. 5:
necrosis and apical periodontitis and to per- Diagnosis).
form root canal treatment are an essential There is no doubt that the vast proportion of
part of dentistry because diseases of the tooth endodontic procedures will continue to be
pulp and periradicular tissues are common. undertaken by general dental practitioners.
Furthermore, these, many times, painful con- Furthermore, it seems reasonable to assume
ditions are common reasons that patients seek that even in the advent of better technical
out dental care. skills, more advanced technology and wiser
From any society’s point of view, it is a funda- clinical decisions, root canal treatments will
mental desire that expertise in this particular field continue to save many teeth that otherwise
of dentistry should be possessed by dentists. would have been extracted but also that many
However, studies continue to show poor tech- of these will exhibit signs of persistent apical
nical standards of root canal treatment and high periodontitis.
frequency of postoperative disease [10]. Other The cost-effectiveness of retreatment pro-
studies indicate that many general practitioners cedures has been questioned [52], and from a
lack sufficient knowledge of the fundamentals of third-­
party payer’s perspective, the willing-
endodontology [48], that they often are over- ness to pay for further interventions if root
looking basic principles when performing root canal treatment is “not successful” may come
canal treatment [49] and that high levels of stress to an end.
and frustration and an overall sense of lack of
control are reported in relation to root canal
treatment [42]. Take-Home Lessons
A limited number of countries have recog- • Apical periodontitis in root-filled
nized endodontics as a specialty. It is gener- teeth may under unfavourable circum-
ally assumed that specialists provide better stances lead to severe local symptoms
outcomes than general practitioners. This pre- and also that chronic infections may
vailing opinion is based on the constantly have adverse consequences for gen-
repeated finding that cross-sectional epide- eral health.
miological studies which reveal high frequen- • Dentists are affected since the condition
cies of apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth is causing challenges both in terms of
have been reported [10], while follow-up diagnosis, decision-making and thera-
studies of root canal treatments performed in peutic interventions.
specialist and student clinics exhibit substan- • Third-party payers and other stake-
tially lower figures of persisting apical peri- holders are also affected because the
odontitis [50]. However, only a very limited state is widespread and often appears to
number of direct comparisons are available be indirectly caused by low quality of
[29, 50]. The substantial variation in the study treatment.
designs both between the cross-sectional
40 F. Frisk and T. Kvist

Bench-Mark Papers tionships between systemic diseases and


• Pak JG, Fayazi S, White SN. Prevalence periapical microbial infection was sys-
of periapical radiolucency and root canal tematically reviewed. Sixteen articles
treatment: a systematic review of cross- were identified and included. The over-
sectional studies. J Endod. 2012;38:1170– all quality of the studies and the risk of
6. The purpose of this study was to conduct bias were rated to be moderate. Only
a systematic review and meta-analysis of three studies demonstrated a low level
the prevalence of periapical radiolucency of bias. The results suggested that there
and nonsurgical root canal treatment. may be a moderate risk and correlation
Thirty-three articles were included. Most between some systemic diseases and
patient samples represented modern pop- endodontic pathosis.
ulations from countries with high or very
high human development indices. Meta-­
analysis was performed on 300,861 teeth.
Of these, 5% had periapical radiolucen- References
cies, and 10% were endodontically
1. Nixdorf DR, Moana-Filho EJ, Law AS, McGuire LA,
treated. Of the root filled teeth, 36% had
Hodges JS, John MT. Frequency of persistent tooth
periapical radiolucencies. The prevalence pain after root canal therapy: a systematic review and
of periapical radiolucency was broadly meta-analysis. J Endod. 2010;36:224–30.
equivalent to one radiolucency per 2. Polycarpou N, Ng YL, Canavan D, Moles DR,
Gulabivala K. Prevalence of persistent pain after
patient. The prevalence of teeth with root endodontic treatment and factors affecting its occur-
canal treatment was broadly equivalent to rence in cases with complete radiographic healing. Int
two treatments per patient. Endod J. 2005;38:169–78.
• Nixdorf DR, Moana-Filho EJ, Law AS, 3. Nixdorf DR, Moana-Filho EJ, Law AS, McGuire LA,
Hodges JS, John MT. Frequency of nonodontogenic
McGuire LA, Hodges JS, John pain after endodontic therapy: a systematic review
MT. Frequency of persistent tooth pain and meta-analysis. J Endod. 2010;36:1494–8.
after root canal therapy: a systematic 4. Van Nieuwenhuysen JP, Aouar M, D’Hoore
review and meta-analysis. J Endod. W. Retreatment or radiographic monitoring in end-
odontics. Int Endod J. 1994;27:75–81.
2010;36:224–30. In this review the core 5. Yu VS, Messer HH, Yee R, Shen L. Incidence and
patient-­oriented outcome of persistent impact of painful exacerbations in a cohort with post-­
pain present > or = 6 months after end- treatment persistent endodontic lesions. J Endod.
odontic treatment, regardless of etiol- 2012;38:41–6.
6. Ferrera PC, Busino LJ, Snyder HS. Uncommon com-
ogy, after endodontic treatment was plications of odontogenic infections. Am J Emerg
evaluated with data from 26 articles. A Med. 1996;14:317–22.
total of 5777 teeth were included, but 7. Shah AC, Leong KK, Lee MK, Allareddy
only 2996 had follow-up information V. Outcomes of hospitalizations attributed to periapi-
cal abscess from 2000 to 2008: a longitudinal trend
regarding pain status. The frequency analysis. J Endod. 2013;39:1104–10.
persistent tooth pain after endodontic 8. Grönholm L, Lemberg KK, Tjäderhane L, Lauhio A,
treatment was estimated to be 5.3%, Lindqvist C, Rautemaa-Richardson R. The role of
with higher report quality studies unfinished root canal treatment in odontogenic maxil-
lofacial infections requiring hospital care. Clin Oral
suggesting > 7%. Investig. 2013;17:113–21.
• Khalighinejad N, Aminoshariae MR, 9. Figdor D. Apical periodontitis: a very prevalent prob-
Aminoshariae A, Kulild JC, Mickel A, lem. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol
Fouad AF. Association between sys- Endod. 2002;94:651–2.
10. Pak JG, Fayazi S, White SN. Prevalence of periapi-
temic diseases and apical periodontitis. cal radiolucency and root canal treatment: a sys-
J Endod. 2016;42:1427–34. The rela- tematic review of cross-sectional studies. J Endod.
2012;38:1170–6.
4 Consequences 41

11. Petersson K, Håkansson R, Håkansson J, Olsson B, 26. Cotti E, Dessì C, Piras A, Mercuro G. Can a chronic
Wennberg A. Follow-up study of endodontic status in dental infection be considered a cause of cardiovascu-
an adult Swedish population. Endod Dent Traumatol. lar disease? A review of the literature. Int J Cardiol.
1991;7(5):221. 2011;148:4–10.
12. Kirkevang LL, Vaeth M, Wenzel A. Ten-year follow- 27. Raphael D, Brown I, Rukholm E, Hill-Bailey

­up observations of periapical and endodontic status in P. Adolescent health: moving from prevention to
a Danish population. Int Endod J. 2012;45:829–39. promotion through a quality of life approach. Can
13. Bahrami G, Væth M, Kirkevang LL, Wenzel A,
J Public Health. 1996;87:81–3.
Isidor F. Risk factors for tooth loss in an adult pop- 28. Hamedy R, Shakiba B, Fayazi S, Pak JG, White

ulation: a radiographic study. J Clin Periodontol. SN. Patient-centered endodontic outcomes: a narra-
2008;35:1059–65. tive review. Iran Endod J. 2013;8:197–204.
14. Petersson K, Fransson H, Wolf E, Håkansson
29. Dugas NN, Lawrence HP, Teplitsky P, Friedman

J. Twenty-year follow-up of root filled teeth in a S. Quality of life and satisfaction outcomes of end-
Swedish population receiving high-cost dental care. odontic treatment. J Endod. 2002;28:819–27.
Int Endod J. 2016;49:636–45. 30. Reit C, Kvist T. Endodontic retreatment behaviour:
15. Vire DE. Failure of endodontically treated teeth: clas- the influence of disease concepts and personal values.
sification and evaluation. J Endod. 1991;17:338–42. Int Endod J. 1998;31:358–63.
16. Landys Borén D, Jonasson P, Kvist T. Long-term sur- 31. Kvist T, Reit C. The perceived benefit of endodontic
vival of endodontically treated teeth at a public dental retreatment. Int Endod J. 2002;35:359–65.
specialist clinic. J Endod. 2015;41:176–81. 32. Cohen LA, Harris SL, Bonito AJ, Manski RJ,

17. Khalighinejad N, Aminoshariae MR, Aminoshariae Macek MD, Edwards RR, Cornelius LJ. Coping
A, Kulild JC, Mickel A, Fouad AF. Association with toothache pain: a qualitative study of low-
between systemic diseases and apical periodontitis. income persons and minorities. J Public Health
J Endod. 2016;42:1427–34. Dent. 2007;67:28–35.
18. Caplan DJ, Chasen JB, Krall EA, Cai J, Kang S, 33. Vernazza CR, Steele JG, Whitworth JM, Wildman JR,
Garcia RI, et al. Lesions of endodontic origin Donaldson C. Factors affecting direction and strength
and risk of coronary heart disease. J Dent Res. of patient preferences for treatment of molar teeth
2006;85:996–1000. with nonvital pulps. Int Endod J. 2015;48:1137–46.
19. Frisk F, Hakeberg M, Ahlqwist M, Bengtsson
34. Moiseiwitsch J. Do dental implants toll the end of
C. Endodontic variables and coronary heart disease. endodontics? Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral
Acta Odontol Scand. 2003;61:257–62. Radiol Endod. 2002;93:633–4.
20. Joshipura KJ, Pitiphat W, Hung HC, Willett WC,
35.
Pennington MW, Vernazza CR, Shackley P,
Colditz GA, Douglass CW. Pulpal inflammation Armstrong NT, Whitworth JM, Steele JG. Evaluation
and incidence of coronary heart disease. J Endod. of the cost-effectiveness of root canal treatment using
2006;32:99–103. conventional approaches versus replacement with an
21. Pasqualini D, Bergandi L, Palumbo L, Borraccino implant. Int Endod J. 2009;42:874–83.
A, Dambra V, Alovisi M, Migliaretti G, Ferraro G, 36. Kim SG, Solomon C. Cost-effectiveness of endodon-
Ghigo D, Bergerone S, Scotti N, Aimetti M, Berutti tic molar retreatment compared with fixed partial den-
E. Association among oral health, apical periodonti- tures and single-tooth implant alternatives. J Endod.
tis, CD14 polymorphisms, and coronary heart disease 2011;37:321–5.
in middle-aged adults. J Endod. 2012;38:1570–7. 37. Bjørndal L, Reit C. Endodontic malpractice claims in
22. Petersen J, Glaßl EM, Nasseri P, Crismani A, Luger Denmark 1995–2004. Int Endod J. 2008;41:1059–65.
AK, Schoenherr E, Bertl K, Glodny B. The associa- 38.
Pinchi V, Pradella F, Gasparetto L, Norelli
tion of chronic apical periodontitis and endodontic GA. Trends in endodontic claims in Italy. Int Dent
therapy with atherosclerosis. Clin Oral Investig. J. 2013;63:43–8.
2014;18:1813–23. 39. Bigras BR, Johnson BR, BeGole EA, Wenckus

23. Willershausen I, Weyer V, Peter M, Weichert C,
CS. Differences in clinical decision making: a com-
Kasaj A, Münzel T, Willershausen B. Association parison between specialists and general dentists.
between chronic periodontal and apical inflamma- Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod.
tion and acute myocardial infarction. Odontology. 2008;106:139–44.
2014;102:297–302. 40. Di Fiore PM, Tam L, Thai HT, Hittelman E, Norman
24. Gomes MS, Hugo FN, Hilgert JB, Sant’Ana Filho M, RG. Retention of teeth versus extraction and implant
Padilha DM, Simonsick EM, Ferrucci L, Reynolds placement: treatment preferences of dental faculty
MA. Apical periodontitis and incident cardiovas- and dental students. J Dent Educ. 2008;72:352–8.
cular events in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of 41. von Arx T, Roux E, Bürgin W. Treatment decisions
Ageing. Int Endod J. 2016;49(4):334–42. in 330 cases referred for apical surgery. J Endod.
25. An GK, Morse DE, Kunin M, Goldberger RS, Psoter 2014;40:187–91.
WJ. Association of radiographically diagnosed apical 42. Dahlström L, Lindwall O, Rystedt H, Reit C.

periodontitis and cardiovascular disease: a hospital ‘Working in the dark’: Swedish general dental prac-
records-based study. J Endod. 2016;42:916–20. titioners on the complexity of root canal treatment.
42 F. Frisk and T. Kvist

Int Endod J. 2016; https://doi.org/10.1111/iej.12675. 48. Bjørndal L, Laustsen MH, Reit C. Danish practitio-
[Epub ahead of print]. ners’ assessment of factors influencing the outcome
43. De Cleen MJ, Schuurs AH, Wesselink PR, Wu
of endodontic treatment. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral
MK. Periapical status and prevalence of endodontic Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2007;103:570–5.
treatment in an adult Dutch population. Int Endod 49. Ahmed HM, Cohen S, Lévy G, Steier L, Bukiet

J. 1993;26:112–9. F. Rubber dam application in endodontic practice: an
44. Saunders WP, Saunders EM, Sadiq J, Cruickshank update on critical educational and ethical dilemmas.
E. Technical standard of root canal treatment in an adult Aust Dent J. 2014;59:457–63.
Scottish sub-population. Br Dent J. 1997;182:382–6. 50. Burry JC, Stover S, Eichmiller F, Bhagavatula

45. De Moor RJ, Hommez GM, De Boever JG, Delmé KI, P. Outcomes of primary endodontic therapy provided
Martens GE. Periapical health related to the quality by endodontic specialists compared with other pro-
of root canal treatment in a Belgian population. Int viders. J Endod. 2016;42(5):702.
Endod J. 2000;33:113–20. 51. Ng YL, Mann V, Rahbaran S, Lewsey J, Gulabivala
46. Abbott PV. Analysis of a referral-based endodontic K. Outcome of primary root canal treatment: system-
practice: Part 1. Demographic data and reasons for atic review of the literature—Part 1. Effects of study
referral. J Endod. 1994;20:93–6. characteristics on probability of success. Int Endod
47.
Sebring D, Dimenäs H, Engstrand S, Kvist J. 2007;40:921–39.
T. Characteristics of teeth referred to a public dental 52. Schwendicke F, Stolpe M. Secondary treatment

specialist clinic in endodontics. Int Endod for asymptomatic root canal treated teeth: a cost-­
J. 2017;50:629–35. effectiveness analysis. J Endod. 2015;41(6):812.
Diagnosis
5
Thomas Kvist and Peter Jonasson

Appearances to the mind are of four kinds. Things either are what they appear to be; or
they neither are, nor appear to be; or they are, and do not appear to be; or they are not,
yet appear to be. Rightly to aim in all these cases is the wise man’s task
Epictetus, 2nd century A.D.

Abstract
The diagnosis of apical periodontitis in a root-filled tooth is associated
with many difficulties. In particular, when signs of disease remain at an
X-ray but the patient and the actual tooth are otherwise free of symptoms,
the situation is cumbersome for many clinicians. In this chapter we high-
light the challenges. But we also provide arguments for a diagnostic strat-
egy that benefit of the doubt when the diagnosis is characterized of
uncertainties.

5.1 Introduction 5.2 Diagnostic Methods

For a root canal treatment to be considered 5.2.1 Clinical Examinations


wholly successful in the long term, it requires not
only that the tooth is surviving, functional, and When root-filled teeth cause swelling or pain, it is
asymptomatic. When the root-filled tooth is usually a sign of infection. Similarly, clinical find-
examined clinically and radiographically, it ings at the root-filled tooth in the form of redness,
should also be free of signs of inflammation in tenderness, and fistulas are signs of presence of
surrounding bony structures. If signs of inflam- microorganisms. In these situations, it is usually
mation persist, although presently asymptomatic, relatively straightforward to diagnose a persistent,
it is likely that the root-filled tooth is containing recurrent, or arising apical periodontitis.
microorganisms and that apical periodontitis is An intraoral radiograph (see below) usually
present. confirms the suspicion, and diagnostic process
quite smoothly turns into a decision-making
process.
In case of a chronic sinus tract, the diagnosis
of apical periodontitis is sometimes incidental.
T. Kvist, DDS, PhD (*) • P. Jonasson, DDS, PhD The observation is discovered unintentionally
Department of Endodontology, Institute of and unrelated to the treatment or diagnostic pro-
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, cedure undertaken at the moment, for example,
University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden during clinical examination for caries or during a
e-mail: kvist@odontologi.gu.se;
peter.jonasson@odontologi.gu.se visit for preventive professional dental hygiene

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 43


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_5
44 T. Kvist and P. Jonasson

care. The sinus tract may exit the mucosa in root resection, an ultrasonic tip preparation, and a
either close to or at some distance from the tooth. root-end filling. Special attention should be done
When located immediately adjacent to gingival to foreign bodies such as pieces of the bone or
sulcus, this can have the appearance of a deep, root and gutta-percha or sealer that sometimes is
narrow periodontal pocket. found embedded in the undersurface of the flap.
Successful outcome with an asymptomatic
patient after the surgical procedure confirms the
5.2.2 Clinical Differential Diagnosis diagnosis ex juvantibus.

There are few symptomatic pathological condi- 5.2.2.2 Vertical Root Fracture
tions that may be present in conjunction with a Patients with vertical root fractures typically
root-filled tooth and consequently be mistaken present with deep depths probing in narrow or
for persistent apical periodontitis. rectangular patterns typical of cracked tooth
However, it is important for the clinician to lesions. But the subjective symptoms are usually
be familiar with these in order to be able to only minor pain or discomfort. Sometimes the
make a correct diagnosis and avoid inserting tooth feels a little mobile. When suspecting root
treatments that are ineffective, costly, and at fracture in teeth with more extensive restorations,
worst harmful. it may be necessary to remove the fillings or
crowns for inspection and better accessibility for
5.2.2.1 Apical Fenestration probing approximal pockets.
As many as 9% of teeth have shown to have small Radiographic evidence varies. Widening of
and window-like openings or defect in the alveo- the periodontal ligament along the whole length
lar plate of the bone, frequently exposing a por- of the root is a rather common feature. Only
tion of the root, usually located on the facial rarely will there be visible separation of the
aspect of the alveolar process [1, 2]. These find- root segments. If there is a sinus tract combined
ings have been confirmed by a more recent cone with the narrow, isolated periodontal probing
beam computed tomography (CBCT) analysis on defect in a tooth that has had root canal treat-
patients with periradicular defects of endodontic ment, with or without a post placement, the
origin [3]. findings are considered to be pathognomonic
Pain associated with the presence of apical for the presence of a vertical root fracture.
fenestration may occur after root canal treatment However, because vertical root fracture may
[4, 5]. Even slight instrumentation, irrigation or mimic periodontal disease or a persistent apical
filling beyond the apical terminus of the root periodontitis with an endo-perio lesion [6],
canal may irritate the periosteum and the overly- these cases often result in referral to a perio-
ing mucosa. The tooth may be spontaneously dontist or endodontist for evaluation.
sensitive only occasionally, but pain is usually Newer methods of analysis are currently being
perceived during palpation of the area and masti- studied, such as cone beam computerized tomog-
catory movements. If an apical fenestration is raphy (CBCT), in order to help identify longitu-
diagnosed, it is difficult to separate the condition dinal fractures in a nondestructive fashion [7].
from a painful persistent ­apical periodontitis. If However, when there is doubt about the diagnosis
an intervention is considered, surgical retreat- and when the fracture cannot be visualized either
ment should be the treatment of choice. When on radiographs or clinically despite the use of an
elevating a flap over a suspicious root tip area, the operator microscope, there is an indication for an
operator hence could expect to find a root tip exploratory surgery.
without covering cortical bone. The treatment The only predictable treatment is removal of
consists of removing all pathological tissue, a the fractured root or extraction of the tooth.
5 Diagnosis 45

In multirooted teeth, removal of the fractured report repeated care-seeking and numerous treat-
root may be performed by root amputation (root ment efforts, for example, endodontic surgery,
resection) or hemisection. with little or no pain relief [11].

5.2.2.3 “Pulpitis” in a Root-Filled Tooth Referred Pain from Temporomandibular


Missed root canal during the root canal treat- Disorder
ment is a common indirect cause of persistent The most common nonodontogenic reason for
apical periodontitis, especially in molar teeth pain in a root-filled tooth is probably pain origi-
[8]. However, it may also be sometimes that a nating from temporomandibular disorders where
tooth is painful because in missed canals or patients’ perception of their symptoms as “tooth”
part of canals vital and inflamed pulp tissue pain can be explained within the concept of
remains [9]. referred pain [15, 16]. Likely, the most common
sources of referred pain to the teeth are the mas-
5.2.2.4 Nonodontogenic Pain seter and the lateral pterygoid muscles [17].
Pain present in a root-filled tooth may sometimes Consequently, in lack of any objective signs of
be of nonodontogenic origin. This is evidently apical periodontitis, patients experiencing a per-
important because treatments and prognoses are sistent pain from a root-filled tooth should be
different. evaluated for temporomandibular disorders.

Atypical Odontalgia (“Phantom Tooth Trigeminal Neuralgia and Other


Pain”) Neuropathic Pain Conditions
Persistent pain in lack of other clinical or radio- Multiple causes exist in neuropathic pain includ-
graphic (see below) signs of pathology in a root-­ ing direct nerve injury, nerve injection injury,
filled tooth may be caused by a peripheral nerve nerve compression injury (e.g., implant, osseous
damage that results in neuropathic pain, a dys- growth, neoplastic invasion), and infection-­
function of the somatosensory system [10–12]. inflammation damage (e.g., virus) to the nerve
The onset of the pain may have been before the itself. Fortunately, these conditions are rarely
root canal treatment was performed and conse- seen in a dental office, and furthermore they
quently the root canal treatment may have been either exhibit other characteristic features, like
carried out following misdiagnosis. It is also pos- trigger points and refractory periods in the case
sible that onset of the pain disorder is associated of trigeminal neuralgia, or present with concur-
with the endodontic procedures. The condition is rently other symptoms, e.g., blizzards in case of
relatively rare [13] but challenging to dentists herpes zoster infection [18].
because it is difficult to distinguish from pain due
to inflammation and also because inflammatory
components of pain may be present at the same 5.2.3 Radiographic Examination
time and site. It shares many characteristics with
other chronic pain conditions, and pain perpetua- A common situation is that the root-filled tooth
tion mechanisms are likely to be similar. A diag- is both subjective and clinically asymptomatic,
nosis should be made only after a comprehensive but an X-ray reveals that bone destruction has
examination and assessment of patients’ self-­ emerged or that the original bone destruction
reported characteristics and exclusion of odonto- remains. In cases where no bony destruction
genic [9, 14] or other nonodontogenic causes, was present when root canal treatment was
such as temporomandibular disorders (see completed, and in particular in cases of vital
below). Traditional dental diagnostic methods do pulp therapy, it can be reasonably assumed that
not appear to serve well, since many patients an infection has set in the root canal system.
46 T. Kvist and P. Jonasson

For teeth that exhibited clear bone destruction provides an ordinal scale of five scores ranging
at treatment start, there must be allowed some from “healthy” to “severe periodontitis with
time for healing and bone formation to occur. exacerbating features” and is based on reference
radiographs with verified histological diagnoses
5.2.3.1 Uncertainties in Radiographic originally published by Brynolf [26]. In this doc-
Diagnosis of Apical toral thesis, the radiographic appearance of peri-
Periodontitis apical tissue was compared with biopsies. The
results indicated that using radiographs, it was
Time Passed Since Primary Root Canal possible to differentiate between normal states
Treatment and inflammation of varying severity and that the
One difficulty is to determine how long the time likelihood of a correct diagnosis improved if
that may be required for the healing process of more than one radiograph was taken. However,
apical periodontitis, both in general and in the the studies were based on a limited patient spec-
particular case. The majority of root canal treated trum, and the biopsy material was restricted to
teeth with bone destruction in the initial situation upper anterior teeth. Among researchers the PAI
shows signs of healing within 1 year [19]. In indi- is well established, and it has been used in both
vidual cases, however, the healing process can clinical trials and epidemiological surveys (see
last a long time [20, 21]. Molven et al. [22] have Chap. 2). Researchers often transpose the PAI
reported isolated cases requiring more than scoring system to the terms of Strindberg system
25 years to completely heal. The notion that no by dichotomizing scores 1 and 2 to “success” (=
absolute time limits for healing process can be no apical periodontitis) and scores 3, 4, and 5 into
established can also be deduced from epidemio- “failure” (=presence of apical periodontitis).
logical studies [23]. However, the “cutoff” line is arbitrary. The
Strindberg system, with its originally dichoto-
Controversies of “Success” and “Failures” mizing structure into “success” and “failure,” has
of Root Canal Treatment achieved status as a normative guide to clinical
Besides the time aspect, there is also a problem of action.
determining what should be considered as a suf- As early as 1966, Bender et al. [27] suggested
ficient healing of bone destruction to constitute that an arrested bone destruction in combination
successful endodontic treatment. And as a conse- with an asymptomatic patient should be suffi-
quence also, what establishes a “failure” and ciently conditions for classifying a root canal
hence the diagnosis of persistent apical periodon- treatment as endodontic success. More recently
titis is far from unambiguous. According to the Friedman and Mor [28] as well as Wu et al. [29]
system launched by Strindberg [20], the only sat- have suggested similar less strict classifications
isfactory posttreatment situation, after a predeter- of the outcome of root canal treatment.
mined healing period, combines a symptom-free
patient with a normal periradicular situation. The Reliability of Radiographic Evaluation
Only cases fulfilling these criteria should be clas- Reliability is a key feature of a diagnostic test as
sified as “successes” and all others as “failures.” results should be repeatable with high interob-
In academic environments and in clinical server agreement. The diagnosis of periapical tis-
research, these strict criteria set by Strindberg in sues based on intraoral radiographs is subject to
1956 have had a strong position. considerable intra- and interobserver variation.
However, the diagnosis of periapical tissues One of the first studies that paid attention to the
based on intraoral radiographs has repeatedly phenomenon was authored by Goldman et al. in
unmasked considerable inter- and intra-observer 1972 and 1974 [30, 31]. In the first paper, six
variation [24] (see below). independent examiners evaluated 253 asymptom-
The periapical index (PAI) scoring system was atic endodontically treated cases. The examiners
presented by Ørstavik et al. in 1986 [25]. The PAI agreed completely on less than 50% of the cases.
5 Diagnosis 47

In the later, the authors studied how well some of Despite the avalanche of interest of CBCT in
the first group of examiners agreed with them- recent years, the issue of observer variations
selves when they examined the same radiographs encountered only scarce interest from researchers
6–8 months later. The somewhat s­ urprising result [34]. But data available from experimental and
was they only agreed with themselves anywhere cadaver studies [35, 36] suggests that both intra-
from 72 to 88% of the time. In a classical study by and interobservation variation are less compared
Reit and Hollender [24], three endodontists and to intraoral radiographs. However, it must be kept
three radiologists interpreted periapical condi- in mind that the use of and interpretation of
tions in radiographs of 119 root-­ filled roots. CBCT scans need particular special skills and
Consensus on the presence of periapical lesion training.
was reached in 27% of cases classified as patho-
logic. The examiners agreed completely on nor- The Validity of Radiographic Evaluation
mal periapical conditions in 37% of the cases. The The validity of a diagnostic test is evaluated in
study clearly demonstrated the difficulty in defin- terms of its ability to detect subjects with disease
ing and maintaining criteria for radiological evi- as well as its capacity to exclude subjects without
dence of periapical disease. In order to overcome disease. Uncertainties regarding the validity of
the problems with observer variation, different the radiographic examination [37, 38] are of con-
solutions have been presented. Certainly, first of cern. For obvious practical and ethical reason,
all, the quality of the different steps in the radio- only a limited number of studies have compared
graphic process has to be no less than optimal. the histological diagnosis in root-filled teeth with
Calibration programs for reducing interob- and without radiographic signs of pathology [26,
server variation seem to have limited effect [32]. 39, 40]. In these studies, false-positive findings
The PAI score (see Chap. 2 and above) offers a (i.e., radiographic findings indicate apical peri-
visual reference scale for assigning a periapical odontitis, while histological examination does
health status. not give evidence for inflammatory lesions) are
Variation between observers could basically rare. False-negative findings (i.e., radiographic
be explained by their different criteria of what findings indicate no apical periodontitis, while
should constitute reporting the presence of a peri- histological examination does give evidence for
apical lesion. Such a view on the diagnosis of inflammatory lesions) vary in the different stud-
apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth fits well ies. However, it is well known that bone destruc-
into the concept of “statistical decision analysis.” tion and consequently apical periodontitis may
Within this theory it is paradigmatic that an be present without radiographic signs visible in
observer reporting high true-positive percentage intraoral radiographs [40, 41].
also reports higher false-positive percentage and The advent of cone beam computed tomogra-
vice versa. If the “true” state can be established, phy (CBCT) has confirmed the findings of Bender
in some way or the other, pairs of true-positive and Seltzer [41, 42] in recent years. In vitro stud-
and false-positive percentages can be plotted into ies on skeletal material indicate that the method
a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) has higher sensitivity and specificity than intra-
curve. And variations between observers can be oral periapical radiography [34]. The higher sen-
explained by different positions on the ROC sitivity is confirmed in clinical studies. The major
curve. One key conclusion from applying this disadvantages of CBCT are greater cost and a
theory is that false positive diagnoses will be potentially higher radiation dose, depending on
more frequent the lower the prevalence of the dis- the size of the radiation field being used. However,
ease under study. Consequently, the best way to one benefit of the CBCT method is that it is rela-
uncover the relative difference between groups, tively easy to apply. It provides a three-­
for example, in the research context, is to have a dimensional image of the area of interest, an
strict criterion for the disease and report positive advantage when assessing the condition of multi-
findings only when absolutely certain [33]. rooted teeth. And the uncertainty of assessing
48 T. Kvist and P. Jonasson

results of endodontic treatment in follow-up using endodontic treatment follow-up, CBCT can show
conventional intraoral radiographic technique has persisting bone destruction, while a conventional
been pointed out [43]. Consequently, it has been intraoral radiograph shows healing [45].
suggested that CBCT should be used in clinical
studies, because of the risk that conventional radi- The Efficacy of CT and CBCT
ography underestimate the number of unsuccess- in Endodontics
ful endodontic treatments. However, it may be The use of a more accurate diagnostic technology
important not to jump into conclusions. One study does not necessarily lead to a different course of
examined the validity of CBCT-­diagnosed apical action or a better outcome. A hierarchical model
periodontitis with a histological examination as a of efficacy has been presented as a model for
“gold standard” [35]. The authors used jaw sec- appraisal of the literature on efficacy of diagnostic
tions from human cadavers including 86 roots in imaging by Fryback and Thornby (Fig 5.1) [46].
67 teeth. All specimens also underwent histopath- Demonstration of efficacy at each lower level in
ological examination. Different aspects of the this hierarchy is logically necessary, but not suf-
diagnostic accuracy of digital intraoral periapical ficient, to assure efficacy at higher levels. In this
radiographs and cone (CBCT) were compared in model level 1 addresses technical quality of the
detecting apical periodontitis using histopatho- images. Level 2 concerns diagnostic accuracy,
logical findings as a reference. The study corrobo- sensitivity, and specificity associated with inter-
rated that CBCT technology is more sensitive pretation of the images. Next, level 3 focuses on
than intraoral radiographs, e.g., false negatives are whether the information produces change in the
less frequent while a false positive only was diag- physician’s or dentist’s diagnostic thinking. Such
nosed in one case (using the intraoral radiograph). a change is a logical prerequisite for level 4 effi-
The study however did not specifically study root- cacy, which addresses effect on the patient man-
filled teeth, and the overall prevalence of apical agement plan. The highest efficacy level studies
periodontitis was 67% which might explain the eventually concern effects on patient outcomes
overall high specificity for both methods. and analyses of economic and societal costs and
One study [44] found that false-positive find- benefits (levels 5 and 6). Few studies have investi-
ings may be a potential substantial problem using gated the impact of CT or CBCT on endodontics
CBCT since evidently healthy teeth (vital pulps) when making a diagnosis or selecting a treatment
showed signs of apical periodontitis in CBCT but option, and most importantly, even lesser have
not on intraoral radiographs. In root-filled teeth, assessed the benefit to the patient of using these
long-term studies are required to investigate if imaging modalities [34, 47, 48]. As result, the evi-
healing of periapical bone destruction may take dence is still inconclusive whether the use of CT
longer than previously assumed when evaluating or CBCT is warranted in the clinical decision-
results with CBCT. For example, at 1-year post making and treatment of the individual patient.

6. Societal
efficacy
5. Patient
outcome
4. Therapeutic efficacy
efficacy
3. Diagnostic
thinking
2. Diagnostic efficacy
accuracy
1.Technical efficacy
efficacy

Fig. 5.1  Fryback and Thornbury’s framework of the efficacy of diagnostic imaging
5 Diagnosis 49

Nonendodontic Lesions Misdiagnosed false-negative diagnoses, i.e., wants to minimize


as Apical Periodontitis the number of sick registered as healthy, the
There are a number of nonendontic lesions, both requirements for a positive diagnosis should be
benign and malign, mimicking apical periodonti- more including, and a positive diagnosis should be
tis in the radiograph. These include fibroosseous reported whenever there is a suspicion of disease.
lesions, ameloblastomas, nasopalatine duct cysts, Such a strategy in contrast to above could be char-
keratocystic odontogenic tumor, metastatic inju- acterized as “trap rather than free.” A reduction of
ries, and carcinomas [49, 50]. Some of these will false-positives diagnoses always brings an increase
present asymptomatic, whereas others will be in the number of false-negative diagnoses and vice
present with both pain and swelling. Because the versa. Selection of strategy thus always has a
vast majority of all periapical bone lesions are desired and an undesired effect [33, 51].
indeed due to an infection of endodontic origin, It is likely that a more general use of CBCT
there may be a risk of misdiagnosing those few would improve the diagnostic accuracy of apical
who are not, as apical periodontitis. It is therefore periodontitis in root-filled teeth. In particular, the
emphasized that the clinical and radiologic exam- proportion of false-negative diagnoses could be
ination as well as analysis of the patients’ medical reduced. But it cannot be ruled out that the risk of
history must be comprehensive. In root-­ filled an increased amount of false-positive diagnoses
teeth, the usually most valuable diagnostic tool, could also be the result, in particular in the
pulp vitality test, is not available. Therefore, the absence of symptoms and when then the preop-
risk of a misdiagnosis may be more pronounced. erative appearance of the lesion is unknown.
If the medical history, clinical examination, and/ Also, because the dynamics of the healing pro-
or radiographic features result in a suspicion of a cess over time after root filling is undetermined,
nonendodontic lesion, a biopsy and sequential unrestrainedly use of CBCT would bring about
histopathological analysis are mandatory. risk of substantial overdiagnosis and as logical
result also overtreatment (for further reading, see
Chap. 6 “Decision Making”). As with any ioniz-
5.3  n Everyday Practical
A ing radiation exposure to patients, the potential
Approach to Diagnosing benefits should outweigh the potential risks.
Apical Periodontitis in
Root-­Filled Teeth
5.3.2 A
 rguments for “Benefit
5.3.1 Diagnostic Strategy of the Doubt” Strategy

The art and science of diagnosing apical periodon- The high frequency of root-filled teeth with peri-
titis in root-filled teeth are hampered by several apical bone destructions seems to persist despite
difficulties. Misdiagnosis can therefore not be the technical quality of root fillings has improved
completely avoided. A deliberate strategy may be over time [52, 53].
a mean to steer away from unwanted mistakes or Millions of teeth saved to survival and asymp-
to guide to acceptable and calculated mistakes. If a tomatic function are present in many countries all
clinician, in a given situation, wants to minimize over the world. The risks of a systemic adverse
the number of false-positive diagnoses, i.e., wants effect on the health of untreated apical periodon-
to minimize the number of healthy wrongly diag- titis may, on the basis of the evidence currently
nosed as being ill, the requirements for a positive available, considered small for healthy patients
diagnosis should be kept strict, and a positive diag- (see Chap. 4 “Consequences”). Severe acute
nosis should be reported only when absolutely cer- infectious condition resulting from apical peri-
tain. Adopting such a strategy, the patient or the odontitis in root-filled teeth is also unusual and
tooth “benefits of the doubt.” If, on the other hand, has been estimated to less than 5% over a period
the clinician wants to minimize the number of of 25 years [54]. Unfortunately, there is no
50 T. Kvist and P. Jonasson

scientifically established method to distinguish ical conditions and medications that cause a dete-
between different severities of periapical disease. rioration of the immune system, by the lack of
There is some evidence that there is a connection white blood cells or the inability of a patient to
between the periapical size and the amount of produce antibodies.
involved microorganisms [21]. Many different In such situations, maybe that “trap rather
microorganisms, in most cases the bacteria but than free” attitude by the clinician may be the
sometime fungi, have been found in the biofilms best diagnostic strategy. However, it is unclear to
that persist in filled root canals. There are no what extent medically comprised patients benefit
accepted scientifically founded clinical methods from diagnoses and in particular treatment of
to distinguish particularly “dangerous” or “harm- asymptomatic apical periodontitis in a situation
less” biofilms from this perspective. of ongoing medications or disease that impede
In many cases the root filling quality is poor, normal function of the immune defense system.
and an apical lesion is apparent to anyone who is
observing the radiograph despite the fact the
patient is free from symptoms. In such cases 5.3.4 S
 ome Common Situations
there is little or no doubt about the diagnosis; the and Guidelines for
tooth should be diagnosed with persistent apical Determining Diagnosis
periodontitis. In other situations, the periapical
radiolucency is big and shows no signs of reduc- In the following we will give some typical exam-
tion in size despite adequate root canal treatment. ples where there may be an uncertainty regarding
It may be suspected that the periapical lesion rep- potential residual apical periodontitis in a root-­
resents a periradicular cyst without any further filled tooth. We are also suggesting a concrete
healing potential without further treatment [55, policy reaching a diagnosis in each one of the
56]. The next steps are to inform the patient and situations.
have a dialogue about how the situation should be
managed. This process is reviewed in Chap. 6. 5.3.4.1 Pain from Root-Filled Tooth
However, if the root filling quality is reasonable But No Sign of Apical
within acceptable standards, the clinician may Periodontitis on Intraoral
remain ambiguous about the periapical diagnosis. Radiographs
When uncertain about the diagnosis of apical The patient may experience soreness—pain or
periodontitis, it seems likely from the bulk of discomfort from a root-filled tooth. However,
available information that most patients will intraoral radiographs from one or two angula-
“benefit from the doubt” when apical periodonti- tions show no apical radiolucency. The root fill-
tis in an asymptomatic and properly root-filled ing exhibits good technical quality as can be
tooth is considered. In other words, false-positive judged from the radiographs.
diagnoses should be avoided. This means that the Action: Suggest a CBCT scan.
clinician deliberately should choose to refrain If this shows that an apical radiolucency is
from diagnosing apical periodontitis in root-filled present, there is indication for retreatment or in
teeth when in doubt, rather than taking risk of some cases extraction.
diagnosing and hence treating teeth with healed If no radiolucency, or other pathology, can be
or healing apical periodontitis. observed, one can suspect that the endodontic treat-
ment caused a damage to sensory nerves involved.
Or that pain is projected from a TMD disorder.
5.3.3 E
 xceptions from the “Benefit There is no diagnosis of apical periodontitis and
from the Doubt” Strategy consequently no indication for retreatment or
extraction. Instead extend the examination and
A careful medical history is important for all consider other diagnoses that may mimic the symp-
patients under dental care. There are several med- toms of apical periodontitis in a root-filled tooth.
5 Diagnosis 51

5.3.4.2 Asymptomatic Tooth X-ray, it shows the radiolucency clearly and con-
But a Widened Periapical tinuously reduced in size.
Contour Action: Further healing potential may remain.
Another common situation is that the patient is Wait further healing and check again.
asymptomatic; the root filling exhibits good tech-
nical quality. But, there is a widening of the peri-
apical contour present. 5.3.5 Patient Information
Action: An expanded periodontal contour and the Adoption of Measures
should not be considered pathological. The diag-
nosis shows great observer variations. Great When the diagnosis of apical periodontitis is
uncertainty is present. The patient and tooth ben- made, it is the dentist’s statutory obligation to
efit from the doubt if no other findings suggestive inform about the diagnosis and demonstrate the
of apical periodontitis are present. potential of therapy. The dentist should also give
suggestions on the treatment that he/she deems
5.3.4.3 Asymptomatic Tooth most appropriate. In addition, the dentist must
But Clinician Is Uncertain inform if the treatment is requiring a referral to a
About a Possible Lesion specialist or not. It is the patient who must take
A similar common situation is that the patient is the final decision to treat or not. This process will
asymptomatic. The root canal exhibits good be further covered in Chap. 6.
technical quality. However, the clinician is in
­
doubt whether a periapical lesion is present or
not. Take-Home Lessons
Action: Consultation with a colleague on the • When pain and/or swelling or a sinus
radiograph. If the uncertainty persists, consult a tract from a root-filled tooth is present
radiologist who must decide. and at the same time an apical radiolu-
cency can be observed on an intraoral
5.3.4.4 Asymptomatic Tooth: A Lesion radiograph, the diagnosis of apical peri-
Is Present But Short Time odontitis is evident.
Since Root Filling • When pain from a root-filled tooth reg-
In this scenario the patient is asymptomatic. istered without concomitant other clini-
However, there is an apical radiolucency evident cal or radiographic signs of disease, a
in the intraoral radiograph. Root canal shows handful of other diagnoses should be
good technical quality. Relatively short time considered, among them referred pain
passed since the root canal treatment and root fill- from TMD and neuropathic pain
ing were performed (1–4 years). disorders.
Action: Good to fairly good healing potential • When clear radiographic signs of apical
remains. The closer to the point of root filling, the periodontitis are present, the diagnosis
larger remaining of healing chances. Wait for is usually evident because of poor-­
periapical healing at least 4 years. quality root filling giving obvious space
for microbial biofilm to persist.
5.3.4.5 Asymptomatic Tooth: A Lesion • When radiographic signs of apical peri-
Is Present Showing Reduced odontitis are uncertain, the diagnosis is
Size surrounded by major uncertainties,
Our last example is equally frequent. The patient especially if root filling quality is good.
is asymptomatic. Root filling shows good techni- In such situations, we argue most
cal quality. More than 4 years have passed since patients will “benefit from doubt”—
root filling was performed. There is an apical diagnostic strategy.
radiolucency. However, compared with previous
52 T. Kvist and P. Jonasson

References
Benchmark Papers
• Brynolf I. Histological and roentgeno- 1. Jorgić-Srdjak K, Plancak D, Bosnjak A, Azinović
logical study of periapical region of Z. Incidence and distribution of dehiscences and
fenestrations on human skulls. Coll Antropol.
human upper incisors. Odontologisk 1998;22(Suppl):111–6.
Revy. 1967;18(Suppl. 11). In this classi- 2. Rupprecht RD, Horning GM, Nicoll BK, Cohen
cal thesis, the author studied the peri- ME. Prevalence of dehiscences and fenestra-
apical regions of root-filled teeth with tions in modern American skulls. J Periodontol.
2001;72(6):722–9.
histological as well as radiographic 3. Yoshioka T, Kikuchi I, Adorno CG, Suda H. Periapical
examinations. The studies provided data bone defects of root filled teeth with persistent lesions
for the PAI score. evaluated by cone-beam computed tomography. Int
• Reit C, Hollender L. Radiographic eval- Endod J. 2011;44:245–52.
4. Boucher Y, Sobel M, Sauveur G. Persistent pain
uation of endodontic therapy and the related to root canal filling and apical fenestration: a
influence of observer variation. Scand J case report. J Endod. 2000;26:242–4.
Dent Res. 1983;91:205–12. The authors 5. Pasqualini D, Scotti N, Ambrogio P, Alovisi M,
clearly and elegantly demonstrated the Berutti E. Atypical facial pain related to apical fenes-
tration and overfilling. Int Endod J. 2012;45(7):670.
intra- and interobserver variation prob- 6. Zehnder M, Gold SI, Hasselgren G. Pathologic
lems involved in the diagnosis of peri- interactions in pulpal and periodontal tissues. J Clin
apical lesions in intraoral radiographs. Periodontol. 2002;29:663–71.
• Reit C, Gröndahl HG. Application of 7. Metska ME, Aartman IH, Wesselink PR, Özok
AR. Detection of vertical root fractures in vivo in
statistical decision theory to radio- endodontically treated teeth by cone-beam computed
graphic diagnosis of endodontically tomography scans. J Endod. 2012;38:1344–7.
treated teeth. Scand J Dent Res. 8. Karabucak B, Bunes A, Chehoud C, Kohli MR, Setzer
1983;91(3):213–8. The study explains F. Prevalence of apical periodontitis in endodontically
treated premolars and molars with untreated canal:
why variations between the observers a cone-beam computed tomography study. J Endod.
could be explained by their adoption of 2016;42:538–41.
different criteria of periapical disease 9. Tidwell E, Witherspoon DE, Gutmann JL, Vreeland
resulting in different positions on the DL, Sweet PM. Thermal sensitivity of endodontically
treated teeth. Int Endod J. 1999;32:138–45.
ROC curve. It also explains why the best 10. Marbach JJ, Hulbrock J, Hohn C, Segal AG. Incidence
opportunities for revealing relative dif- of phantom tooth pain: an atypical facial neuralgia.
ferences in disease prevalences are cre- Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1982;53(2):190–3.
ated when the examiner defines a strict 11. Pigg M, Svensson P, Drangsholt M, List T. Seven-­
year follow-up of patients diagnosed with atypi-
criterion for disease and reported a cal odontalgia: a prospective study. J Orofac Pain.
positive finding only when absolutely 2013;27:151–64.
certain. 12. Polycarpou N, Ng YL, Canavan D, Moles DR,

• Strindberg LZ. The dependence of the Gulabivala K. Prevalence of persistent pain after
endodontic treatment and factors affecting its occur-
results of pulp therapy on certain fac- rence in cases with complete radiographic healing. Int
tors. Acta Odontol Scand 1956;14(Suppl. Endod J. 2005;38(3):169–78.
21). Classical study on outcome of root 13. Nixdorf DR, Moana-Filho EJ, Law AS, McGuire LA,
canal treatment clearly demonstrating Hodges JS, John MT. Frequency of nonodontogenic
pain after endodontic therapy: a systematic review
that the number of healed cases will and meta-analysis. J Endod. 2010;36(9):1494–8.
increase in the long term, also after 14. Shackleton TA. Failure of root canal treatment misdi-
such a long period as 4 years. agnosed as neuropathic pain: case report. J Can Dent
Assoc. 2013;79:d94.
5 Diagnosis 53

15. Nixdorf DR, Law AS, John MT, Sobieh RM, Kohli 27. Bender IB, Seltzer S, Soltanoff W. Endodontic suc-
R, Nguyen RH, National Dental PBRN Collaborative cess—a reappraisal of criteria. Oral Surg Oral Med
Group. Differential diagnoses for persistent pain Oral Pathol. 1966;22:780–802.
after root canal treatment: a study in the National 28. Friedman S, Mor C. The success of endodontic ther-
Dental Practice-based Research Network. J Endod. apy—healing and functionality. J Calif Dent Assoc.
2015;41(4):457–63. 2004;32:493–503.
16. Schiffman E, Ohrbach R, Truelove E, Look J,
29. Wu MK, Wesselink P, Shemesh H. New terms for
Anderson G, Goulet JP, List T, Svensson P, Gonzalez categorizing the outcome of root canal treatment. Int
Y, Lobbezoo F, Michelotti A, Brooks SL, Ceusters Endod J. 2011;44:1079–80.
W, Drangsholt M, Ettlin D, Gaul C, Goldberg LJ, 30. Goldman M, Pearson AH, Darzenta N. Endodontic
Haythornthwaite JA, Hollender L, Jensen R, John success—who’s reading the radiograph? Oral Surg
MT, De Laat A, de Leeuw R, Maixner W, van der Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1972;33:432–7.
Meulen M, Murray GM, Nixdorf DR, Palla S, 31. Goldman M, Pearson AH, Darzenta N. Reliability of
Petersson A, Pionchon P, Smith B, Visscher CM, radiographic interpretations. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral
Zakrzewska J, Dworkin SF, International RDC/TMD Pathol. 1974;38:287–93.
Consortium Network, International association for 32. Reit C. The influence of observer calibration

Dental Research, Orofacial Pain Special Interest on radiographic periapical diagnosis. Int Endod
Group, International Association for the Study of J. 1987;20:75–81.
Pain. Diagnostic Criteria for Temporomandibular 33. Reit C, Gröndahl HG. Application of statistical deci-
Disorders (DC/TMD) for Clinical and Research sion theory to radiographic diagnosis of endodonti-
Applications: recommendations of the International cally treated teeth. Scand J Dent Res. 1983;91:213–8.
RDC/TMD Consortium Network* and Orofacial Pain 34. Rosen E, Taschieri S, Del Fabbro M, Beitlitum

Special Interest Group†. J Oral Facial Pain Headache. I, Tsesis I. The diagnostic efficacy of cone-beam
2014;28(1, Winter):6–27. computed tomography in endodontics: a systematic
17. Wright EF. Referred craniofacial pain patterns in
review and analysis by a hierarchical model of effi-
patients with temporomandibular disorder. J Am Dent cacy. J Endod. 2015;41:1008–14.
Assoc. 2000;131:1307–15. 35. Patel S, Dawood A, Mannocci F, Wilson R, Pitt Ford
18. Benoliel R, Eliav E. Neuropathic orofacial pain. Oral T. Detection of periapical bone defects in human jaws
Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2008;20:237–54. using cone beam computed tomography and intraoral
19. Ørstavik D. Time-course and risk analyses of the
radiography. Int Endod J. 2009;42:507–15.
development and healing of chronic apical periodon- 36. Kanagasingam S, Mannocci F, Lim CX, Yong CP,
titis in man. Int Endod J. 1996;29:150–5. Patel S. Diagnostic accuracy of periapical radiography
20. Strindberg LZ. The dependence of the results of
and cone beam computed tomography in detecting
pulp therapy on certain factors. Acta Odontol Scand. apical periodontitis using histopathological findings as
1956;14(Suppl 21):1–175. a reference standard. Int Endod J. 2017;50(6):417–26.
21. Bystrom A, Happonen RP, Sjogren U, Sundqvist
https://doi.org/10.1111/iej.12650. Epub 2016 May 18
G. Healing of periapical lesions of pulpless teeth after 37. Nobuhara WK, del Rio CE. Incidence of periradicular
endodontic treatment with controlled asepsis. Endod pathoses in endodontic treatment failures. J Endod.
Dent Traumatol. 1987;3:58–63. 1993;19:315–8.
22. Molven O, Halse A, Fristad I, MacDonald-Jankowski 38. Carrillo C, Peñarrocha M, Bagán JV, Vera F. Relationship
D. Periapical changes following root-canal treatment between histological diagnosis and evolution of 70 peri-
observed 20–27 years postoperatively. Int Endod apical lesions at 12 months, treated by periapical sur-
J. 2002;35:784–90. gery. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2008;66:1606–9.
23. Kirkevang LL, Vaeth M, Wenzel A. Ten-year follow- 39.
Green TL, Walton RE, Taylor JK, Merrell
­up observations of periapical and endodontic status in P. Radiographic and histologic periapical findings of
a Danish population. Int Endod J. 2012;45:829–39. root canal treated teeth in cadaver. Oral Surg Oral Med
24. Reit C, Hollender L. Radiographic evaluation of end- Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 1997;83:707–11.
odontic therapy and the influence of observer varia- 40. Barthel CR, Zimmer S, Trope M. Relationship of
tion. Scand J Dent Res. 1983;91:205–12. radiologic and histologic signs of inflammation in
25. Ørstavik D, Kerekes K, Eriksen HM. The periapi- human root-filled teeth. J Endod. 2004;30:75–9.
cal index: a scoring system for radiographic assess- 41. Bender IB, Seltzer S. Roentgenographic and direct
ment of apical periodontitis. Endod Dent Traumatol. observation of experimental lesions in bone: I. 1961.
1986;2:20–34. J Endod. 2003;29:702–6.
26. Brynolf I. Histological and roentgenological study of 42. Bender IB, Seltzer S. Roentgenographic and direct
periapical region of human upper incisors. Odontol observation of experimental lesions in bone: II. 1961.
Revy. 1967;18(Suppl 11):1–176. J Endod. 2003;29:707–12. discussion 701.
54 T. Kvist and P. Jonasson

43. Wu MK, Shemesh H, Wesselink PR. Limitations of series of case reports and review of literature. J Endod.
previously published systematic reviews evaluat- 2014;40:16–27.
ing the outcome of endodontic treatment. Int Endod 50. Huang HY, Chen YK, Ko EC, Chuang FH, Chen
J. 2009;42:656–66. PH, Chen CY, Wang WC. Retrospective analysis of
44. Pope O, Sathorn C, Parashos P. A comparative inves- nonendodontic periapical lesions misdiagnosed as
tigation of cone-beam computed tomography and endodontic apical periodontitis lesions in a popu-
periapical radiography in the diagnosis of a healthy lation of Taiwanese patients. Clin Oral Investig.
periapex. J Endod. 2014;40:360–5. 2017;21:2077–82.
45. Christiansen R, Kirkevang LL, Gotfredsen E, Wenzel 51. Wulff HR, Pedersen SA, Rosenberg R. Philosophy of
A. Periapical radiography and cone beam computed medicine: an introduction. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell
tomography for assessment of the periapical bone Scientific; 1990.
defect 1 week and 12 months after root-end resection. 52. Frisk F, Hugoson A, Hakeberg M. Technical quality
Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 2009;38:531–6. of root fillings and periapical status in root filled teeth
46. Fryback DG, Thornbury JR. The efficacy of diagnos- in Jönköping, Sweden. Int Endod J. 2008;41:958–68.
tic imaging. Med Decis Mak. 1991;11:88–94. 53. Pak JG, Fayazi S, White SN. Prevalence of periapi-
47. Kruse C, Spin-Neto R, Wenzel A, Kirkevang LL. Cone cal radiolucency and root canal treatment: a sys-
beam computed tomography and periapical lesions: a sys- tematic review of cross-sectional studies. J Endod.
tematic review analysing studies on diagnostic efficacy 2012;38:1170–6.
by a hierarchical model. Int Endod J. 2015;48:815–28. 54. Yu VS, Messer HH, Yee R, Shen L. Incidence and
48. Mota de Almeida FJ, Huumonen S, Molander A,
impact of painful exacerbations in a cohort with post-­
Öhman A, Kvist T. Computed tomography (CT) in the treatment persistent endodontic lesions. J Endod.
selection of treatment for root-filled maxillary molars 2012;38:41–6.
with apical periodontitis. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. 55. Natkin E, Oswald RJ, Carnes LI. The relationship of
2016;45:20150391. lesion size to diagnosis, incidence, and treatment of
49. Sirotheau Corrêa Pontes F, Paiva Fonseca F, Souza de periapical cysts and granulomas. Oral Surg Oral Med
Jesus A, Garcia Alves AC, Marques Araújo L, Silva Oral Pathol. 1984;57:82–94.
do Nascimento L, Rebelo Pontes HA. Nonendodontic 56. Nair PN. New perspectives on radicular cysts: do they
lesions misdiagnosed as apical periodontitis lesions: heal? Int Endod J. 1998;31:155–60.
Decision Making
6
Thomas Kvist

I used to be indecisive but now I am not quite sure.


—Tommy Cooper (1921–1984). Welsh comedian and magician.

Abstract
In this chapter the complexity of any clinical decision making process is
briefly sketched out.
Descriptive as well as prescriptive projects regarding endodontic
retreatment decision making are reviewed. The inherent ethical aspects of
any prescriptive system are emphasized.
But this chapter also gives simple guidelines for the clinician’s every-
day decision making regarding persistent apical periodontitis.

6.1 Introduction compiles their own data and then constructs an


argument for a particular disease state based on
Clinical decision making is a term frequently their interpretation of the “facts”. The strength of
used to describe the fundamental role of any phy- their case will depend on the way in which they
sician or dentist. It concerns the process where gather and assemble information. There may then
data are gathered, interpreted and evaluated in be no single, right way of applying therapeutic
order to select a choice of action. Having an strategies to a particular case. Dentistry is not an art
understanding of the complexity and the different like painting. But, neither is it a science like phys-
approaches to the task will allow for development ics. It’s an applied science. Since each patient is a
and improvement in daily care of our patients. unique being, it can be very tricky to decide how to
Clinical decision making is the process by apply the science and evidence to each individual
which we determine what the patient needs and case and situation. In this chapter I will discuss
when he or she needs it. While not arbitrary, this some various aspects on clinical decision making
exercise can be quite subjective. Each clinician for root-filled teeth with apical periodontitis.

6.2 Available Options


T. Kvist, DDS, PhD
Department of Endodontology, Institute of When a diagnosis of apical periodontitis in a root-
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, filled tooth is present, theoretically four options
University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
e-mail: kvist@odontologi.gu.se are available: (1) no treatment, (2) monitoring

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 55


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_6
56 T. Kvist

No replacement

Extraction Fixed prosthesis

Implant

Therapy
Surgical retreatment

Non surgical retreatment

Monitoring

Fig. 6.1  A decision tree


logically displaying
alternative actions in the
management of
root-filled teeth with No therapy No monitoring
apical periodontitis

(wait and see), (3) extraction and (4) retreatment. plan, extraction, periapical surgery and conven-
If retreatment is selected, the decision maker also tional retreatment were suggested for 23%, 3%
has to make a choice between a (a) surgical and and 20%, respectively. However, for the remain-
(b) nonsurgical treatment (Fig. 6.1). ing 472 cases (54%), no intervention was pre-
scribed. In another study, Petersson et al. [3]
re-examined a sample of 351 individuals from a
6.3  ariation in Endodontic
V randomly selected cohort of 1302 persons radio-
Retreatment Decision graphically examined 11 years earlier. It was
Making found that 33 (40%) of the endodontically treated
teeth with periapical bone lesions at first exami-
In a benchmark, experimental study, Reit and nation had been retreated or extracted, while the
Gröndahl [1] confronted 35 dental officers from remaining 49 teeth had received no radiographi-
the Public Dental Health Organization in Sweden cally detectable treatment. This quandary con-
with 33 endodontically treated teeth with radio- tinues to attract attention from various aspects
graphic signs of persistent apical periodontitis. among researchers, and the overall conclusion is
In no case was the same option suggested unani- that there is no consensus [4, 5]. In particular, the
mously by all observers. The number of teeth constantly repeated observation that the mere
selected for therapy (surgical or nonsurgical diagnosis of apical periodontitis does not consis-
retreatment or extraction) had an inter examiner tently lead to clinical action has attracted special
range of 7–26 teeth. Petersson et al. [2] scruti- attention [6].
nized 1094 treatment plans including radio- The implementation of dental implants to
graphs submitted to the Swedish dental insurance replace a compromised tooth has made the
system by general practitioners. In 874 root- issue even more marked and controversial
filled teeth, a periapical radiolucency was diag- which has been highlighted in numerous publi-
nosed by the authors. According to the treatment cations in recent years [7, 8].
6  Decision Making 57

6.4  ariation in Medical


V 6.5  linical Decision Making:
C
and Dental Care Descriptive Projects

Variation in health-care procedures was recog- In studies of clinical reasoning, several models
nized early, at the beginning of the twentieth cen- have been suggested and used [17]. Some inves-
tury. In a classical study [9] of 1000 11-year-old tigators have focused on the artistic, or intuitive,
schoolchildren in New York City, it was found aspects of clinical practice [12, 18].
that 650 children had undergone tonsillectomy. In the tradition of “judgement analysis” [19],
The remaining 350 children were sent to a group researchers have tried to reveal the pieces of
of physicians. One hundred and fifty-eight chil- information or “cues”, used at conscious or
dren were selected for tonsillectomy. Those unconscious levels, that influence a person’s
rejected (192) were sent to another group of phy- decision making policy. This approach has been
sicians, and 88 of them were then suggested for applied in several domains [20] including judge-
tonsillectomy. After that, the remaining children ments of third molar removal [21]. In a series of
were examined by a third group of physicians, investigations, Kahneman and Tversky [22]
and then only 65 children remained for whom explored a proposition that people most often
tonsillectomy had not been suggested. At that rely on a small number of heuristic principles to
point the study was interrupted owing to a short- make decisions. Their gathered important insights
age of physicians to consult. into human thinking and decision making were
Variation in care is a real challenge to many admirably summarized the other year by Nobel
areas within medicine and health care [10–13] as laureate Kahneman [23].
well as dentistry [14–16].
Already in 1984 Eddy [10] condensed the
worrisome situation: 6.5.1 Descriptive Projects
Uncertainty creeps into medical practice through on Endodontic Retreatment
every pore. Whether a physician is defining a dis- Decision Making
ease, making a diagnosis, selecting a procedure,
observing outcomes, assessing probabilities, Attempts have been made to explain the observed
assigning preferences, or putting it all together,
he is walking on a very slippery terrain. It is dif- variation in the management of periapical lesions
ficult for nonphysicians, and for many physi- in endodontically treated teeth. Since several
cians, to appreciate how complex these tasks are, studies have demonstrated large interindividual
how poorly we understand them, and how easy it variation in radiographic interpretation of the
is for honest people to come to different
conclusions. periapical area [24], it has been hypothesized that
variation in retreatment decisions might be
Owing to its intricacy, clinical decision making regarded as a function of diagnostic variation.
has attracted interdisciplinary attention. In However, nor studies among general practitio-
addition to interest from health professionals, ners [25] or specialists [5, 7] have given support
philosophers, psychologists and economists
­ to this idea. Rawski et al. [26] applied the above-­
have also contributed [17]. Two main spheres of mentioned “judgement analysis” model. The
research and thinking can be identified: descrip- complexity and multiplicity of factors present
tive and prescriptive. Descriptive projects aim in different studies of the phenomenon have
at mapping out and explaining how clinicians ­rendered it difficult to present a coherent model
reason and make decisions. Prescriptive, or to explain the observed variation. But the diag-
normative, projects, on the other hand, are nostic difficulties, timing and the question of
involved with how decisions should or ought to what should be regarded as healthy and diseased,
be made. as well as several other factors, partly explain the
58 T. Kvist

large variation among dentists regarding retreat- and his or her value judgements. It has been sug-
ment decision making [6]. gested that one may apprehend values in acts of pre-
ferring [33, 34]. This means that when faced with a
6.5.1.1 The Praxis Concept choice, the values of an individual are reflected in
The Strindberg [27] criterion of classifying the his preference behaviour. For example, the value of
results of endodontic treatment into “success” and health is given in preferring it to disease.
“failure” represents an “ideal” concept of disease. The subjective values of endodontic health
According to Juul Jensen [28], such criterion is states in root-filled teeth were investigated among
demarcated and made explicit by a formal defini- dental students [35] and specialists in endodon-
tion. However, by no way are all our concepts tics [30].
defined in such a precise way. Still these concepts In these studies, students and endodontists
exist. They exist in the sense that we use them. were asked to judge a health state of a root-filled
Such concepts are referred to as “praxis concepts” incisor with no signs of periapical pathology, and
by Juul Jensen [28]. In search of a theory that one health state where a periapical radiolucency
could, at least partly, explain the variation in retreat- was diagnosed. The two health states were placed
ment decision making, a “praxis concept” of peri- on a utility scale extending from “perfect pulpal
apical health and disease following root canal and periapical health” (value = 1) to “loss of the
treatment was generated and tested in a series of tooth” (value = 0). Large interindividual varia-
written case simulation design studies [29–31]. tions in value judgements were found for both
In this “praxis concept”, it was proposed that situations. Nevertheless, most raters assigned
dentists consider periapical health and disease, not higher values to a situation were no signs of
as either/or situations, but as states on a continuous pathology were present compared to a situation
scale. On this scale a major lesion represents a with a periapical lesion present. Nevertheless,
more serious condition than a smaller one. Variation these studies failed to show any significant corre-
between decision makers could then be regarded as lation between the retreatment prescriptions and
the result of the individuals’ selection of differing the elicited values. However, the assessment of
cut-off points on the scale for prescribing retreat- value judgements is a complex task, and the meth-
ment. The investigations gave support to the view ods of eliciting them and the reliability and valid-
that a periapical health continuum is the basis of a ity of obtained values may be questioned [36].
praxis concept. Factors unrelated to the disease per
se (costs, technical quality of root filling, access
problems) also seemed to contribute to the final 6.5.3 T
 he Benefit of Endodontic
placement of the cut-off point. These studies also Retreatment
emphasized the subjective influence of personal
values on the selection of retreatment criterion. According to von Wright [37], something is ben-
Similar patterns among clinicians’ root canal eficial to a being when the doing or having or hap-
retreatment strategies were also found among den- pening of this thing affects the good of that being
tal students in Saudi Arabia [32] and general prac- favourably. He suggests that when the being in
titioners and specialists in Australia [7]. question is a human being, the phrase “the good
of a being” can be understood in two different
ways: in terms of welfare and in terms of health.
6.5.2 Personal Values This means that a treatment procedure is benefi-
cial to a patient if it is in some way conducive to
According to the praxis concept, a dentist’s values his welfare (or well-being), or if it is conducive to
influence the recommendation of endodontic his (bodily or mental) health or both [38].
retreatment. The concept of value is multidimen- From a dental health point of view, a patient
sional, but it seems sound to assume that there is a will benefit from endodontic retreatment if he or
close connection between an individual’s values she moves from a health state with a periapical
6  Decision Making 59

Subjective benefit of retreatment


Patient B
0.75

Subjective benefit of retreatment


Patient A
0.30

Utility value
1.0
0
Tooth with
No tooth
healthy pulp.
0.35 0.65
Assessment patient A Root filled tooth Root filled tooth
with apical periodontitis. without apical periodontitis.

0.15 0.90
Assessment patient B Root filled tooth Root filled tooth
with apical periodontitis. without apical periodontitis.

Fig. 6.2  An individual may benefit from endodontic cal difference in assigned utility values can be defined as
retreatment by moving from a state with an asymptomatic the “subjective benefit of retreatment”
lesion to a state where the lesion has healed. The numeri-

inflammation to a post-retreatment situation where Today patient autonomy is widely regarded as


the lesion has healed. If the health states are placed a primary ethical principle, emphasizing the
on a utility scale, the subjective benefit of endodon- importance of paying attention to the values and
tic retreatment can be defined as the distance preferences of the individual patient in any pre-
between the two states (Fig. 6.2). Presumably, end- scriptive theories of clinical decision making.
odontic retreatment will contribute to a person’s
well-being and health in proportion to the individ-
ual length of the distance between the health states. 6.6  linical Decision Making:
C
In an investigation involving 16 endodontists, it Prescriptive Projects
was found that the assessment of “retreatment ben-
efit” was subjected to substantial interindividual Prescriptive projects in clinical decision making
variation [30]. This was due above all to the experts’ are fundamentally an issue of ethics. Prescriptive
deviations in their judgement of the value of the ethics, or normative ethics (syn), is the branch of
persistent periapical lesion. The findings clearly philosophical ethics that investigates the set of
demonstrated that the “benefit” of endodontic questions that arise when considering how one
retreatment varies among individuals and highlight ought to act, morally speaking. Prescriptive eth-
the necessity of “consumer” influence in clinical ics is consequently distinct from descriptive eth-
decision making. From a subjective point of view, ics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of
some patients will benefit much more from end- people’s moral beliefs or values. To put it another
odontic retreatment than others. It also suggests way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with
that the value-laden terms “success” and “failure” determining what proportion of dentists believe
are meaningful only in the clinical patient-dentist that endodontic retreatment should be performed,
context. Both doctors’ and patients’ values will while prescriptive ethics is concerned with
influence the decision making process. whether it is correct or not to hold such a belief.
60 T. Kvist

6.6.1 Ethics: What It Is 3. The autonomy principle means that one should
respect the patient’s right to self-­determination,
Ethics deals with that which is good or bad, what which implies that one must keep patients
should or should not be done and what character- informed and guarantee them the right to
istics make us better or worse as individual decline the treatment being offered.
human beings. The central question in normative 4. The principle of fairness or justice means that
ethics concerns the right procedure; its role is to patients with similar needs should be treated
clarify how ethical questions should be managed, similarly. That is, it is the patient’s treatment
i.e. what should be done in a certain situation and need which should determine the course of
what should be avoided [39]. A course of action action, not—for example—the patient’s cul-
can be wrong on ethical grounds in two different tural background, gender, financial or social
ways. Either there is something offensive in the standing.
course of action itself that makes it unacceptable,
regardless of the expected consequences of the The principles in themselves do not suggest an
action, e.g. because those concerned are not order of priority in cases of conflict. One can eas-
treated with respect and dignity, or that it violates ily imagine situations where the treatment which
basic human rights. Or the expected negative is most likely to improve the patient’s dental
consequences exceed the expected benefit, and health is at the same time associated with greater
thus the action is disallowed. If there is profound risk than other treatment options. In such a case,
objection in principle against the course of action, which principle should be applied, the “do-good”
then there is no cause to reason further and weigh or the “do no harm” principle? A similar conflict
the positive and negative consequences. In other can arise between the “do-good” principle and
cases, these consequences should be considered. the autonomy principle, in cases where the
Ethics in health care is concerned primarily patient does not want to accept the treatment,
with how the individual patient should be treated, which the dentist recommends. However, the
i.e. what is beneficial and what is harmful to the four principles are not intended as a total ethics
patient, respectively. Several patient-related package for solving ethical problems. The pur-
interests become relevant. Normally and particu- pose is more to remind us of core ethical princi-
larly issues regarding health and well-being are ples, which should be taken into account and
central to dental ethics. But also, questions guide us in clinical decision making.
regarding and autonomy and integrity are highly
relevant. Ethics in dentistry, however, covers
more than the individual patient. Effectiveness, 6.6.2 The “Strindberg System”
priority and fairness are also relevant aspects of
ethics, as are questions about how to weigh up In endodontics, the system of dichotomizing the
the interests of the patient against research inter- outcome of root canal treatment into “success”
ests (see Chapter “Consequences”). and “failure” launched by Strindberg [27] has
The following four principles, which are well achieved paradigmatic status as a normative
established in biomedical ethics, are often pre- guide to clinical action. According to Strindberg
sented as a basis for ethics in health and medical [27], the only satisfactory post-treatment situa-
(and dental) care [40]: tion, after a predetermined healing period, com-
bines a symptom-free patient with a normal
1. The do-good principle means that one should periradicular situation. Only cases fulfilling these
try to help the patient by satisfying his or her criteria were classified as “successes”, and all
(medical and basic human) needs. others as “failures”.
2. The do no harm principle means that one Consequently, when a new or persistent peri-
should avoid harming the patient. One should, apical lesion is diagnosed in an endodontically
for example, avoid taking unjustifiable risks. treated tooth, the Strindberg system prescribes
6  Decision Making 61

retreatment (or extraction). The Strindberg sys- 6.6.4 Evidence-Based Decision


tem is exclusively based on biology and can be Making
perceived as dogmatic and inflexible. Although
generally accepted in academic institutions, In more recent years, the development of the con-
available studies and experience indicate a weak cept of evidence-based medicine/evidence-based
position among general practitioners [3, 7, 31, dentistry has come to supplement and to some
41, 42]. extent replace the formal clinical decision analy-
sis [50].
Evidence-based medicine is “the conscien-
6.6.3 Expected Utility Theory tious, explicit and judicious use of current best
evidence in making decisions about the care of
One of the most highly developed normative individual patients”. This well-known definition
decision making models is the “expected utility emanates from the highly cited report published
theory” (EUT). For reviews see Hargreaves Heap by David L. Sackett and collaborators in the 1996
et al. [34] and Bacharach and Hurley [43]. The British Medical Journal [51].
philosophical foundation of the model is to be While evidence-based medicine/evidence-­
found in classical utilitarianism [44, 45], while based dentistry basically is concerned with the
its mathematical origins are even older [46]. The efficiency of the clinical procedures that we apply
advent of modern EUT is associated with the to treat our patients, in order to achieve the best
influential work of von Neumann and possible outcome for each patient based on the
Morgenstern [33] which made some of the psy- best knowledge and available resources the con-
chological assumptions of utilitarianism redun- cept has not always been generally agreed upon
dant. During the last 70 years, EUT has prospered and the concept has nowadays, in some instances,
mainly in economics and the social sciences. The been given a wider meaning and has become
theory was introduced to medicine by Ledley and something of a buzzword. However, during
Lusted [47]. “Clinical decision analysis” has recent years hundreds of books and thousands of
received much attention in medicine and also in articles have been published using this concep-
dentistry [48]. tion. In addition, websites and various other
EUT prescribes that the problem should be channels of information issued by researchers,
structured as a “decision tree”, which (i) logically clinicians and organizations have been released
displays available actions and their possible con- on this new concept in the clinical practice of
sequences. Then (ii) the listed outcomes are health care including dentistry.
assessed regarding probabilities and subjective Bergenholtz and Kvist [52] reviewed the
values (“utility”). After this (iii) the weighed sum essence of the concepts and its impact on endodon-
(expected utility) of each strategy is computed, tics. Like Reit and Gröndahl [49], 30 years earlier,
and (iv) the action with the highest sum is the authors reported that evidence-based data on
chosen. various outcomes associated with apical periodon-
Reit and Gröndahl [1] approached the man- titis in root-filled teeth is largely lacking, and also
agement of periapical lesions in endodontically patients’ preferences are difficult to estimate.
treated teeth from a decision analytic point of
view. Even if EUT may be questioned as a nor-
mative theory, it does point out two essential 6.6.5 Autonomy and Information
components of a basis for making clinical deci-
sions: empirical facts and subjective values. Later The principle of autonomy is highly relevant to
these authors drew attention to the fact that the diagnosis and treatment of apical periodontitis in
critical information needed for the analysis were root-filled teeth. What should patients decide? What
either not available (utility values) or very uncer- information should the dentist provide and should
tain (outcome probabilities) [49]. any information be withheld from the patient?
62 T. Kvist

The mouth is an intimate part of the body. It is no adequate strategy because the patient may
therefore reasonable to assume that it is impor- draw the conclusion that the dentist now has some
tant for people to make their own decisions about information or would otherwise not have asked.
their teeth, not least with respect to any treat- It may be challenging to have to inform a
ment. In order to make informed decisions about patient that previous treatment has not been suc-
their own dental care, patients require relevant cessful, as there is a risk of singling out oneself or
information. In circumstances where there is a a colleague in a negative way. This is sometimes
lack of knowledge about the expected benefits of unavoidable if the patient is to receive relevant
different treatment options, it is difficult to pro- information. In the case of diagnosing someone
vide information, which offers the patient a basis else’s “failure”, it is important to combine objec-
for decision making. It is also difficult to analyse tivity in presenting the information with a
the value of different options from a general point respectful attitude, since it is usually impossible
of view. It is therefore important from both an to fully appreciate under what circumstances the
individual patient and a community perspective treatment was accomplished.
that research is conducted to improve our knowl-
edge of the effects of the various options for root-­ 6.6.5.1 Monitors and Blunters
filled teeth with apical periodontitis. In the future, Kristina is a 62-year-old teacher, and I have just
this will allow the clinician to offer better infor- told her that the X-ray of her upper left first molar
mation to patients and thus for the patient to does exhibit a periapical radiolucency and an
assess various action alternatives. inadequate root filling. The root canal treatment
As indicated by the many epidemiological was done 6 years ago. I tell her that this indicates
studies and the experiments on endodontic a persisting root canal infection and that it might
retreatment decision making among clinicians, become symptomatic sooner or later. I suggest a
asymptomatic apical periodontitis associated CBCT examination for better imaging, verifying
with root-filled teeth is often not considered as an the diagnosis and support for decision making. I
indication for retreatment, and hence these teeth am telling her that a minor surgery might be
are left without treatment. Is this wrong? Is the needed to solve the problem. Then I tell her that I
dentist under an obligation to inform the patient will contact her again when I have looked at the
of the situation? Furthermore, a not inconsider- CBCT results and suggest a treatment plan. “Will
able portion of the cases is a consequence from it be painful to do a surgery?”, she asks slightly
previously improper root canal treatments. surprised. “No it is a standard procedure done
Should the dentist inform the patient about previ- with local anaesthesia at our clinic”, I answer.
ously inadequate treatment? From the perspec- “Do you have any further questions”, I ask. “No,
tive of autonomy, the answer to these questions I trust you to tell me what I need to know”, she
seems obvious. Anyone wanting such informa- answers before rising from chair and leaving.
tion about their dental status should have the In the same week, I see John, a 50-year-old
right to this if the information is found during an shop owner, for a check-up of a root canal treat-
examination at a dental appointment. ment of a lower first molar I finished 1 year ago.
A difficulty is that some patients do not wish to The X-ray shows that the periapical radiolucency
receive such information, i.e. they prefer not to is unchanged in size. I am telling him that no
know unless the information has a clear and direct signs of healing are yet visible but that is too
bearing on their health and/or well-being. early to diagnose it as a “failure”. I suggest fur-
Consequently, the dentist needs to ascertain ther follow-up with a new X-ray for another year.
beforehand what attitude the patient has to such Unlike Kristina, John has a lot of questions.
information, in order to show due consideration to “How come that healing has not occurred yet?
both patients who want to be fully informed and Are there bacteria left in the tooth than? Isn’t
those who do not. To ask the patient whether he dangerous? Perhaps you should have taken my
wishes to receive such information is reasonably tooth out already from the beginning? Will I have
6  Decision Making 63

pain now? What will you suggest if you don’t see 6.6.6 Informed Consent
healing at next check-up either? Will I have to go
through any further treatments?” he asks. “I The requirement that a medical or dental action
have many friends who also had root canal treat- should be preceded by informed consent is
ments and they never said that it took so long to deemed very important in medical ethics [40].
heal. I'll probably ask them. Then I will go on the It is important to appreciate that it is not
Internet and search as many sites as I can about enough that a patient has received written or oral
this. My feeling is that something is wrong and I information and then consented. The informed
need more information”. consent has two components: information and
It is striking how two patients facing similar consent. The patient must have accepted and
situations took two very different approaches to understood the information and not only received
gathering and processing information. Miller it. All the relevant aspects of the situation should
[53] has categorized these two approaches to be informed about in an appropriate way. The
information seeking under threat as “blunters” dentist should not only convey information but
and “monitors”. The blunter—Kristina—wants also need to ensure that the information is cor-
just the basics, while the monitor—John—craves rectly recognized. In order to take a position in an
more information. High monitors and low blunt- independent way in a choice situation, the patient
ers chose to seek out information about its nature must also be informed of the alternatives and be
and onset, whereas low monitors and high blunt- free to choose, i.e. not be subjected to compul-
ers chose to distract themselves. Each style has sion, or in such a position of dependence that the
its strengths and weaknesses. But, under unfa- free informed choice becomes an illusion.
vourable conditions, both styles risk becoming In a dental surgery, there are many circum-
more flawed and hamper a good patient-dentist stances that can hamper patients’ ability to
relation. acquire and rationally process the information
My own clinical experience is that people react given. The environment and situation may seem
very differently to the information about signs of frightening and lead to both anxiety and worry,
persistent apical periodontitis. Health information which can confuse a generally well-functioning
is not neutral, especially when you’re the one sense and judgement. To ascertain that the patient
affected by a condition. If you, who are reading comprehends the information may thus be diffi-
this, have your own experience of root canal treat- cult. It is important that the dentist is attentive to
ment, you have probably experienced how differ- both verbal and non-verbal expressions.
ent it is when you are reading about it as a At the same time, one must have realistic
professional, as opposed to when you had the pro- expectations of the patient’s ability to under-
cedures executed on your own tooth. stand and evaluate the options. Certainly, this
“We don’t see things as they are, we see them can vary greatly between individuals. For
as we are” is a quotation with several suggested patients who want to have full control over the
origins that captures the essence of our argument. decision, doctors should make sure to make this
Most people fall somewhere in between the possible, but one must also allow the patient to
two extremes of blunter and monitor. Most of our hand over a part of decision making if he or she
patients want to know to appraise and understand so wishes. A professional reception of each indi-
the options without going into too many details, vidual patient at the dentist’s office creates a
but some just want to say, “Just tell me what to seedbed for a high confidence that the patient
do. That’s fine”. can feel safe with both for the decision making
The notion about different psychological dis- and forthcoming treatments.
positions towards information and the variation In everyday clinical practice, an oral consent
in attitudes to apical periodontitis result in con- is normal and also appears naturally. A written
siderable challenge to the dentist and the decision agreement could be seen as well formal and
making process. might also get the patient to wonder what kind of
64 T. Kvist

exceptional measures that require such formali- but at the same time the consequences are not
ties. However, in many countries and in research very severe and of transient nature.
contexts, it is quite common or even compulsory If only it had been advantages to inform, there
with written informed consent documentation. would have been no reason to hesitate about.
What complicates the matter is that information
6.6.6.1 Information About Treatment in itself can cause injury. Risk information may
Patients in the dental care can hardly be expected cause anxiety, and it can make patients refrain
to have knowledge and understanding of all the from treatments because of unrest despite the
factors that can and should be taken into consider- risks otherwise would be reasonable to accept.
ation before a clinical decision about an endodon- This is why there may be reason to wonder, for
tic retreatment. The patient has the right to know example, whether to communicate a very small
what the different treatment alternatives entail, likelihood of great harm. Primarily because it is a
how risky and painful they are and what impact it concern from dentist’s point of view to promote
is likely to bring with them to undergo treatment patient’s oral health, but also from the autonomy
and to refrain from it. This implies a correspond- perspective, it is sometimes questionable whether
ing requirement for dental staff to ensure that this such information should be given. The fear of an
information is provided and that it is done in a unlikely but serious injury may counteract the
way that the patient can actually understand. In ability of the patient to rationally reflect on the
practice, there is of course a limit on how detailed options and come to an autonomous decision.
information can be allowed to become. If patients Exactly how much information and into what
ask many questions about the equipment and level of detail that should be made are debatable.
methods, this can be an expression of concern, or Some patients prefer not to know the risks unless it
at worst, distrust, rather than a genuine desire for is clearly relevant. How much and what to inform
more detailed information. As important as pro- varies with the situation and who is the patient.
viding answers to all the questions, then is to try
to establish or re-establish trust. The patient 6.6.6.3 Information on Costs
should be able to rely on dentists’ knowledge When deciding about a tooth in possible need of
based on science and proven experience and that endodontic retreatment the economic aspect of
they follow both the technological and scientific the treatment is, if not decisive, then at least a
developments in the field. They should also be very important factor. It is important that infor-
confident that the dentist has the best for the mation about the costs and possible reimburse-
patient as their primary goal. ment by insurance are correct and that it does not
change. Also, costs for alternative strategies, i.e.
6.6.6.2 Information About Risks extracting the tooth with or without replacement,
For a patient to be adequately informed, some- should be clearly accounted for.
thing must be said about the risks associated with
the suggested treatment but also to refrain from 6.6.6.4 Information and Manipulation
treating. In our particular case, this is complicated When the patient is informed of the facts regard-
significantly due to the fact that evidence is lack- ing diagnoses, treatment options, risks and costs,
ing about how the untreated apical periodontitis he or she must be allowed to choose what she
affects individuals both locally and systemically. wants to do in the given situation. The individual
There are two basic aspects of risk: some kind has a right not to be forced or manipulated to
of negative consequence and the probability that undergo dental treatments. However, it is difficult
it will occur. The negative consequence or injury to imagine that the dentist can completely avoid
may be more or less severe. The most serious the influence. The positive approach to good
negative consequences, death or lifelong pain or oral and dental health and in this particular case,
suffering, are very unlikely as a consequence of the importance of restoring periapical health is
either leaving or treating apical periodontitis in a likely to affect the patient to some degree. One
root-­filled tooth. Other risks are more frequent might think that it is also reasonable, since good
6  Decision Making 65

p­ eriapical health, in the same way as teeth without cal decision making must be ruled out. The
cavities and with good periodontal health, appears Strindberg dichotomy of post-treatment situation
to be the intrinsic and undisputable objectives of into success and failure exclusively founded on
dental care. Here, there is an important balance to biology is neutral to different agents and clinical
go so that patient autonomy is not compromised. situations [27]. Therefore, it cannot alone be used
on an “intuitive level” rule for clinical decisions
6.6.6.5 Authorized Informed Consent about endodontic retreatment.
Many patients lack all or part of the capacity for In medical and dental decision making mat-
autonomous decision making. It may involve ters, it is often difficult to imagine all outcomes
children, mentally ill, mentally retarded or and to assess their probabilities and elicit trust-
demented individuals. It is important to remem- worthy value judgments. This holds true also for
ber that these patients have the right to be treated apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth. However,
with care and respect. A fruitful way to address even if it was humanly possible to compute the
the challenge of information and consent for probabilities and utilities of all possible out-
these patients is to allow them to exercise their comes, it would often be absurd, time-consuming
autonomy as best they can and otherwise let them and counterproductive. From a critical level
express their willingness or unwillingness to ­perspective, calculations should be made on the
cooperate. In the absence of the ability to under- intuitive level only if they bring about the best
stand, to take a stand and to make decisions, can consequences. If not, other decision strategies
the informed consent be authorized to a close should be used. Better overall results may come
relative or another person close to the patient? from acting in accordance with principles or
rules. In many clinical situations, we can safely
act on well-established precepts, and in others we
6.7  Guide to Everyday
A ought to stick to prima facie rules. In order to
Decision Making of Root-­ achieve the best results for everyone involved, the
Filled Teeth with Apical clinician, at the intuitive level, should probably
Periodontitis normally follow a few simple principles rather
than engaging in difficult and about outcomes
6.7.1 Philosophical Justification and preferences.
A prima facie rule is an obligation which is
The British philosopher RM Hare [54] makes a initially binding until a stronger and overriding
distinction between two levels of moral reasoning duty emerges. The expression prima facie means
and hence decision making: the intuitive and the “first appearance”, and in philosophy it is associ-
critical. The intuitive level is the level at which ated with the reasoning initiated by Ross [55]. He
most of us make decisions about moral matters argued that we intuitively perceive a small set of
most of the time. We rely on relatively simple, foundational prima facie duties which are the
specific and intuitive principles to guide us in rou- basis of all judgements when moral issues are
tine circumstances. However, it is also possible to involved. Ross lists the following seven prima
reflect on those principles, to step back and to facie principles: promise keeping, reparation for
critically assess them. This is the level of critical harm done, gratitude, justice, beneficence, self-­
thinking. At this level, empirical facts and value improvement and non-maleficence. In the influ-
judgements are considered rationally in order to ential work on biomedical ethics of Beauchamp
establish and select principles which can be fol- and Childress [40], the prima facie idea was fur-
lowed in everyday life at the intuitive level. ther processed and the principles reduced to the
Social development has led to the conclusion previously mentioned four: respect for autonomy,
that we are currently seeing the patient’s right to beneficence, non-maleficence and justice.
autonomous decision making as an integral part According to Hare [54] the four principles
of both dental care and other health services. could be justified by the golden rule: “Therefore
Consequently, a paternalistic approach to clini- all things whatsoever ye would that men should
66 T. Kvist

do to you, do ye even so to them: for this is the meaning of the situation will differ among patients.
law and the prophets” (St Matthew 7:12). Only the patient is the expert on how he or she
The following principles about decision mak- feels about keeping a tooth with or without retreat-
ing regarded apical periodontitis in root-filled ment or perhaps extracting it, which symptoms are
teeth are suggested and formulated from a den- tolerable, which risks are worth taking and what
tist’s perspective [6]. costs are acceptable. These, subjective and per-
sonal values, must be allowed to influence the
1. First principle: Apical periodontitis in a root-­ decision making process.
filled tooth that is not expected to heal should
be retreated. (b) Retreatment risks

Motivation: It is assumed that the best overall con- The potential risks (the probability of certain
sequences are obtained if dentists’ primary sugges- negative events) associated with a possible
tions to patients, at the intuitive level, are to perform retreatment procedure (e.g. root fracture associ-
endodontic retreatment when a persisting apical peri- ated with post removal, nerve injury as a result of
odontitis is diagnosed. The persistent lesion is an periapical surgery) are objectively assessed and
expression of a root canal infection, and people ben- weighed against the subjectively evaluated bene-
efit from having their oral infections treated. Diagnosis fit resulting from retreatment. The risk/ benefit
and treatment of oral infections belong to the central ratio is found to be too low to be accepted.
and indispensable values of dentistry, and everybody
involved, not only patients, will benefit if prevention (c) Retreatment monetary costs
and treatment of oral infections are at the core in the
dental profession. There is no solid scientific evidence Patient’s costs for retreatment are considered
to distinguish among grades of periapical disease. (e.g. treatment fee, drugs, loss of income, suffer-
However, if the lesion is small and asymptomatic, the ing), and the cost/benefit ratio is subjectively
probability of development of severe local symptoms considered to be too low to be accepted.
is low. Furthermore, in general, the health hazard of
an untreated persistent lesion is probably low.
Therefore, false-positive diagnoses should be avoided. 6.8  urgical or Nonsurgical
S
This first principle is simple but quite dog- Retreatment
matic. It implies that if a retreatment is suggested
following the diagnosis of a persistent lesion and While the clinician makes a diagnosis and
if this is accepted, no specific arguments or fur- informs about and considers retreatment of a per-
ther deliberation are needed. sistent apical lesion to the patient, the question, if
However, if a persistent lesion is diagnosed so, how is a natural and integrated part of the
and retreatment is not selected, specific argu- process.
ments have to be put forward. These are found in There is insufficient scientific support on which
the second principle. to determine whether surgical and nonsurgical
retreatment of root-filled teeth gives systemati-
2. Second principle: A persistent periapical
cally different outcomes, both short and long term,
lesion in a root-filled tooth might not be with respect to healing of apical ­periodontitis or
retreated with regard to: tooth survival [56, 57]. In everyday clinical prac-
tice, a number of factors influence the choice of
(a) Respect for patient autonomy retreatment method. For example, the size of the
bone destruction, the technical quality of previous
This principle implies that the patient is fully treatment, accessibility to the root canal, future
informed regarding the situation but does not want restorative requirements of the tooth, the cost of
retreatment to be performed. Attitudes to periapi- treatment, the preferences of the clinician and the
cal disease vary among individuals. The subjective patient, m
­ edical considerations and the availability
6  Decision Making 67

of various types of special equipment are briefly cases, therefore a nonsurgical retreatment should
discussed below. More detailed discussion is avail- be considered. In particular, this is the case when
able in Chaps. 7 and 8. Although future compara- access is not obstructed by a crown and post.
tive studies may provide valuable general Since there is convincing support that the quality
information, clinical decisions in every individual of the restoration also plays a significant role for
case will still have to be made on the basis that the the periapical status in root filled teeth the clini-
conditions applying to every case are unique. cian should always have a critical look at the
restoration.
The obvious objective for a nonsurgical retreat-
6.8.1 T
 he Size of the Bone ment is to treat previously untreated parts of root
Destruction canal system and thus improve the quality of root
canal filling. With the help of modern endodontic
Apical periodontitis may develop into cysts. armament, this is often possible to achieve.
Periapical cysts are classified as “pocket cysts” or Studies have shown that nonsurgical retreatment
“true cysts”. In case of a pocket cyst, the cyst cav- performed by skilful clinicians results in good
ity is open to the root canal, and therefore it is chances of achieving periapical healing [63, 64].
expected to heal after proper conventional root It is sometimes argued that the result of a surgi-
canal treatment. The cavity of a true cyst, on the cal of endodontic surgery is dependent of a good
other hand, is supposed to be entirely enfolded by quality of the root filling and consequently that any
epithelial lining which may make it nonrespon- endodontic surgery should be preceded by a non-
sive to any nonsurgical root canal treatment or surgical retreatment. The benefits of this approach
retreatment. Thus, it is supposed that true radicu- must be questioned. The evidence base is weak
lar cysts have to be surgically resected in order to [65]. And even if the procedures would show mar-
heal [58]. There is no method to clinically deter- ginally better healing outcome, the cost-effective-
mine the histological diagnosis of the periapical ness must be questioned. Moreover, if used orderly
tissue in general, and in particular there is no it would lead to the execution of a not insignificant
method to discriminate between pocket cysts and amount of unnecessary surgeries. In many cases
true cysts [59]. Cysts are expected to be more the nonsurgical treatment would be sufficient to
prevalent among big bone destructions [60]. achieve healing of the periapical tissues and conse-
The clinical empiric support for how radicular quently making the surgical procedure redundant.
cysts are best treated is poor but rather based upon
histological findings and theoretical assumptions.
However, in cases when a big (≥ 15 mm in diam- 6.8.3 Accessibility to the Root Canal
eter) periapical bone destruction is present and
especially if the quality of the root filling is good, Root-filled teeth are often restored with posts and
these assumptions suggest there are reasons to crowns and are frequently used as abutments for
suspect a “true cyst” and consequently consider bridges and other prosthodontic constructions
surgical retreatment as the first choice. which have to be removed or passed through for a
nonsurgical approach. In cases where the quality of
restorations is adequate, therefore, the more
6.8.2 T
 he Technical Quality ­complex the restoration, the more appealing an end-
of the Previous Treatment odontic surgery approach. Even without hindering
restorations, a preoperative analysis of the case may
In cases of non-healed apical periodontitis, the reveal intra-canal ledges or fractured instruments
quality of the initial root treatment is often inad- that already preoperatively make the accessibility to
equate. This is frequently reflected in the poor the site of the residual infection questionable [63].
technical quality of the root filling [61]. In On the other hand, access to the site of infec-
molars, the reason for treatment failure may be tion by endodontic surgery can also be judged to
associated with untreated canals [62]. In many imply major difficulties. In particular surgery
68 T. Kvist

involving mandibular molar roots as well as pala- ment. Since posts and crowns have to be removed
tal roots of the maxillary teeth sometimes offers (and replaced), a nonsurgical approach will be
significant operator challenges. Preoperative expensive in such situations. Indirect and intangi-
CBCT scans help the surgeon to plan the interven- ble costs associated with endodontic retreatment
tion or sometimes to refrain and choose a nonsur- are mainly related to postoperative sequelae such
gical approach or even considering extraction and as pain and swelling [72].
a different treatment plan [66].

6.8.6 The Preferences


6.8.4 Restorative Requirements of the Clinician
of the Tooth and the Patient

Before considering retreatment of a previously Whether a retreatment, nonsurgical or surgical,


root-filled tooth, there is a need for a careful should be performed is a complex decision mak-
deliberation of the overall treatment plan. In ing situation. Many factors have to be considered.
many cases the issue is rather straightforward. It For the dentist who made the diagnosis and who is
might concern a single tooth, restored with a post about to suggest a treatment alternative, both bio-
and a crown of fully acceptable quality but with logical considerations and the potential and limi-
an ensured diagnosis of persistent apical peri- tations of different options have to be deliberated
odontitis. The objective is to cure the disease and [73]. However, as important the professional skill
to “save” the tooth and its restoration in the long and knowledge might be the preferences of each
term. In other situations, when complete mouth individual patient will also influence the final
restorations are planned to “build something decision. Only the patient is the expert on how he
new”, the strategic use of teeth, non-root filled as or she feels about the pros and cons with different
well as root filled, and dental implants to mini- retreatment options, which risks are tolerable and
mize the risk of failure of the entire restoration what costs are agreeable.
must be the first priority [67]. Long-term follow-
­up studies of teeth that have undergone surgical
or nonsurgical retreatment are rare [68–70]. Take-Home Lessons
• Clinical decision making of apical peri-
odontitis in root filled teeth is a complex
6.8.5 The Costs task and that different decision-makers
come to different decisions depending
Since surgical endodontics does not require the on different circumstances in different
dismantling of functional prosthodontics construc- situations is not only understandable but
tions, it is often a less expensive alternative for the also necessary and desirable.
patient. But the costs of both surgical and nonsur- • In the situation of making a diagnosis,
gical treatment of course vary both in different avoid false-positive diagnoses.
countries between operators and between coun- • When the diagnosis of persistent apical
tries with different systems of reimbursement by periodontitis is clear-cut, from the den-
insurance. From a patient’s point of view, three tist’s and profession’s point of view, with
types of monetary costs associated with endodon- current available knowledge, a sugges-
tic retreatment may be considered: (i) direct costs tion of retreatment is the first principle.
(dentist’s fees, drugs), (ii) indirect costs (patient’s • Include the patient in the decision making
loss of income) and (iii) intangible costs (mone- process, and when refraining from action,
tary value of the patient’s pain and suffering) [71]. refer to any of the grounds of the second
The presence of prosthodontic reconstructions principle, autonomy, risks or costs.
will often impede access for nonsurgical retreat-
6  Decision Making 69

10. Eddy DM. Variations in physician practice: the role of


Benchmark Papers uncertainty. Health Aff. 1984;5:74–89.
11. Ham C. Health care variations: assessing the evi-

• Reit C, Gröndahl HG. Management of
dence. Research report no. 2. London: King’s Fund
periapical lesions in endodontically treated Institute; 1988.
teeth. A study on clinical decision making. 12. Groopman J. How doctors think. Boston, MA:

Swed Dent J. 1984;8:1–7. In this study the Houghton Mifflin Co.; 2007.
13. Birkmeyer JD, Reames BN, McCulloch P, Carr

variation in clinical decision making of
AJ, Campbell WB, Wennberg JE. Understanding
root-filled teeth with apical periodontitis is of regional variation in the use of surgery. Lancet.
illustrated exemplary and clearly. 2013;382:1121–9.
• Kvist T. Endodontic retreatment. Aspects 14. Elderton RJ, Nuttall NM. Variation among dentists in
planning treatment. Br Dent J. 1983;154:201–6.
of decision making and clinical outcome.
15. Bader JD, Shugars DA. Variation, treatment out-

Swed Dent J Suppl. 2001;144:1–57. In comes, and practice guidelines in dental practice.
this doctoral thesis several of the aspects J Dent Educ. 1995;59:61–95.
of decision making in endodontics are 16. Bigras BR, Johnson BR, BeGole EA, Wenckus

CS. Differences in clinical decision making: a com-
elaborated.
parison between specialists and general dentists.
Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod.
2008;106:139–44.
17. Dowie J, Elstein A. Professional judgement. A

reader in clinical decision making. Cambridge, UK:
References Cambridge University Press; 1988.
18. Schön DA. The reflective practitioner: how profes-
1. Reit C, Gröndahl HG. Management of periapical sionals think in action. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
lesions in endodontically treated teeth. A study on Publishers; 1983.
clinical decision making. Swed Dent J. 1984;8:1–7. 19. Brunswick E. Representative design and probabilis-
2. Petersson K, Lewin B, Hakansson J, Olsson B, tic theory in a functional psychology. Psychol Rev.
Wennberg A. Endodontic status and suggested treat- 1955;62:193–217.
ment in a population requiring substantial dental care. 20. Brehmer A, Brehmer B. What have we learned about
Endod Dent Traumatol. 1989;5:153–8. human judgment from thirty years of policy captur-
3. Petersson K, Håkansson R, Håkansson J, Olsson B, ing? In: Brehmer B, Joyce CRB, editors. Human judg-
Wennberg A. Follow-up study of endodontic status in ment: the SJT view. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science
an adult Swedish population. Endod Dent Traumatol. Publishers BV; 1988, p. 75–114.
1991;7:221–5. 21. Knutsson K, Brehmer B, Lysell L, Rohlin
4. Çiçek E, Özsezer-Demiryürek E, Özerol-Keskin NB, M. Judgement of removal of asymptomatic mandibular
Murat N. Comparison of treatment choices among molars: influence of position, degree of impaction, and
endodontists, postgraduate students, undergradu- patient’s age. Acta Odontol Scand. 1996;54:348–54.
ate students and general dentists for endodontically 22. Kahneman D, Slovic P, Tversky A. Judgement under
treated teeth. Int Dent J. 2016;66:201–7. uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Cambridge, UK:
5. Mota de Almeida FJ, Huumonen S, Molander A, Cambridge University Press; 1982.
Öhman A, Kvist T. Computed tomography (CT) in the 23. Kahneman D. Thinking, fast and slow. 1st ed.

selection of treatment for root-filled maxillary molars New York; London: Farrar, Straus and Giroux; Allen
with apical periodontitis. Dentomaxillofac Radiol. Lane; 2011.
2016;45:20150391. 24. Petersson A, Axelsson S, Davidson T, Frisk F, Hakeberg
6. Kvist T. Endodontic retreatment. Aspects of decision M, Kvist T, Norlund A, Mejàre I, Portenier I, Sandberg
making and clinical outcome. Swed Dent J Suppl. H, Tranaeus S, Bergenholtz G. Radiological diagnosis
2001;144:1–57. of periapical bone tissue lesions in endodontics: a sys-
7. Wenteler GL, Sathorn C, Parashos P. Factors influ- tematic review. Int Endod J. 2012;45:783–801.
encing root canal retreatment strategies by general 25. Reit C, Gröndahl HG. Endodontic retreatment deci-
practitioners and specialists in Australia. Int Endod sion making among a group of general practitioners.
J. 2015;48:417–27. Scand J Dent Res. 1988;96:112–7.
8. Torabinejad M, White SN. Endodontic treatment 26. Rawski AA, Brehmer B, Knutsson K, Petersson

options after unsuccessful initial root canal treatment: K, Reit C, Rohlin M. The major factors that influ-
alternatives to single-tooth implants. J Am Dent ence endodontic retreatment decisions. Swed Dent
Assoc. 2016;147:214–20. J. 2003;27:23–9.
9. American Child Health Association. Physical defects: 27. Strindberg LZ. The dependence of the results of

the pathway to correction. New York: American Child pulp therapy on certain factors. Acta Odontol Scand.
Health Association; 1934. p. 80–96. 1956;14(Suppl 21):1–175.
70 T. Kvist

28. Juul Jensen U. Sjukdomsbegrepp i praktiken. Det klin- 48. Rohlin M, Mileman PA. Decision analysis in den-
iska arbetets filosofi och vetenskapsteori. Stockholm: tistry—the last 30 years. J Dent. 2000;28:453–68.
Esselte studium; 1985. 49. Reit C, Gröndahl H-G. Endodontic decision-making
29. Kvist T, Reit C, Esposito M, Mileman P, Bianchi S, under uncertainty: a decision analytic approach to
Pettersson K, Andersson C. Prescribing endodontic management of periapical lesions in endodontically
retreatment: towards a theory of dentist behaviour. Int treated teeth. Endod Dent Traumatol. 1987;3:15–20.
Endod J. 1994;27:285–90. 50. Bauer J, Spackman S, Chiappelli F, Prolo P. Evidence-­
30. Kvist T, Reit C. The perceived benefit of endodontic based decision making in dental practice. J Evid
retreatment. Int Endod J. 2002;35:359–65. Based Dent Pract. 2005;5:125–30.
31. Kvist T, Heden G, Reit C. Endodontic retreatment 51. Sackett DL, Rosenberg WM, Gray JA, Haynes RB,
strategies used by general dental practitioners. Oral Richardson WS. Evidence based medicine: what it is
Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. and what it isn’t. BMJ. 1996;312:71–2.
2004;97:502–7. 52. Bergenholtz B, Kvist T. Evidence based endodontics.
32. Al-Ali K, Marghalani H, Al-Yahya A, Omar R. An Endod Top. 2014;31:3–18.
assessment of endodontic re-treatment decision-­ 53. Miller SM. Monitoring and blunting: validation of a
making in an educational setting. Int Endod questionnaire to assess styles of information seeking
J. 2005;38:470–6. under threat. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1987;52:345–53.
33. von Neumann J, Morgenstern O. Theory of games 54. Hare RM. Moral thinking: its levels, method and

and economic behaviour. 2nd ed. Princeton: Princeton point. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 1981.
University Press; 1947. 55. Ross WD. The right and the good. Oxford, UK:

34. Hargreaves Heap S, Hollis M, Lyons B, Sugden R, Oxford University Press; 1930.
Weale A. The theory of choice. A critical guide. 56. Swedish Council on Health Technology Assessment.
Oxford, UK: Blackwell; 1992. Methods of diagnosis and treatment in endodontics—
35. Reit C, Kvist T. Endodontic retreatment behaviour: a systematic review. Report no. 203; 2010. p. 1–491.
the influence of disease concepts and personal values. http://www.sbu.se
Int Endod J. 1998;31:358–63. 57. Del Fabbro M, Corbella S, Sequeira-Byron P, Tsesis
36. Griffin J. Well-being. Its meaning, measurement and I, Rosen E, Lolato A, Taschieri S. Endodontic proce-
moral importance. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press; 1986. dures for retreatment of periapical lesions. Cochrane
37. von Wright GH. The varieties of goodness. London: Database Syst Rev. 2016;10:CD005511.
Routledge and Kegan Paul; 1963. 58. Nair PN. New perspectives on radicular cysts: do they
38. Brülde B. The human good (PhD Thesis). Acta
heal? Int Endod J. 1998;31:155–60.
Philosophica Gothoburgiensia, Gothenburg; 1998. 59. Rosenberg PA, Frisbie J, Lee J, Lee K, Frommer H,
39. Kagan S. Normative ethics. Boulder, CO: Westview Kottal S, Phelan J, Lin L, Fisch G. Evaluation of
Press; 1998. pathologists (histopathology) and radiologists (cone
40. Beauchamp TL, Childress FF. Principles of biomedi- beam computed tomography) differentiating radicular
cal ethics. 6th ed. New York: Oxford University Press; cysts from granulomas. J Endod. 2010;36:423–8.
2009. 60. Natkin E, Oswald RJ, Carnes LI. The relationship of
41. Kirkevang LL, Vaeth M, Wenzel A. Ten-year follow- lesion size to diagnosis, incidence, and treatment of
­up observations of periapical and endodontic status in periapical cysts and granulomas. Oral Surg Oral Med
a Danish population. Int Endod J. 2012;45:829–39. Oral Pathol. 1984;57:82–94.
42. Petersson K, Fransson H, Wolf E, Håkansson J. Twenty- 61. Gillen BM, Looney SW, Gu LS, Loushine BA, Weller
year follow-up of root filled teeth in a Swedish popula- RN, Loushine RJ, Pashley DH, Tay FR. Impact of the
tion receiving high-cost dental care. Int Endod J. 2015; quality of coronal restoration versus the quality of
https://doi.org/10.1111/iej.12495. [Epub ahead of print]. root canal fillings on success of root canal treatment:
43. Bacharach M, Hurley SL. Foundations of deci-
a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Endod.
sion theory: issues and advances. Cambridge, UK: 2011;37:895–902.
Blackwell; 1994. 62. Karabucak B, Bunes A, Chehoud C, Kohli MR, Setzer
44. Bentham J. An introduction to the principles of mor- F. Prevalence of apical periodontitis in endodontically
als and legislation. In: Burns JH, Hart DLA, editors. treated premolars and molars with untreated canal:
London and New York: Methuen; 1982. (Original a cone-beam computed tomography study. J Endod.
work published 1789). 2016;42:538–41.
45. Mill JS Utilitarianism. Warnock M, editor. London 63. Gorni FG, Gagliani MM. The outcome of endodontic
and Glasgow: Collins; 1962. (Original work pub- retreatment: a 2-yr follow-up. J Endod. 2004;30:1–4.
lished 1861). 64. Ng YL, Mann V, Gulabivala K. A prospective study
46. Schoemaker PJH. The expected utility model: its vari- of the factors affecting outcomes of nonsurgical root
ants, purposes, evidence and limitations. J Econ Lit. canal treatment: part 1: periapical health. Int Endod
1982;20:529–63. J. 2011;44:583–609.
47. Ledley RS, Lusted LB. Reasoning foundations of
65. Taschieri S, Machtou P, Rosano G, Weinstein T, Del
medical diagnosis. Science. 1959;130:9–21. Fabbro M. The influence of previous non-surgical
6  Decision Making 71

re-treatment on the outcome of endodontic surgery. on short-term follow-up in endodontic microsurgery.


Minerva Stomatol. 2010;59:625–32. J Endod. 2012;38:1192–6.
66. Cohenca N, Shemesh H. Clinical applications of cone 70. Riis A, Taschieri S, del Fabbro M, Kvist T. Long-term
beam computed tomography in endodontics: a com- tooth survival after endodontic retreatment and its
prehensive review. Quintessence Int. 2015;46:465–80. relation to root canal posts. In manuscript.
67. Zitzmann NU, Krastl G, Hecker H, Walter C, Waltimo 71.
Torrance GW. Measurement of health state
T, Weiger R. Strategic considerations in treatment utilities for economic appraisal. J Health Econ.
planning: deciding when to treat, extract, or replace a 1986;5:1–30.
questionable tooth. J Prosthet Dent. 2010;104:80–91. 72. Kvist T, Reit C. Postoperative discomfort associated
68. Fristad I, Molven O, Halse A. Nonsurgically retreated with surgical and nonsurgical endodontic retreatment.
root filled teeth—radiographic findings after 20–27 Endod Dent Traumatol. 2000;16(2):71–4.
years. Int Endod J. 2004;37:12–8. 73.
West J. Nonsurgical versus surgical endodon-
69. Song M, Woncho C, Seung-Jong L, Euiseong K. Long- tic retreatment: “how do I choose”? Dent Today
term outcome of the cases classified as successes based 2007;26(4): 74, 76; 78–81.
Surgical Retreatment
7
Peter Jonasson and Magnús Friðjón Ragnarsson

It ought … to be understood that no one can be a good physician who has no idea of
surgical operations, and that a surgeon is nothing if ignorant of medicine.

—Guido Lanfranchi
Chirurgia Magna (1296, printed 1479).

Abstract
In many cases, modern surgical retreatment technique is a realistic treat-
ment option with a predictable and successful outcome. The main objec-
tive with surgical retreatment is to eliminate and prevent bacterial infection
in the root canal system from causing an inflammatory reaction in the
periradicular tissue. This chapter provides an overview of possible indica-
tions and contraindications for surgical retreatment from a technical, bio-
logical, anatomical, and medical perspective.
The concept of minimal invasive microsurgical approach is the state-­
of-­the-art for surgical retreatment. It requires certain techniques, instru-
ments, and materials. Furthermore, and perhaps most importantly, it
requires magnification and illumination either through an operating micro-
scope or loupes equipped with head-lights.
A basic prerequisite for successful treatment is the diagnosis, case
selection, and treatment planning. This is particularly important since the
primary treatment has failed, and consequently, the case may pose particu-
lar difficulties, which is exemplified in the chapter.

7.1 Introduction

Over the years, endodontic surgery has greatly ben-


P. Jonasson, DDS, PhD (*) efited from a continuing technological development.
Department of Endodontology, Institute of With the skilful use of the operating microscope,
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, ultrasonics technique, and root-end filling materials
University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
e-mail: peter.jonasson@odontologi.gu.se such as MTA, tooth maintenance after endodontic
surgical procedures has become predictable, and the
M.F. Ragnarsson, DDS
Endodontist in private practice, Reykjavik, Iceland success rate has improved [1, 2]. The indications for

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 73


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_7
74 P. Jonasson and M.F. Ragnarsson

surgical retreatment have been extended from effectiveness. Every case is unique and the decision
being considered to be the last resort to a viable has to be made on an individual basis.
alternative to orthograde retreatment in most In cases where apical periodontitis persists
cases. The main objectives of any endodontic after conventional endodontic treatment, the first
retreatment procedure are long-­term survival of step is, together with the patient, to evaluate the
an asymptomatic tooth and healing of the peri- tooth’s value from a functional and aesthetic
apical tissues. Using a surgical retreatment aspect. The individual preferences are likely to
approach, this is achieved by reducing the bacte- vary greatly and may be the single most impor-
rial load and preventing bacterial leakage from tant factor for the final decision.
the root canal system into the periradicular tis- The evaluation before treatment must always
sues. Modern endodontic surgery technique has include a careful weighing of the advantages and
the potential to effectively eradicate the causes of disadvantages as well as a cost-effectiveness
persistent apical pathology with little postopera- analysis of the treatment options. The importance
tive discomfort [3, 4]. of proper diagnosis cannot be overemphasised.
The advantages of a surgical rather than non-­ The examination comprises a thorough clinical
surgical approach to persistent apical periodonti- and radiographic examination, including adja-
tis in root filled teeth include: cent and opposing teeth, in order to decide
whether surgical or non-surgical retreatment
• Preservation of coronal tooth structure. should be the treatment of choice.
• No need for drilling through or removing Trying to analyse and to understand the under-
prosthodontic restorations. lying mechanisms that apical periodontitis is not
• Root and surrounding tissues are directly healing and where the causative infection is
visualised for diagnosis and interventions. located is of paramount importance for the proper
• A biopsy of the pathological tissue may be management. Infections causing apical periodon-
taken and sent for a histological examination. titis can either persist after endodontic treatment
or be a recurrent infection from coronal leakage.
However, there are also some obvious In some cases, an extraradicular infection may be
disadvantages: suspected. Large periapical lesions are likely to
be bounded by epithelium, i.e. a radicular cyst
• Lack of control of possible coronal leakage may have been formed and a surgical retreatment
and carious lesions under restorations may be necessary to remove the tissue to estab-
• Limited access to the root canal full length lish a proper diagnosis and optimise the likeli-
• Limited possibility to use chemical disinfec- hood of healing.
tion methods Besides these basic assessments, several other
considerations must be made by the wise clinician.

7.2 Indications,
Contraindications, 7.2.1 Technical Considerations
and Treatment Planning
It is generally accepted that the healing of the perira-
The goals for endodontic surgery are to retain a dicular tissue after orthograde endodontic treatment
tooth in function without signs and symptoms of is positively correlated with the technical quality of
persistent infection. Unfortunately, there is no solid the root filling and coronal restoration [5–7].
scientific evidence to choose between surgical and Before evaluating the technical aspects of the
non-surgical treatment with respect neither to heal- present root filling, it is of great importance to
ing of apical periodontitis, tooth survival nor cost evaluate the quality of the coronal restoration.
7  Surgical Retreatment 75

If the quality is poor (over- or under-extended can imply great differences in costs, technical
restorations) or if secondary carious lesions are difficulties and risks to induce complications.
present, this may suggest that the origin of persis- Even if the risks for technical complications and
tent disease originates from coronal leakage. If inducing root fracture appear small when remov-
so, non-surgical retreatment including a replace- ing posts, on the basis of the limited data avail-
ment of the restoration appears mandatory in able in the literature [8], the decision must be
order to fulfil the objectives of retreatment. based on root and post dimensions, type of post
However, in many situations the coronal resto- and the technique for removal [9] (Fig. 7.1). In
ration is judged to be functional and without case the access preparation is made through the
major defects, but the quality of the root filling is artificial crown, it may influence the retention
poor. Consequently, it is reasonable to assume and provoke loosening of the cemented crown
that the source of failure comes from a persistent [10, 11] and result in a situation where the crown
infection within the root canal system. A basic and/or bridge have to be replaced. Incomplete
prerequisite for successful outcome is accurate root fillings should as far as possible be handled
access to the site of infection. with orthograde retreatment.
From this perspective, non-surgical retreat- On the other hand, irrespective of the quality
ment generally provides better accessibility to of the former treatment, surgical retreatment is
treat and refill the complete root canal system. considered to be the first choice where ortho-
Consequently, selecting this option seems attrac- grade retreatment has failed to control the infec-
tive especially when the clinician judges that tion or cannot be undertaken due to blocked
quality of seal can be substantially improved. canals caused by dystrophic calcifications and
However, to remove an existing restoration for iatrogenic errors such as ledges, broken instru-
better accessibility for orthograde retreatment ments and presence of posts (Figs. 7.2 and 7.3).

a b c

Fig. 7.1 (a) Radiograph of an upper lateral incisor with a surgical retreatment is considered as the first choice of
long parallel post showing an incomplete root canal filling treatment. (b) The retrograde instrumentation of the canal
and a periapical radiolucency. Endodontic treatment was performed with hand files held in a haemostat. To
options can either be conventional retreatment after maintain the curvature of the canal flexible files can be a
removal of crown and post or surgical retreatment. better alternative than stiff ultrasonic tips when longer
Considering the relative narrow root in relation to the size instrumentations are needed. (c) Postoperative radiograph
of the post and possible risk for inducing root fractures, with a retrograde filling to the level of the post
76 P. Jonasson and M.F. Ragnarsson

a b c

Fig. 7.2 (a) A lower left first molar with an incomplete root order to reduce the costs. (b) A postoperative radiograph with
filling and periapical radiolucencies on booth roots. Surgical a limited retrograde preparation and filling in the mesial root.
retreatment was performed as an alternative to conventional (c) Five years postoperatively, the patient developed pain from
retreatment. A partly or completely obliterated mesial root the area. The radiograph showed a nice bone healing on the
can be suspected from the radiograph that can be challenging first molar, but the second molar had developed a periradicu-
to treat. The patient was eager to keep the crown and post in lar bone lesion found to originate from a root fracture

a b c

Fig. 7.3 (a) Radiograph of the upper left first molar with complications when located in the apical third of the root
a fractured instrument in the mesiobuccal root diagnosed with a root curvature, surgical retreatment was performed.
with symptomatic apical periodontitis. Due to the difficul- (b) Immediately postoperatively. (c) A 1-year follow-up
ties in removing instrument without extensive risks for

7.2.2 Biological Considerations for cystic lesions [18, 19]. Based on histological
criteria, two different categories of cysts have
From microbial perspective, surgical retreatment been defined [20, 21]: True cyst which have com-
is indicated when suspecting a persistent infection plete enclosed lumina and therefore no direct
withstanding the effect of an impeccable root connection to the root canal and pocket cysts that
canal treatment. Even though persistent infections have open connection to the root canal. True cyst,
are mainly localised in the root canal system, different from pocket cysts, may therefore be
microorganisms can establish an extraradicular self-perpetuating and fail to heal if not treated
infection formed as a biofilm on the root surface surgically.
adjacent to the root apex and even colonizing the Foreign body material can accidentally be dis-
periapical tissue [12, 13]. However, to what extent placed to the periapical tissue during endodontic
an extraradicular infection can persist without the treatment. The presence of a foreign body in the
intraradicular infection as a reservoir is not well periapical tissues may cause endodontic failure
understood [14] and a surgical retreatment should by triggering an inflammatory response and a
therefore focus on treatment of all possible infec- subsequent foreign body reaction, which can be
tion sites. treated successfully by surgical retreatment.
Most periapical lesions can be classified as A local deep pocket is generally an aggravat-
dental granulomas, root cysts and abscesses [15, ing factor for the prognosis (Figs. 7.4 and 7.5).
16]. Periapical lesions cannot be differentiated Tentative diagnoses are periodontal fistulation,
based only on the radiographic observations [17]. root fracture or an endo-perio lesion either
However, a correlation has been shown between caused by primary or secondary periodontal dis-
the radiographic lesion size and the probability ease. The benefits with a surgical approach are
7  Surgical Retreatment 77

a b

Fig. 7.4 (a) First lower right molar with a persistent graph shows a periradicular radiolucency on the mesial
pathology after orthograde retreatment. (b) Adjacent to root. The mesial root was surgically retreated with a ques-
the fistula a local pocket was probed to the apex. No root tionable prognosis then it is difficult to know if a second-
fracture could be found after exploration. (c) The radio- ary periodontal lesion had developed

a b c

Fig. 7.5 (a) Upper right second premolar with a deep line was found after removing the soft tissue and staining
pocket located buccal. (b) An exploration was made in with methylene blue
order to inspect the root surface. (c) A vertical fracture
78 P. Jonasson and M.F. Ragnarsson

the ­possibilities to explore the root and evaluate p­ reoperative radiographic examination with cone
for eventual fractures and supplement if neces- beam computed tomography CBCT is recom-
sary with a periodontal treatment. mended in such cases. The palatal root can either
With an extensive marginal attachment loss in be treated by a buccal or palatal entrance. The rela-
periodontally compromised teeth, the possibili- tion to sinus and indications for treating the buccal
ties to perform a surgical treatment may be lim- roots is crucial for the decision (Fig. 7.8). A palatal
ited. Osteotomy for apical resection reduces entrance is technical demanding not at least
longitudinal width of the buccal bone that depending on the difficulty raising the flap and get
increases the risk of endo-perio communication. a good insight (Fig. 7.9). In cases were the acces-
Moreover, with the surgical approach, the apical sibility to the palatal root is limited surgically
part of the root is resected and the crown-to-root especially for the second maxillary molars, a com-
ratio of the tooth may be unfavourable for the bined intervention may be considered with a con-
prosthodontic prognosis. The evaluation of tooth ventional orthograde treatment of the palate root.
mobility preoperatively and the bite forces can be The location of the lesion, root anatomy, rela-
crucial to the possibilities of treatment. tionships of roots and relation to neighbouring
anatomical structures and findings that indicate
untreated channels are of special interest for
7.2.3 Anatomical Considerations treatment planning. Once again, CBCT is a pow-
erful tool that can assist when a more exact three-­
A preoperative judgement of the accessibility of dimensional imaging of the tooth and the
the site of infection is central for the successful periapical tissue is necessary [22] (Fig. 7.7).
outcome of the procedure. Careful evaluation of For supporting the clinician in the preopera-
two or more periapical radiographs exposed in tive planning, a guide with different categories of
different angulations is mandatory (Fig. 7.6), and complexity of lesions has been presented [23]
for certain cases, computed tomography is a good where the more severe categories are demanding
complement for planning and performing the and may need certain surgical skills, techniques
treatment (Fig. 7.7). and equipment.
Most roots are accessible for surgical treat- The location of the root in the alveolar process
ment. In the lower jaw, proximity to the mandibu- and possible involvement of neurovascular struc-
lar nerve and/or a thick cortical bone buccal to tures may hamper the opportunities for access.
the tooth may limit the accessibility. Extended Nerve injuries and altered sensation is however

a b

Fig. 7.6  An upper molar with a symptomatic apical peri- the root-filled canal in the mesiobuccal root moves from
odontitis. (a) The radiographs showing a periapical radio- the x-rays, not centralised in the canal, indicating a second
lucency and fractured instrument in the apical third of the untreated canal
mesiobuccal root. (b) With a mesial eccentric radiographs,
7  Surgical Retreatment 79

Fig. 7.7  Orthopantomogram showing a patient with need retreatment was planned. A CBCT in axial, frontal and
of extensive fixed prosthodontic treatment. Evaluation of sagittal view and periapical radiograph of the first left
suitability of the upper jaw for installing implants showed maxillary molar showing periapical radiolucencies around
poor bone conditions. The radiographic examinations all roots. In between the roots there is a sinus recess. Only
showing periapical radiolucencies on several teeth (13, 22 a minor swelling can be seen in the sinus mucosa. The
and 26). Thirteen and twenty-six are restored with well-­ postoperative radiograph showing the retrograde fillings
functioning posts and not planned for removal. Surgical performed by a buccal entrance
80 P. Jonasson and M.F. Ragnarsson

a b c

d e f

Fig. 7.8  Surgical treatment of tooth 26 was performed by tissue. (d) The palatal root after root resection. (e)
a buccal entrance. (a) After removing the soft tissue and Inspecting the mesiobuccal root by a micro mirror. The
performing the root resection of the buccal roots a perfo- root filling in the canal showing a void. Parts of the isth-
rated sinus membrane was found. (b) As the sinus mem- mus in between the canals are seen. (f) Gauze is packed
brane was perforated, access to the palatal root could be into the sinus in order not to introduce infected material or
achieved from sinus. The arrow showing the apex of the inadvertently drop instruments into the sinus. The canals
palatal root covered by the sinus membrane and bone. (c) and the isthmus are prepared by a contra-angled ultra-
The palatal root is seen after drilling through the covering sound tip

rarely reported after surgical retreatment. It can rinsing with saline is important to ensure
occur as an effect of nerve traumatised during removal of infected material in the sinus.
surgery or following local anaesthetic adminis- More extensive lesions that have destructed
tration, or indirectly caused by a postoperative the cortical bone plates with a through-and-­
inflammation when performing treatment in the through lesion may end up with incomplete bone
vicinity of major nerves. The risk to injure the healing with fibrous tissue ingrowth (scar tissue)
inferior alveolar nerve is related to treatment of [25] (Fig. 7.10). A situation that may be only
second molar and premolars but also to some indication for where a guided tissue regeneration
extent first molars [24]. technique may be indicated [26].
Surgical treatment on teeth with apex or a With larger lesions, other tissue structures dis-
periapical lesion in close apposition to the maxil- tant from the tooth may be involved and can com-
lary sinus should be carried out with caution plicate the treatment and certain precautions have
(Fig. 7.8). Removal of infected tissue should be to be made. More teeth may be necrotic and
performed carefully, in order to avoid perforation involved in the process and therefore the vitality
of the sinus membrane. of neighbouring teeth has to be evaluated before
Sometimes the membrane is disrupted due to surgery. Due to the surgery and soft tissue curet-
the inflammatory reaction. In such cases, spe- tage teeth not involved in the process may be
cial attention has to be made to not introduce devitalised due to the treatment.
infected material or inadvertently drop instru- Radiographic evaluation of the size and the
ments into the sinus. This can be prevented by location of the bone lesion may give an indication
packing the sinus with gauze. A final thorough to where in the root the infection is localised. An
7  Surgical Retreatment 81

a b

Fig. 7.9 (a) First left maxillary molar with an apical functioning crown, a surgical retreatment was planned.
radiolucency related to the palatal root according to the (b) Showing the palatal flap and the fenestration of the
intraoral radiograph. Due to long post and a well-­ palatal bone plate

a b c

Fig. 7.10  A sequence of healing after surgical retreat- bone. (c) A 4-year follow-up showing a feature of incom-
ment of tooth 12. (a) Immediately postoperatively (b) A plete scar tissue healing with continuous periodontal liga-
1-year follow-up with a reduction of the defect in the ment and a separate lesion

important question is whether lateral canals or rejoin, end in apical ramifications and have acces-
untreated canals may be involved (Figs. 7.6 and sory canals and roots with more than one canal
7.11), and if these are accessible for treatment having isthmuses (Fig. 7.8). All these anatomical
during surgery. Also, any external inflammatory sites may function as a bacterial reservoir and are
root resorption that may have occurred should crucial to properly treat.
also be localised and held as a potential exit of Where there is poor supporting bone tissue
intra-canal infection when treating the root. surgical retreatment may be contraindicated due
Even if the impression from the intraoral to the doubtful prognosis. Teeth with endodontic-­
radiographs is that the tooth has separate root periodontal lesions may exist separately and
canals, anatomical studies have shown a great later unite together in a combined lesion, or it
variety in morphology and complexity of the may be primarily endodontic or periodontal with
canal system [27]. Canals may branch, divide and a secondary involvement of the other (Fig. 7.4).
82 P. Jonasson and M.F. Ragnarsson

Fig. 7.11 (a) An upper


a
right canine with a
juxtaradicular
radiolucency. (b) A
lateral canal (arrow) was
located after exploration
and staining with
methylene blue
b

Fig. 7.12  Upper right canine with a long post and juxta- covered by a composite with a dentine bonding agent after
radicular and periapical radiolucency. An exploration drilling a minor cavity
showing a buccal post perforation. The perforation was

Due to the risk for down growth of a long junc- 7.2.4 Medical Considerations
tional epithelium and subsequent hindrance of a
favourable healing with bone and reattachment, Considerations of medical risks are essential for
the outcome is compromised [28, 29]. all dental treatments but special precautions
In cases with long posts especially in metal, should be taken when planning for surgery. For
leaving a limited canal space may influence the every treatment, a risk assessment has to be per-
possibilities to perform enough deep retrograde formed based on a careful medical history and in
filling for a proper seal and alternative techniques some cases after consultation with physician. For
may be considered. This can also be the situation medically compromised patients, orthograde pro-
in case of post perforation with limited possibili- cedures usually expose them to less medical risks
ties to create a cavity preparation (Fig. 7.12). than surgical treatment. Therefore, a non-surgical
7  Surgical Retreatment 83

approach to endodontic retreatment may be more should only be performed after careful consider-
suitable. For certain medical conditions, the surgi- ation of the alternatives.
cal treatment should be postponed until the patient Osteonecrosis is a rare condition and has mainly
has recovered. However, there are no absolute been related to intravenous delivery of bisphospho-
medical contraindications to endodontic surgery. nates in patients with bone cancer disease [31].
An overall estimate of the medical risk can be Invasive treatments have been shown to increase
made due to the physical status classification sys- the risk of developing this serious complication.
tem adopted by the American Society of However, few cases have been reported and very
Anaesthesiologists (ASA) in 1962 with a modifi- few guidelines are available in the endodontic lit-
cation in five categories to the dental treatment erature. Even if no evidence-­based data are avail-
situation [30]. able, non-surgical retreatment seems to be
There are several medical conditions and preferable, but as an alternative to extraction, surgi-
medications that cause a depressed immune sys- cal retreatment still is a less traumatic procedure.
tem, where surgical intervention is contraindi-
cated until white blood cells count and antibody
levels have normalised. 7.3 Methods and Techniques
Patient with increased risk for bleeding needs
special attention. Medication with antiplatelet Endodontic surgery has developed from a surgi-
and anticoagulant agents increases the bleeding cal procedure where a curettage and removal of
time intra- and postoperatively. Surgical treat- the soft tissue surrounding the root apex was the
ment is possible in most cases but needs certain only action towards a causal oriented approach
treatment protocols. Surgical treatment of with the aim to eradicate or closing in the root
patients with haemophilia or impaired liver func- canal infection. Untreated infected parts of the
tion should only be after consultation and in root canal system are localised and mechanically
agreement with the patient’s physician. treated. Persistent infections in inaccessible areas
Previous high-dose irradiation affects the are instead entombed with a retrograde filling
blood vessels and reduces the blood supply to the preventing leakage of microorganisms and their
jawbone. An irradiated bone must be treated with by-products into the periradicular tissue.
caution, as there is always a risk of reduced heal- Today’s state-of-the-art is a minimal inva-
ing potential, developing postoperative infection sive microsurgical approach that requires par-
and osteoradionecrosis and surgical treatment ticular skills, techniques (Fig. 7.13), instruments

a b c

Fig. 7.13  Single-rooted maxillary incisor treated by surgi- mirror and microscope (x6) with good haemostatic control.
cal retreatment using microsurgical technique. (a) The (b) Retrograde preparation with a contra-angled ultrasonic
resected root and canal with gutta-percha seen in the micro tip (3 mm). (c) Application of the retrograde filling (MTA)
84 P. Jonasson and M.F. Ragnarsson

and materials. Magnification with loops or most gingiva should be taken. In order to minimise the
preferable a surgical operating microscope is risk, a submarginal incision is often recom-
mandatory. mended. However, if the anatomical conditions
The surgical microscope and micro-­are not favourable or if the surgery is not well
instruments are an integral part of the up-to-date performed, such an incision may have devastat-
endodontic surgery arsenal. Its’ combination ing effects on the aesthetic outcome; that’s why
with an essentially improved illumination due to this technique should be used with caution. The
the built-in light source has improved the possi- biotype of gingiva can predict the risk for reces-
bility to see, localise and hence also treat the vari- sion. A thick and wide papilla compared to a thin
ous locations of microbes present in and on the and narrow is more likely to heal without reces-
root. As a consequence, the indications for end- sion [33]. Important factors for the healing pro-
odontic surgery have expanded [32]. With a bet- cess are also a healthy gingiva and the level of the
ter understanding of infection control and more marginal bone supporting the soft tissue during
conservative handling of the soft and hard tis- the healing process.
sues, the reported success rate has significantly
been improved.
7.3.2 Bleeding Control
During Surgery
7.3.1 Soft Tissue Management
Adequate bleeding control is crucial for inspect-
To get access to the root, the surgery commences ing the root and performing the retrograde treat-
with an incision and raising of a full-thickness ment. An important first step for bleeding control
flap. This means a soft tissue flap, which entails is to remove the highly vascularised granulation
gingival and mucosal tissues as well as perios- tissue in the bone crypt. Local anaesthesia
teum. Many different flap designs have been pro- ­containing epinephrine contributes to a certain
posed in the literature [33]. The objective is to haemostasis but must often be supplemented
provide good accessibility and view without with other medicaments. For certain patient
unnecessarily traumatise soft tissue in order to groups, epinephrine should not be used, and in
promote a predictable healing of gingival tissue. such cases, it is particularly important to have
The design of the flap should be carefully planned access to other medicaments. However, cotton
in advance and has to be adapted to each indi- pellet saturated with epinephrine for local use in
vidual and case. To be able to mobilise the flap, the bone crypt have been shown to be effective
various modes of incision can be selected, includ- for bleeding control and cause no changes in
ing horizontal incisions and vertical releasing blood pressure or heart rate [34].
incisions. The horizontal incision can either fol- Other topical haemostatic agents suggested
low and include the papilla or cut through the for controlling bone crypt haemorrhage are alu-
papilla base. The most frequent horizontal inci- minium chloride or ferric sulphate [35].
sions are either sulcular with or without involv- A relatively common surgical complication is
ing the papilla or submarginal in the attached an insult to blood vessels. In most cases, manual
gingiva with one or two vertical releasing inci- compression will have adequate effect, but if
sion. The releasing incisions are performed paral- more severe bleeding, electrocauterization may
lel to the tooth axis and subperiosteal blood be considered.
vessels in order to minimise the number of cut Taken together there are techniques to control
blood vessels. local bleeding in most cases and is bleeding from
In the aesthetic zone with artificial crowns, the site of endodontic surgery seldom a limiting
precautions to reduce the risk for recession of the factor during the surgical procedure. For certain
7  Surgical Retreatment 85

groups of patients, special precautions should be [43]. MTA is a very appropriate material for root-­
taken and a contact with the patient’s physician end filling due to its good biocompatibility,
for a dialogue about any preoperative measures osteo- and cemento-inductive capabilities and
to prevent possible risks is recommended. antibacterial and sealing properties [44–46]. The
drawbacks are long setting time and handling
difficulties.
7.3.3 Root Resection Retrograde root-end cavities are prepared by
and Retrograde Treatment ultrasonic tips in exposed canal orifices that are at
of the Root Canal least a 3 mm to provide a satisfactory thickness
and seal with MTA [47] (Fig. 7.13).
The root resection is performed to eliminate
infected ramifications, lateral canals and contam-
inated dentin. Moreover, the root resection allows 7.3.4 Suturing
better overview of the canal anatomy and inspec-
tion of the resected root surface for isthmuses or After thorough irrigation with saline of the
microfractures. In general, a root resection of wound surface for removal of contaminated
3 mm apically is considered to be sufficient to materials and blood clot a proper wound closure
remove most of infected ramifications and lateral is necessary for optimal healing. Surgical sutures
canals [23]. It is optimally performed in a 90° should hold the edges of a flap in apposition until
angle to the long axis of the root to minimise any the wound has healed sufficiently to withstand
leakage that might occur through cut dentinal normal functional stresses and resist reopening.
tubules. Resorbable or non-resorbable threads in diame-
The aim of the root-end preparation is to ters 5-0 or 6-0 and three-eighths reverse-cutting
remove infected material and enough intra-canal or tapered needle are commonly used. The
filling material to be able to seal the root canal sutures can in most cases be removed after
system with a retrograde filling. The ideal root-­ 7–14 days. If resorbable sutures are used, it
end preparation can be defined as a cavity of least should retain resorption more than 7–14 days.
3 mm depth [36], with walls parallel to and coin-
cident with the anatomic outline of root canal
space. Newer instruments have been designed to 7.4 Postoperative Information
prepare up to 9 mm in untreated canals or canals and Complications
with poor-quality root fillings [37]. In cases with
limited access and need of extended retrograde Pain and swelling may occur after surgical treat-
instrumentation, hand files held in a haemostat ment, but in most cases, only to a limited extent
can be used as an alternative [38] (Fig. 7.1). The [48]. The symptoms are related to the degree of
purpose of the retrograde filling material is to fill tissue trauma and inflammatory reaction. The
the apical canal space and to obtain a hermetic reaction is part of the healing process. In addi-
seal and entomb microorganisms in not accessi- tion, secondary infection of the surgical site may
ble areas. Numerous materials have been sug- also occur and induce a postsurgical inflamma-
gested for root-end filling include gutta-percha, tion, which can sometimes be difficult to differ-
IRM, Super EBA and dentin-bonded modified entially diagnose from a normal postoperative
resins [39–42]. course.
At the present time, mineral trioxide aggre- Factors that have been shown to predispose
gate (MTA) is considered the gold standard for for postoperative pain are location for surgery,
root-end filling materials. But there is an emerg- poor oral hygiene, smoking and the duration of
ing trend of using other bioceramic materials surgery [49]. There is some data supporting that
86 P. Jonasson and M.F. Ragnarsson

surgical procedures lasting longer than 1 h pre-


dispose for postoperative symptoms and infec- Benchmark Papers
tions [50]. • Tsesis I, Rosen E, Taschieri S, Telishevsky
The severity of the pain is usually worst the Strauss Y, Ceresoli V, Del Fabbro
first 24 h postoperatively [49]. The swelling is M. Outcomes of surgical endodontic
greatest between first and second postoperative treatment performed by a modern tech-
day. The management is usually prescribing anti-­ nique: an updated meta-analysis of the
inflammatory analgesics (NSAIDs). In case of a literature. J Endod. 2013;39(3):332–9.
secondary infection, surgical drainage may be This review and meta-analysis paper
required and if systemic effects and risk for gives an updated evidence base for the
spreading prescription of antibiotics may be excellent healing frequencies that are
motivated. possible to obtain after surgical retreat-
ment procedures in settings characterised
by extensive expertise, high clinical skills
7.5 Prognosis and best available equipment.
• Kruse C, Spin-Neto R, Christiansen R,
Successful treatment is defined by the absence of Wenzel A, Kirkevang LL. Periapical
radiographically and clinical signs of apical peri- bone healing after apicectomy with and
odontitis. Within a period of 1–3 months, clinical without retrograde root filling with min-
signs of pathology are expected to be missing, eral trioxide aggregate: a 6-year follow-
and radiographically, a remineralisation of the ­up of a randomised controlled trial. J
lesion and a new periodontal ligament formation Endod. 2016;42:533–7. This clinical
is expected to occur within 1–2 years. According study highlights the importance of the
to the literature, the success rate for surgical retrograde filling for achieving good
retreatment on accurate indications and using the healing results as well as the need for
latest technical advancement can be expected to more long-term follow-ups of surgical
be above 80–90% [32, 51]. retreatment procedures.

Take-Home Message References


• Surgical retreatment is a valid and pre-
dictable alternative for retreatment of 1. Shetzer FC, Shah SB, Kohli MR, Karabucak B, Kim
teeth with post-treatment apical peri- S. Outcome of endodontic surgery: a meta-analysis of
odontitis especially when it is desirable the literature—part 1: Comparison of traditional root-­
end surgery and endodontic microsurgery. J Endod.
to preserve a restoration. 2010;36(11):1757–65.
• In cases where orthograde retreatment is 2. Tsesis I, Rosen E, Taschieri S, Telishevsky Strauss Y,
judged difficult or even impossible Ceresoli V, Del Fabbro M. Outcomes of surgical end-
because of previous iatrogenic errors or odontic treatment performed by a modern technique:
an updated meta-analysis of the literature. J Endod.
blocked canals, surgical retreatment 2013;39(3):332–9.
may be the only realistic treatment alter- 3. Iqbal MK, Kratchman SI, Guess GM, Karabucak
native to extraction. B, Kim S. Microscopic periradicular surgery: peri-
• Accurate diagnosis and correct treatment operative predictors for postoperative clinical out-
comes and quality of life assessment. J Endod.
planning is prerequisite for success. 2007;33(3):239–44.
• Using a minimal invasive microsurgical 4. Penarrocha M, Garcia B, Marti E, Balaguer J. Pain
approach for surgical retreatment and inflammation after periapical surgery in 60
requires certain techniques, instruments, patients. J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2006;64(3):429–33.
5. Ray HA, Trope M. Periapical status of endodontically
materials and work with good vision for treated teeth in relation to the technical quality of the
a reliable treatment outcome. root filling and the coronal restoration. Int Endod
J. 1995;28(1):12–8.
7  Surgical Retreatment 87

6. Tronstad L, Asbjornsen K, Doving L, Pedersen I, 23. Kim S, Kratchman S. Modern endodontic sur-

Eriksen HM. Influence of coronal restorations on gery concepts and practice: a review. J Endod.
the periapical health of endodontically treated teeth. 2006;32(7):601–23.
Endod Dent Traumatol. 2000;16(5):218–21. 24. Pogrel MA. Damage to the inferior alveolar nerve
7. Ng YL, Mann V, Gulabivala K. A prospective study as the result of root canal therapy. J Am Dent Assoc.
of the factors affecting outcomes of nonsurgical root 2007;138(1):65–9.
canal treatment: part 1: periapical health. Int Endod 25. Molven O, Halse A, Grung B. Incomplete healing
J. 2011;44(7):583–609. (scar tissue) after periapical surgery—radiographic
8. Abbott PV. Incidence of root fractures and methods findings 8 to 12 years after treatment. J Endod.
used for post removal. Int Endod J. 2002;35(1):63–7. 1996;22(5):264–8.
9. Altshul JH, Marshall G, Morgan LA, Baumgartner 26. Corbella S, Taschieri S, Elkabbany A, Del Fabbro M,
JC. Comparison of dentinal crack incidence and von Arx T. Guided tissue regeneration using a bar-
of post removal time resulting from post removal rier membrane in endodontic surgery. Swiss Dent
by ultrasonic or mechanical force. J Endod. J. 2016;126(1):13–25.
1997;23(11):683–6. 27. Vertucci FJ. Root canal anatomy of the human per-
10. McMullen AF III, Himel VT, Sarkar NK. An in vitro manent teeth. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol.
study of the effect endodontic access preparation and 1984;58(5):589–99.
amalgam restoration have upon incisor crown reten- 28. Kim E, Song JS, Jung IY, Lee SJ, Kim S. Prospective
tion. J Endod. 1990;16(6):269–72. clinical study evaluating endodontic microsur-
11. Mulvay PG, Abbott PV. The effect of endodontic
gery outcomes for cases with lesions of endodontic
access cavity preparation and subsequent restorative origin compared with cases with lesions of com-
procedures on molar crown retention. Aust Dent bined periodontal-endodontic origin. J Endod.
J. 1996;41(2):134–9. 2008;34(5):546–51.
12. Nair PN. On the causes of persistent apical periodon- 29. Skoglund A, Persson G. A follow-up study of apicoec-
titis: a review. Int Endod J. 2006;39(4):249–81. tomized teeth with total loss of the buccal bone plate.
13. Wang J, Jiang Y, Chen W, Zhu C, Liang J. Bacterial Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol. 1985;59(1):78–81.
flora and extraradicular biofilm associated with the 30. Malamed SF. Medical emergencies in the dental

apical segment of teeth with post-treatment apical office. 5th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 2000. p. 41–4.
periodontitis. J Endod. 2012;38(7):954–9. 31. Tsesis I. Complications in endodontic surgery. 2014.
14. Ricucci D, Siqueira JF Jr. Apical actinomycosis as a p. 153–64. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg;2014
continuum of intraradicular and extraradicular infec- 32. Setzer FC, Kohli MR, Shah SB, Karabucak B, Kim
tion: case report and critical review on its involvement S. Outcome of endodontic surgery: a meta-analysis
with treatment failure. J Endod. 2008;34(9):1124–9. of the literature—Part 2: Comparison of endodontic
15. Stockdale CR, Chandler NP. The nature of the
microsurgical techniques with and without the use of
periapical lesion—a review of 1108 cases. J Dent. higher magnification. J Endod. 2012;38(1):1–10.
1988;16(3):123–9. 33. Velvart P, Peters CI. Soft tissue management in end-
16. Nair PN. New perspectives on radicular cysts: do they odontic surgery. J Endod. 2005;31(1):4–16.
heal? Int Endod J. 1998;31(3):155–60. 34. Vickers FJ, Baumgartner JC, Marshall G. Hemostatic
17. Wood NK. Periapical lesions. Dent Clin N Am.
efficacy and cardiovascular effects of agents used dur-
1984;28(4):725–66. ing endodontic surgery. J Endod. 2002;28(4):322–3.
18. Natkin E, Oswald RJ, Carnes LI. The relationship of 35. von Arx T, Jensen SS, Hanni S. Clinical and radio-
lesion size to diagnosis, incidence, and treatment of graphic assessment of various predictors for healing
periapical cysts and granulomas. Oral Surg Oral Med outcome 1 year after periapical surgery. J Endod.
Oral Pathol. 1984;57(1):82–94. 2007;33(2):123–8.
19. Lalonde ER. A new rationale for the management of 36. Lamb EL, Loushine RJ, Weller RN, Kimbrough

periapical granulomas and cysts: an evaluation of his- WF, Pashley DH. Effect of root resection on the
topathological and radiographic findings. J Am Dent apical sealing ability of mineral trioxide aggregate.
Assoc. 1970;80(5):1056–9. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod.
20. Ramachandran Nair PN, Pajarola G, Schroeder
2003;95(6):732–5.
HE. Types and incidence of human periapi- 37. Khayat B, Michonneau JC. Tissue conservation

cal lesions obtained with extracted teeth. Oral in endodontic microsurgery. J Odontol Stomatol.
Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2008;37:275–86.
1996;81(1):93–102. 38. Reit C, Hirsch J. Surgical endodontic retreatment. Int
21. Simon JH. Incidence of periapical cysts in relation to Endod J. 1986;19(3):107–12.
the root canal. J Endod. 1980;6(11):845–8. 39. Chong BS, Pitt Ford TR, Hudson MB. A prospective
22. Fayad MI, Nair M, Levin MD, Benavides E,
clinical study of mineral trioxide aggregate and IRM
Rubinstein RA, Barghan S, Hirschberg CS, Ruprecht when used as root-end filling materials in endodontic
A. AAE and AAOMR joint position statement: use surgery. Int Endod J. 2003;36(8):520–6.
of cone beam computed tomography in endodontics 40. Rud J, Rud V, Munksgaard EC. Long-term evaluation
2015 update. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral of retrograde root filling with dentin-bonded resin
Radiol. 2015;120(4):508–12. composite. J Endod. 1996;22(2):90–3.
88 P. Jonasson and M.F. Ragnarsson

41. von Arx T, Jensen SS, Hanni S, Friedman S. Five-year Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod.
longitudinal assessment of the prognosis of apical 2005;100(4):495–500.
microsurgery. J Endod. 2012;38(5):570–9. 47. Valois CR, Costa ED Jr. Influence of the thickness of
42. Walivaara DA, Abrahamsson P, Samfors KA, Isaksson mineral trioxide aggregate on sealing ability of root-­
S. Periapical surgery using ultrasonic preparation and end fillings in vitro. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol
thermoplasticized gutta-percha with AH Plus sealer Oral Radiol Endod. 2004;97(1):108–11.
or IRM as retrograde root-end fillings in 160 consecu- 48. Garcia B, Penarrocha M, Marti E, Gay-Escodad

tive teeth: a prospective randomized clinical study. C, von Arx T. Pain and swelling after periapical
Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. surgery related to oral hygiene and smoking. Oral
2009;108(5):784–9. Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod.
43. Gutmann JL. Surgical endodontics: past, present, and 2007;104(2):271–6.
future. Endod Top. 2014;30:29–43. 49. Garcia B, Larrazabal C, Penarrocha M, Penarrocha
44. Baek SH, Plenk H Jr, Kim S. Periapical tissue
M. Pain and swelling in periapical surgery. A lit-
responses and cementum regeneration with amalgam, erature update. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal.
SuperEBA, and MTA as root-end filling materials. 2008;13(11):E726–9.
J Endod. 2005;31(6):444–9. 50. Cruse PJ, Foord R. The epidemiology of wound infec-
45. Fernandez-Yanez Sanchez A, Leco-Berrocal MI,
tion. A 10-year prospective study of 62,939 wounds.
Martinez-Gonzalez JM. Metaanalysis of filler mate- Surg Clin North Am. 1980;60(1):27–40.
rials in periapical surgery. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir 51. Kruse C, Spin-Neto R, Christiansen R, Wenzel

Bucal. 2008;13(3):E180–5. A, Kirkevang LL. Periapical bone healing after
46. Lindeboom JA, Frenken JW, Kroon FH, van den
apicectomy with and without retrograde root fill-
Akker HP. A comparative prospective randomized ing with mineral trioxide aggregate: a 6-year fol-
clinical study of MTA and IRM as root-end filling low-up of a randomized controlled trial. J Endod.
materials in single-rooted teeth in endodontic surgery. 2016;42(4):533–7.
Non-surgical Retreatment
8
Charlotte Ulin

If a thing is worth doing, it’s worth doing well

Abstract
Non-surgical retreatment is difficult and treatment planning is essential.
Good access to the already root-filled root canals and working with good
aseptic procedures will create a possibility to render a preferable progno-
sis. The knowledge and ability in how to remove the gutta-percha and
other obstacles within the root canal will make the procedure easier and
more predictable. The microbiotic flora in the already treated root canal
system with periapical pathologies is more robust to chemical treatment
due to its ability to survive in an environment where nutrients are sparse.
This is important to understand when making the choice of and how to use
the irrigant. An inter-appointment dressing is preferably used. The proce-
dure of placing a new root filling might be as challenging as the removal
of the old one since the original form of the root canal has been changed.
Follow-ups of endodontic treatment must be made systematically and over
a longer period of time in order not to jump into conclusions or let rare
individual events distort the overall results.

8.1 Introduction The aim of non-surgical retreatment is to get


access to and to eradicate the intracanal microor-
This chapter will describe a strategy in how to ganisms responsible for the persistent apical peri-
treat root-filled teeth with a non-surgical odontitis. In some cases the procedure is rather
approach, what to consider, how to manage and pursued in order to improve the quality of root
the expected result. The access to, the treatment filling in order to prevent apical periodontitis, for
of and possible complications when treating the example, prior to including the tooth in a prosth-
root canal will be described. odontic construction.
Non-surgical retreatment challenges the clini-
cian to repeat a procedure that has already been
done but to a higher standard and benefit for the
C. Ulin, DDS patient. It is well established that if the root filling
Specialist Clinic of Endodontics, Public Dental reaches 0.5–2 mm from the radiographic apex, has
Service Västra Götaland, Göteborg, Sweden
e-mail: charlotte.ulin@vgregion.se no voids and follows the outline of the root canal,

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 89


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_8
90 C. Ulin

the prognosis of root canal treatment is good, and preoperative status of the treated tooth of choice
healing or prevention of apical periodontitis will can be studied. Are there signs of caries, posts,
prevail [1–3]. Therefore the first question to be untreated root canals and procedural errors such
considered before starting the treatment is if you as instrument fractures, ledges and overinstru-
think you are up for the challenge. Do you have the mentation? The status of the root filling can be
clinical skills, the necessary armamentarium and visualized. Is it short? Are there voids or unfilled
knowledge in how to conquer the obstacles that spaces? Does it follow the original anatomy of
might come in to your way? the root canal? The answers to these questions
In a systematic review [4] by SBU (Swedish will give a preview of the challenges of treatment
Council on Health Technology Assessment) pub- ahead.
lished in 2010, they found that there is a lack of Two apical intraoral x-rays in different angu-
evidence regarding the effect of different instru- lations are mandatory. “One x-ray makes you
mental techniques, disinfection protocols or root interested, with two diagnosis can be made”
filling materials on periapical healing in conjunc- (Fig. 8.1). Sometimes a bitewing is necessary to
tion with retreatment. Though, in essence, the diagnose caries and status of the coronal restau-
available evidence supports the current paradig- ration. With a bitewing x-ray the risk of over- or
matic premise of endodontics that healthy peri- under-axial angulation is avoided. Hereby some
apical tissues are likely to be promoted if the of the above questions can be answered and some
treatment procedures result in a successful eradi- can be enlightened.
cation of the root canal infection. Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) is
The retreatment strategies include x-ray a very useful tool in diagnosing periapical lesions
examination, magnification and illumination, and root canal anatomy. It has its disadvantages
coronal examination, access preparation, remov- in already root-filled teeth due to the creation of
ing root filling material, irrigation and chemical artefacts from the root filling material and also if
disinfection, placement of a new root filling res- posts are present (Fig. 8.2). The European end-
toration and follow-up. odontic society made a position statement in
2014 [5] regarding the use of CBCT in endodon-
tics. “A request for a CBCT scan should only be
8.2 X-ray Examination considered if the additional information from
reconstructed three-dimensional images will
Having good preoperative x-rays is crucial in cre- potentially aid formulating a diagnosis and/or
ating the first attempt of creating a strategy for enhance the management of a tooth with an end-
non-surgical retreatment. With good x-rays the odontic problem(s)”.

a b c

Fig. 8.1 (a) Tooth 36 is symptomatic after root canal ISO 15 in mesial-lingual canal verifies the likely reason
treatment. (b) X-ray in distal angulation suggests the pres- for case being symptomatic
ence of an untreated mesial-lingual canal. (c) Reamer 02
8  Non-surgical Retreatment 91

Fig. 8.2  Cone beam


computed tomography
(CBCT) has its
disadvantages in
root-filled teeth due to
the creation of artefacts
from the root filling
material and also if posts
are present

8.3 Magnification the mechanisms of coronal leakage. Consequently,


and Illumination in such a situation, all filling materials and soft
dentine have to be removed to create aseptic con-
Magnification and illumination in endodontic ditions during treatment and to allow for a suc-
practice is a good help within any step of the cessful outcome in the long term.
procedures. The possibility to visualize the In some situations the quality of the crown or
tooth and root canal system will give diagnostic restoration is judged to be faultless, and it seems
information, and during treatment the surgical to be safe to carry out the treatment with the
microscope makes the procedures easier and maintenance of the restoration from a microbio-
allows them to be conducted in a controlled logical point of view. However, a proper access
manner. The clinical effect of the use of the sur- to the root canal system may be jeopardized.
gical microscope is difficult to evaluate from a Hence a complete removal of the previous fill-
strictly scientific point of view, and there are no ing or artificial crown may be indicated
studies available that specifically investigated anyway.
the outcome of orthograde retreatment if or not After the complete removal of the restoration
using an operating microscope, although the and caries, the ability of the remaining tooth sub-
possibility to enhance the quality of the access stance to provide support for a new restoration
preparation in terms of locating root canals has must be assessed. Not surprisingly, it is common
been studied [6–8]. for this appraisal to turn out negatively and the
tooth is deemed for extraction. Therefore, the
patient should be informed that the decision to try
8.4  ssessment of the Coronal
A to cure a tooth by retreatment might be due to
Restoration change as treatment commences and progresses.
Another common finding is that remaining tooth
A root-filled tooth has usually a large coronal res- structure is compromised by cracks or fractures.
toration or an artificial crown. The status of the In conjunction with a local periodontal pocket, it
coronal restauration needs to be assessed for gives reasons to believe that a vertical root frac-
­several reasons. Gaps between the filling material ture is present. Also under such circumstances,
and the dentine or carious lesions may be the the retreatment is pointless and the tooth should
source of persistent apical periodontitis through rather be extracted. When only minor cracks
92 C. Ulin

without any periodontal involvement or mobility e­ asily removed by drilling an axial furrow on
between s­ egments are present, the clinical deci- the buccal side in to the dentine. The cemental
sion is more difficult. There is only scarce scien- lock is then breakable by creating a bending
tific documentation on the long-term outcome. force inside the furrow with, for example, a
The prognosis should be considered doubtful. If small and short screwdriver or a carver.
the treatment is carried on, it must be after thor- Depending upon the core material of the crown,
ough deliberation and informed consent from the it will be more or less challenging. There are
patient. today burs available that are designed to cut
The coronal examination also involves an through given materials such as titanium, zir-
inspection of the pulp chamber floor. The pos- conium, cobalt-chrome, etc. A high-speed
sible presence of untreated root canals or isth- hand-piece should be avoided due to its low
muses can hereby be diagnosed. For example, momentum. An upregulated air-turbine-driven
65–98% of the upper first molars have two root hand-piece is preferable.
canals in the mesiobuccal root [9, 10]. And the Sometimes a core and post might be present
most palatal of the two (MB2) has frequently inside the prosthodontic construction or even
been overlooked in the primary treatment and when there is a composite resaturation. The
may be the underlying reason to treatment fail- core is removed with burs. If a post is present,
ure. The presence of previously made perfora- it can be of metal or a fibre material. Depending
tion in the pulp chamber can be diagnosed. If on the fit and retention of the post the removal
diagnosed the prognosis is dependent on the might be quick or time consuming. The aim is
created damage to the periodontium and the to dislodge the lock of the cement surrounding
possibility to successfully seal the area of per- the post after which it will become loose and
foration [11, 12]. easy to passively remove. This is preferably
The type of root filling material previously done by ultrasonic equipment even though
used can also be assessed. There are many dif- other techniques are available. The coronal
ferent types of root filling materials used. part of the post, above the orifice of the root
However, in most cases the clinician will find canal, must be exposed. It is important to make
canals filled with some type of sealer together sure that the core material is removed from the
with a core of gutta-percha. But sometimes post. After choosing an ultrasound tip, designed
only sealers or cements have been used. Core for the purpose, this is placed against the post,
materials other than gutta-percha such as sil- and the ultrasonic unit is set on a high fre-
verpoints or plastic carriers may also have quency. Then, the clinician moves the tip
been used. Tooth colouring can sometimes around the post in order to allow the vibrations
give a hint about what materials have been to be transported along the post and break the
administered. A pink-coloured tooth is usually cement. Thin ultrasonic files can be used to
root filled with resorcinol-formaldehyde resin, remove the cement between the root canal wall
so-called Russian red [13]. and the post. If the post does not come loose,
the possibility of drilling away the post can be
considered. There are specially designed burs
8.5  emoval of Crowns, Cores
R to at a low speed remove fibre posts. The risk
and Posts of at the same time removing dentine and
increasing the risk of root fracture or perfora-
The removal of a crown will almost always tion has to be taken into account. Magnification,
also remove some dentine since the border visibility, acquaintance of the root canal anat-
between the crown and the underlying dentine omy and skill is obviously crucial for a suc-
is difficult to visualize. The crown is most cessful result.
8  Non-surgical Retreatment 93

8.6 The Access Preparation comfort both for the patient and the operator.
Furthermore patient safety considerations
The access preparation should give visibility and require the use of rubber dam in order to pre-
easy access to the root canals and also allow a vent inhalation or ingestion. The isolated tooth
complete eradication of residues of pulp tissue and the clamp and rubber dam fabric that sur-
and microorganisms. At the same time care rounds it should preferably be also be disin-
should be taken to save tooth substance. fected in order to further minimize risk of
A number of different access burs are avail- contamination during the treatment. For exam-
able that have in common to cut the surface effec- ple, Möller suggests that the tooth is firstly
tively with as little damage to the tooth and cleaned with 30% hydrogen peroxide and then
resaturation as possible. Before starting drilling after disinfected with 10% iodine tincture [15].
through a crown, its outline and its position in
relation to the root must be examined and
considered. For e­xample, the root might be
­ 8.8  emoving the Root Filling
R
rotated but the crown is placed in line with the Material
tooth arch.
The access cavity needs to be large enough The aim is to remove the root filling material
to give the operator a possibility to see and together with necrotic pulp material and/or
introduce the instruments into root canal with embedded microorganisms in order to create
a “straight-line access”. Rotary or reciprocat- access to and enable a chemomechanical debride-
ing instruments should be allowed to act freely ment of the persisting biofilm. At the same time
without touching the cavity walls. If touching the clinician must be prudent not to remove an
the cavity walls during instrumentation the excess of root dentine that in turn can jeopardize
tapered instruments will be transported within tooth survival in the long term. Depending on the
the root canal, and there will be a risk of creat- type and quality of the root filling, it will be dif-
ing a ledge or instrument fracture. The judi- ferences in difficulty and time for its removal. A
cious clinician also considers to reduce cusps tooth that has been root filled with sealer and has
not only for good access but also to avoid frac- had excessive amount of leakage into the root
ture of undermined tooth substance. The most canal will be more easy to treat than a tooth root
commonly needed cusps to be reduced are the filled with a densely compacted gutta-percha and
mesiobuccal on the upper molar and the buc- a hard-set sealer or one filled with a core material
cal on the lower molar. such Thermafil™ or similar. It is a good clinical
practice to probe the root-filled canal with a file,
preferably a K-file 15, to feel to what extent it is
8.7  ubber Dam and Aseptic
R possible to bring the file down in to the root fill-
Working Field ing material. This will give an immediate indica-
tion on the quality of the seal. If the quality is
Next a rubber dam is placed to seal off the tooth poor, the instrument will with ease penetrate into
and to create an operating field with good asep- the root canal.
tic properties. The rubber dam will render an
obstacle for saliva and microbes to enter into
the cavity and thereby give the operating dentist 8.8.1 Removing Gutta-Percha
a possibility to concentrate on eradicating the and Sealer
root filling material and microorganisms within
the root canal [14]. This basic endodontic prac- The root filling removal is preferably done using
tice also enhances a good field of view and a stepwise “crown-down” strategy. It is strongly
94 C. Ulin

recommended not to push or advance any rotary use only light pressure in order to avoid creat-
instrument (burs, drills or root canal instruments) ing a ledge or even perforation if canal is
beyond the length that has been first accessed by curved.
a K-file 15 (corresponding to creating a “glide
path” in primary treatments).
A low-speed bur can be used to remove the 8.8.3 Solvents
1–2 mm coronal part. In the next step, Gates
Glidden drills can be used to advance further Solvents of gutta-percha and some sealers may
3–5 mm down the root canal. Rotary or recipro- be a valuable adjunct in the retreatment proce-
cating instruments may now be the perfect dure when the root canal is densely packed or if
choice to start to create a predetermined shape the root-filled canals are severely curved.
of the root canal [16]. The file should be work- Guttasolv™, Endosolv™ and chloroform are
ing in the centre of the material to avoid iatro- substances aimed for this purpose. Entering a few
genic damages. Many of the rotary file systems drops of the solvent into the canal will soften the
have special retreatment files that are usually gutta-percha, and the file can lodge in to the
stiffer and with non-cutting tip and also design material and follow its path. Since many of these
to be driven at a higher speed. However the pro- solvents contain chemicals potentially allergenic
cedure must be done with caution because of or even carcinogenic, they should be considered a
the risk creating a ledge. By careful widening working environmental hazard. The solvent also
of the coronal part of the root canal, a better creates a layer of gutta-percha on the root canal
access to the apical part is created. Hand files, walls that can be difficult to remove. Therefore
preferably Hedstrom files, can be used but will they should be used with caution and only when
be more time consuming. Studies have shown considered necessary and not on a routine basis.
that rotary files remove root filling material and
prepare the root canal more quickly comparing
to hand-instrumentation. Rotary files will leave 8.9 Instrumentation
more root filling materials behind inside the of the Apical Part
root canal compared to hand files [17, 18].
Using rotary files often needs finishing off with When the previous root filling has been success-
hand files to remove the middle and apical part fully removed the root canal instrumentation, I
of the remaining gutta-percha. Ultrasonic files made the same way as at a primary treatment.
may also be used for this purpose. Remnants of The rotary or reciprocating instrument sequence
sealer and cement are also easier removed by should be followed and working length measured
ultrasonic without risk of removing more root as recommended by the manufacturers. A con-
canal dentine. ceivable crown-root length is estimated by study-
ing the preoperative x-rays. An apex locator is
preferably used together with an intraoral x-ray.
8.8.2 Removing Plastic Carriers Since the natural taper and possibly the constric-
tion of the root canal is damaged by previous
Carriers covered by gutta-percha are easiest instrumentations, the apex locator will most
removed by creating a space between the likely only show if inside or outside of the root
material and root canal wall by inserting a canal and not if the constriction is approaching as
rotary file. The operator must be aware of the normally is shown. The intraoral x-ray will add
risk that the pressure of the wall will control information about the position and direction of
the movements of the file and consequently the file in the root canal. It will also give an idea
8  Non-surgical Retreatment 95

of the amount of root filling material still remain- motion, the ledge is smoothed. A Hedstrom file
ing. After working length determination, the root size 15–20 can also cautiously be used to estab-
canal preparation continues accordingly to the lish a good glide path. When the block is
manual of the selected system and with adjust- bypassed, copious sodium hypochlorite irriga-
ments selected by the clinician for the individual tion should be used to remove debris.
case. Preferably the apical dimension is above
ISO 20 to enable an effective removal of the
microorganisms to working length [19, 20]. If the 8.10.2 Instrument Fractures
apical dimension needs to be enlarged, be aware
of that further enlargement gives higher risk of During the primary treatment, a root canal instru-
perforation, zipping or transportation of the root ment may have been fractured and left inside the
canal. Overinstrumentation has a negative impact root canal. Instrument fracture occurs and it is
on the prognosis of endodontic retreatment and mostly due to a procedural error. The frequency
should always be avoided [1]. of instrument fracture during root canal treatment
has been reported to be 1–5% [21]. In retreatment
cases the root filling material can act as a block-
8.10 O
 bstacles and Previous age of the file that will then not rotate freely and
Mishaps as a consequence instrument fracture may also
occur during retreatment procedures. Removal of
8.10.1 Ledges fractured instruments can be difficult and is
depending on the location within the canal. If in
Often a ledge has been formed at the end of the the coronal part before the apical curvature, the
previous filling in the coronal, middle or apical instrument is more likely to be managed and
part of the root canal. Often the ledge is the removed. The fractures occurring in the coronal
result of an inadequate angle of access to the part are often due to excessive amount of apical
root canal during primary treatment. The ledge pressure, and if in the apical curvature, cyclic
can be passed and removed if access to the root fatigue is more likely to be the reason. Since the
canal can be recreated. But, it may be very dif- file has been rotated and screwed inside the root
ficult or even impossible to pass a ledge. canal wall or root filling material, the principle is
However, the attempt should commence with a that it has to be rotated out. The possibility to
pre-flaring of the coronal portion of the canal access the coronal 1–2 mm of the broken instru-
giving the operator a chance to move the file in ment needs to be assessed without major risk of
the right direction. Usually the coronal part of root perforation. A careful monitored preopera-
the canal needs to be widened even more but in tive radiographic examination is therefore man-
the opposite way of ledge. A K-10 file pre-bent datory. The access is made preferably by a blunt
in its apical portion can be used to probe the instrument such as a bevelled Gates Glidden drill
actual pathway. First, the file should be inserted which will create space for an ultrasonic thin tip
in the canal with the tip directed toward the to reach in between the file and the root canal
canal curvature. With very short strokes, the wall. The ultrasonic tip is rotated around the bro-
clinician must search for a catch. If unsuccess- ken instrument in a counterclockwise direction
ful, the file tip must be bended in a slightly removing small amounts of dentine and vibrating
other way and the procedure is repeated until a the file until it comes loose. The procedure can be
catch is felt. Then the file should be wiggled very time consuming, and the necessity of its
back and forth maintaining a light apical pres- removal and cost-benefit is to be considered [22]
sure. By moving the file in an up-and-­down (Fig. 8.3).
96 C. Ulin

a b

Fig. 8.3 (a) Tooth 34 is diagnosed with a fractured completed with a root filling. (d) Tooth 36 with an instru-
instrument that is judged to be removable without major ment fracture. Excessive removal of dentine and the risk
tooth loss. (b) The instrument was removed by using a of root perforation that are evident in the attempt to
thin ultrasonic tip in an anticlockwise motion. (c) Case remove the instrument are obvious
8  Non-surgical Retreatment 97

The perforation can be sealed off by using different


material that has hydrophilic properties in common.
MTA (mineral trioxide aggregate) and similar bioc-
eramic materials have shown good characteristics
for this purpose [24]. The sustainability over time is
not known. To be able to seal the perforation, obser-
vation and access is necessary and can be created by
good magnification and illumination. Another con-
sideration that needs to be taken into account is the
possibility to find the root canal in the perforated
area and the ability to successfully treat the root
canal after the perforation has been sealed off.

Fig. 8.4  A Stropko™ irrigation needle inserted in the


mesial-buccal root canal of 36 to working length
8.10.4 Overinstrumentation

8.10.3 Perforations Overinstrumentation is a type of perforation that


occurs at the site or in close proximity to the api-
Root canal perforations may be present in all cal foramen. It has a negative impact on the prog-
parts of the root canal system as a consequence of nosis of any endodontic treatment and should be
mishaps during root canal therapy, post space avoided. The natural constriction of the root
preparation or as a result of the extension of an canal is damaged, and the natural stop for the root
internal resorptive defect. A perforation that is canal preparation and root filling is injured. It
diagnosed during retreatment procedures has to creates a possibility for exudate from the periapi-
be analysed from different aspects. The location, cal area to enter the root canal system, feeding
the size and the time that has elapsed since its any remaining microorganisms with nutrients
occurrence seem to be the most important issues and at the same time allowing their waste prod-
in order to make a decision whether to carry on ucts to evade into the periapical area and sustain
the treatment or not. apical pathology.
The prevailing view is that coronal perforations Overinstrumentation can be avoided by using
have the worse prognosis [23]. At the coronal level an apex locator and working length x-rays to
the inflammatory process that develops as a hereby control the position of the file within the
response to the perforation might easily communi- canal. Apex locators are probably better than
cate with the gingival pocket and establish a peri- x-rays to establish working length [25, 26].
odontal defect. It is therefore favourable to seal any
perforation site at an early stage. A wide perforation
will be more difficult to seal than a small one. Non- 8.11 Chemical Disinfection
surgical repair is less affected by the location of the
perforation than a surgical approach to treatment, 8.11.1 Irrigation
which can be impossible in certain areas of the root.
The perforation also creates difficulty in The cultivable microbiological flora within a filled
good asepsis during treatment whereby it has root canal with apical periodontitis is different
to be controlled. The perforation can occur comparing the non-root-filled canal. The strains are
during the access preparation and the root fewer and the facultative anaerobes are predomi-
canal ­instrumentation creating different size nant [27]. The microbes are situated on the root fill-
and access to the perforated area. ing material, between the gutta-percha and root
Through the years numerous techniques and canal wall as well as within the dentinal tubules, as
materials to repair perforations have been described. shown by Nair et al. [28, 29]. The mechanical
98 C. Ulin

removal of the infected root filling material is made 8.11.1.2 EDTA


by different instruments which will give access to Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid binds calcium
the dentine. The microbes are colonizing the sites and is used to remove the created smear layer
in form of a biofilm that helps them to protect while instrumenting the root canal. Removing the
themselves from any attempts to kill them by the smear layer will create access for other irrigants
use of chemicals. Consequently, the instrumenta- to the root dentine. The smear layer often con-
tion and irrigation preferably should, as far as pos- tains bacterial residue which preferably is eradi-
sible, disrupt the biofilm in order to make the cated [34].
microbes more susceptible for the antiseptic effect
of the irrigant. Tissue-­dissolving features are there- 8.11.1.3 C  hlorhexidine and Iodine-­
fore an essential requirement. The irrigant should Potassium Iodide
also be able to reach areas that cannot possibly be The understanding of the infected root canal and
touched by the instruments. Therefore low surface the complexity of the biofilm have increased over
tension is an important property. the last decades. The fact that particularly resis-
The disinfection irrigant should be able to tant microorganisms have been found in root-­
kill or at least permanently inactivate the micro- filled teeth has enabled clinicians and researchers
biota within the root canal system. At the same to try using alternative or complementary irriga-
time the agent has to be minimally toxic and not tion fluids either to more effectively remove
cause tissue damage if accidentally entering microbes initially or to enhance chemical disin-
beyond the root canal system. Depending on the fection in retreatment, disinfectants that can be
irrigation device used, the solution is, more or more effective to yeast and enterococcus than
less, able to reach to the working length without NaOCl [35].
penetrating out in to the periapical area. Chlorhexidine is used due its biocompatible
None of the currently used agents is fully sat- and binding properties to hydroxyapatite. Two
isfying the above requirements. percent chlorhexidine gluconate is used, but its
lack of tissue-dissolving properties makes it not
8.11.1.1 Sodium Hypochlorite useful as a sole irrigant but in conjunction with
(NaOCl) NaOCl. Mixing NaOCl with chlorhexidine will
Sodium hypochlorite has the ability to disrupt the give para-chloroaniline as a precipitate. This
microbiological biofilm within the root-canal and pink-coloured residue might cover the root canal
is a potential antiseptic agent. It has been exten- wall and prohibit the effect of NaOCl. The effi-
sively used within endodontics and has good evi- cacy of iodine-potassium iodide particularly tar-
dence to be effective both in vitro and in clinical geted against species of Enterococcus has found
studies [30]. Sodium hypochlorite is the main some support both in vitro and clinical protocols
irrigant of choice. Which concentration should be [35, 36]. Iodine-potassium iodide may be used
used is up for further investigation. Higher con- preferably after EDTA.
centration will increase the risk of severe toxic
effects if sodium hypochlorite is flushed through 8.11.1.4 Irrigation Methods
the root apex. The treatment time will increase Irrigating the root canal with a syringe and a nee-
with lower concentration but it can be safer [31]. dle is the most common technique. Needles of
Lower pH and higher temperature change sodium different designs and material are available. The
hypochlorite to become more effective at lower scope is to find a technique that reaches the whole
concentrations [32]. The optimal concentration, space of the root canal and preferably its sur-
pH and temperature are to be investigated. rounding crevices, bi-canals and isthmuses. At
Sodium hypochlorite is quickly inactivated by the same time the irrigating method used should
the presence of oxidizable material such as den- also prevent the irrigation solution to penetrate
tine debris and organic material [33]. Therefore it the root canal foramen, thereby risking damage
has to be replenished consistently. to surrounding tissue.
8  Non-surgical Retreatment 99

Gulabivala et al. [37] describe the fluid mecha- longer of a form that co-inherit with the gutta-
nism of root canal irrigation where a greater taper and percha points manufactured to fit to a particular
a side-vented needle design will render the s­ afest and file system. The apical size will often be larger
best effect. Needle material of Ni-Ti will give the and the taper greater. The root filling technique
device a possibility to follow the curvature of the root to be used needs to encounter these properties.
canal and to reach the apical area (Fig. 8.4). There is no evidence to suggest that any particu-
The activation of the irrigation solution by an lar method or material systematically results in
ultrasonic device will give agitation of the fluid better outcome than any other. However, the
and create a higher possibility of tissue dissolv- variety of situations challenges the clinician to
ing and a disruption of the biofilm within the root adapt his or her technology to the various condi-
canal [38]. tions prevailing in each individual case. The key
to achievement is usually to first of all fill the
apical part and as a second step fill the coronal
8.12 Inter-appointment Dressings part of the root canal. The apical part is prefer-
ably filled with a master point that correlates, as
8.12.1 Calcium Hydroxide well as possible, to the shape of the canal in this
apical 4–5 mm from the working length and the
Calcium hydroxide in aqueous solution is a rest of the root canal with a warm gutta-percha
strong alkaline solution with a pH of 12.5. It dis- technique. If the root canal has been retreated
sociates into calcium and hydroxyl ions, of which and enlarged to a shape that co-inherits with a
the later have strong antimicrobial effect when particular instrument in a particular instrumen-
into direct contact with the microflora. The tation system, the canal is easiest filled with the
tissue-­dissolving effect of the hydroxyl ions is corresponding gutta-percha.
also helpful in the disruption of the biofilm. It has been shown that a root filling with a thin
A classical study by Sjögren et al. [2] has layer of sealer gives the best properties when it
shown that inter-appointment dressing with cal- comes to leakage [40, 41].
cium hydroxide reduces the amount of microflora After the root filling it is sometime advocated
within the root canal, although the antiseptic effect to place a bacterial-tight filling 2–3 mm in the
of calcium hydroxide on facultative anaerobes coronal part of the root canal. This is to prevent
such as Enterococcus faecalis and yeast, for exam- coronal leakage. There are no clinical studies to
ple, Candida albicans, has been questioned [39]. support this recommendation [42]. Also, Ricucci
However, in a retreatment case when treat- et al. [43] could show that teeth that had been
ment often is complicated and time consuming optimally endodontically treated and showed
and therefore split into more than one session, it good-quality root fillings did not show apical
seems advantageous to use calcium hydroxide to pathologies when exposed to the oral cavity for a
prohibit growth of bacteria in the root canal long period of time.
between visits. By filling the root canal with cal- After the root filling is made, the resaturation of
cium hydroxide, the nutritional supply to the coronal part is due to take place. The possibility
microbes by inflammatory exudates from the of a good coronal resaturation after the endodontic
periapical area is blocked. treatment should always be taken into consider-
ation when doing the treatment planning.

8.13 Root Filling


8.14 Follow-Up
The procedure of placing a new root filling may
be as challenging as removing the old one. One of the best ways to know if your strategy has
Often, the anatomy of the root canal has been been successful is to do your own follow-ups.
transformed due to the treatment, and it is no You thereby learn what challenges you have to
100 C. Ulin

overcome and what you have to consider when


treatment planning is made. However the follow-­ Take-Home Lessons
ups must be made systematically and over a lon- • Diagnosis, case selection and treatment
ger period of time in order not to jump into planning are the keys for successful out-
conclusions or let rare individual events distort come of non-surgical retreatment.
the overall results. • When retreating a root canal, the down-
Follow-up of endodontic treatment takes time. side is that you are bound to someone
The way of knowing if a treatment of an apical else’s pathway within the root canal.
periodontitis has been successful is to follow the • Create a treatment strategy and an
size of the periapical destruction on an x-ray. The objective for the procedures, and make
time between treatment and follow-up needs to sure to apprise your patient and get his
be as long as periapical changes are likely to be or her informed consent.
seen. A first follow-up time of 12 months is • Consider the challenges in removing the
therefore often recommended. The follow-up root filling material and the more robust
includes an anamnestic report of subjective and microbial flora in advance.
objective symptoms and x-rays. The x-rays • Do follow-ups to learn and to create an
should mimic the preoperative x-rays which individual evidence-based database.
gives the best opportunity to follow changes in
the periapical area (Fig. 8.5). Strindberg in his
thesis from 1956 [44] could show that the most of
Benchmark Papers
the periapical lesions that where less in size after
1 year usually had healed after 4 years. However,
• Bergenholtz G, Lekholm U, Milthon R,
to be able to confirm complete healing, it requires
Heden G, Ödesjö B, Engström B.
follow-up periods that sometimes need to be
Retreatment of endodontic fillings. Scand
extended to the length of an entire professional
J Dent Res. 1979;87:217–24.
career (Fristad et al. [45]).

a b

Fig. 8.5 (a) Preoperative x-ray with clearly visible apical lesions. (b) 12-month follow-up after retreatment, perira-
dicular tissues exhibit clear signs of a bone healing process
8  Non-surgical Retreatment 101

7. Del Fabbro M, Taschieri S, Lodi G, Banfi G, Weinstein


• Ng YL, Mann V, Gulabivala K. A pro- RL. Magnification devices for endodontic therapy.
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009:8(3):CD005969.
spective study of the factors affecting https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD005969.pub2.
outcome of nonsurgical root canal treat- 8. Görduysus MÖ, Görduysus M, Friedman S.
ment: part 1: periapical health. Int Operating microscope improves negotiation of sec-
Endod J. 2011;44:583–609. ond mesiobuccal canals in maxillary molars. J Endod.
2001;27:683–6.
• Molander A, Reit C, Dahlén G, Kvist T. 9. Kulid JC, Peter DD. Incidence and configuration of
Microbiological status of root-filled canal systems in the mesiobuccal root of maxillary
teeth with apical periodontitis. Int first and second molars. J Endod. 1990;16:311–7.
10. Vertucci FJ. Root canal anatomy of the human per-
Endod J. 1998;31:1–7.
manent teeth. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol.
• Nair PN, Sjögren U, Krey G, Kahnberg 1984;58:589–99.
KE, Sundqvist G. Intraradicular bacteria 11. Main C, Mirzayan N, Shabahang S, Torabinejad

and fungi in root-filled, asymptomatic M. Repair of root perforations using mineral trioxide
aggregate: a long-term study. J Endod. 2004;30:80–3.
human teeth with therapy-resistant peri-
12. Krupp C, Bargholz C, Brüsehaber M, Hülsmann

apical lesions: a long-term light and M. Treatment outcome after repair of root perfora-
electron microscopic follow-up study. J tions with mineral trioxide aggregate: a retrospective
Endod. 1990;16:580–8. evaluation of 90 teeth. J Endod. 2013;39:1364–8.
13. Schwandt NW, Gound TG. Resorcinol-formaldehyde
resin “Russian red” endodontic therapy. J Endod.
The studies show that the prognosis of 2003;29:435–7.
root-filled teeth and its treatment are 14. Lin PY, Huang SH, Chang HJ, Chi LY. The effect
dependent on the quality of the previous of rubber dam usage on the survival rate of teeth
receiving initial root canal treatment: a nationwide
made endodontic treatment. The influence
population-­based study. J Endod. 2014;40:1733–7.
of procedural errors and lack of microbial 15. Möller ÅJR Microbiological examination if root

eradication are factors to be considered canals and periapical tissues of human teeth. Scand
and also to be able to control while per- Dent J. 1966;74(5 and 6).
16. Molander A, Caplan D, Bergenholtz G, Reit C. Improved
forming non-surgically retreatment.
quality of root fillings provided by general dental prac-
titioners educated in nickel-titanium rotary instrumenta-
tion. Int Endod J. 2007;40:254–60.
17. Betti LV, Bramante CM. Quantec SC rotary instru-
ments versus hand files for gutta-percha removal in
References root canal retreatment. Int Endod J. 2001;34:514–9.
18. Bernardes RA, Duarte MA, Vivan RR, Alcalde MP,
1. Bergenholtz G, Lekholm U, Milthon R, Heden G, Vasconcelos BC, Bramante CM. Comparison of three
Ödesjö B, Engström B. Retreatment of endodontic retreatment techniques with ultrasonic activation in
fillings. Scand J Dent Res. 1979;87:217–24. flattened canals using micro-computed tomography
2. Sjögren U, Hägglund B, Sundquist G, Wing K. Factors and scanning electron microscopy. Int Endod J. 2015;
affecting the long-term results of endodontic treat- https://doi.org/10.1111/iej.12522. Epub ahead of print.
ment. J Endod. 1990;16:498–504. 19. Huang TY, Gulabivala K, Ng YL. A bio-molecular
3. Ng YL, Mann V, Gulabivala K. A prospective study film ex-vivo model to evaluate the influence of canal
of the factors affecting outcome of nonsurgical root dimensions and irrigation variables on the efficacy of
canal treatment: part 1: periapical health. Int Endod irrigation. Int Endod J. 2008;41:60–71.
J. 2011;44:583–609. 20. Clars Dalton B, Örstavik D, Philips C, Petiette M,
4. Swedish Council on Health Technology Assessment. Trope M. Bacterial reduction with nickel-titanium
Methods of diagnosis and treatment in endodontics— rotary instrumentation. J Endod. 1998;11:763–7.
a systematic review. Report no. 203; 2010. p. 1–491. 21. Shen Y, Coil JM, McLean AG, Hemerling DL,

http://www.sbu.se. Haapasalo M. Defects in nickel-titanium instruments
5. European Society of Endodontology, Patel S, Durack after clinical use. Part 5: single use from endodontic
C, Abella F, Roig M, Shemesh H, Lambrechts P, specialty practices. J Endod. 2009;10:1363–7.
Lemberg K. European Society of Endodontology 22. Suter B, Lussi A, Sequeira P. Probability of remov-
position statement: the use of CBCT in endodontics. ing fractured instruments from root canals. Int Endod
Int Endod J. 2014;47:502–4. J. 2005;38:112–23.
6. Del Fabbro M, Taschieri S. Endodontic therapy using 23. Petersson K, Hasselgren G, Tronstad L. Endodontic
magnification devices: a systematic review. J Dent. treatment of experimental root perforations in dog
2010;38:269–75. teeth. Endod Dent Traumatol. 1985;1:22–8.
102 C. Ulin

24. Guneser MB, Akbulut MB, Eldeniz AU. Effect of 35. Portenier I, Haapasalo H, Orstavik D, Yamauchi M,
various endodontic irrigants on the push-out bond Haapasalo M. Inactivation of the antibacterial activity
strength of biodentine and conventional root perfora- of iodine potassium iodide and chlorhexidine diglu-
tion repair materials. J Endod. 2013;39:380–4. conate against Enterococcus faecalis by dentin, den-
25. Ravanshad S, Adl A, Anvar J. Effect of work-
tin matrix, type-I collagen, and heat-killed microbial
ing length measurement by electronic apex loca- whole cells. J Endod. 2002;28:634–7.
tor or radiography on the adequacy of final working 36. Peciuliene V, Reynaud AH, Balciuniene I, Haapasalo
length: a randomized clinical trial. J Endod. 2010;36: M. Isolation of yeasts and enteric bacteria in root-­
1753–6. filled teeth with chronic apical periodontitis. Int
26. Williams CB, Joyce AP, Roberts S. A comparison Endod J. 2001;34:429–34.
between in vivo radiographic working length deter- 37. Gulabivala K, Ng YL, Gilbertson M, Eames I. The
mination and measurement after extraction. J Endod. fluid mechanics of root canal irrigation. Physiol Meas.
2006;32(7):624. 2010;31:49–84.
27.
Molander A, Reit C, Dahlén G, Kvist 38. Stojicic S, Zivkovic S, Qian W, Zhang H, Haapasalo
T. Microbiological status of root-filled teeth with api- M. Tissue dissolution by sodium hypochlorite: effect
cal periodontitis. Int Endod J. 1998;31:1–7. of concentration, temperature, agitation, and surfac-
28. Nair PN, Sjögren U, Figdor D, Sundqvist G. Persistent tant. J Endod. 2010;36:1558–62.
periapical radiolucencies of root-filled human teeth, 39. Vianna ME, Gomes BP, Sena NT, Zaia AA, Ferraz
failed endodontic treatments, and periapical scars. CC, de Souza Filho FJ. In vitro evaluation of the
Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. susceptibility of endodontic pathogens to calcium
1999;87:617–27. hydroxide combined with different vehicles. Braz
29. Nair PN, Sjögren U, Krey G, Kahnberg KE, Sundqvist Dent J. 2005;16:175–80.
G. Intraradicular bacteria and fungi in root-filled, 40. De-Deus G, Coutinho-Filho T, Reis C, Murad C,

asymptomatic human teeth with therapy-resistant peri- Paciornik S. Polymicrobial leakage of four root
apical lesions: a long-term light and electron micro- canal sealers at two different thicknesses. J Endod.
scopic follow-up study. J Endod. 1990;16:580–8. 2006;32:998–1001.
30. Zendher M. Root canal irrigants. J Endod. 2006;32: 41. Wu MK, Wesselink PR, Boersma J. A 1-year follow-
389–98. ­up study on leakage of four root canal sealers at dif-
31. Bystrom A, Sundqvist G. The antibacterial action of ferent thicknesses. Int Endod J. 1995;28:185–9.
sodium hypochlorite and EDTA in 60 cases of end- 42. Yamauchi S, Shipper G, Buttke T, Yamauchi M, Trope
odontic therapy. Int Endod J. 1985;18:35–40. M. Effect of orifice plugs on periapical inflammation
32. Moorer WR, Wesselink PR. Factors promoting the in dogs. J Endod. 2006;32(6):524.
tissue dissolving capability of sodium hypochlorite. 43. Ricucci D, Gröndahl K, Bergenholtz G. Periapical status
Int Endod J. 1982;15:187–96. of root filled teeth exposed to the oral environment by
33. Haapasalo HK, Sirén EK, Waltimo TM, Örstavik D, loss of restorations or caries. Oral Surg. 2000;90:354–9.
Haapsalo MP. Inactivation of local root canal medi- 44. Strindberg LZ. The dependence of the result of pulp
caments by dentine: an in vitro study. Int Endod therapy on certain factors. Acta Odontol Scand.
J. 2000;33:126–3. 1956;14(Suppl 21):1–175.
34. Sen BH, Wesselink PR, Türkün M. The smear layer: 45.
Fristad I, Molven O, Halse A. Nonsurgically
a phenomenon in root canal therapy. Int Endod retreated root filled teeth. Radiographic findings after
J. 1995;28:141–8. 20–27 years. Int Endod J. 2004;37(1):12–8.
Prognosis
9
Thomas Kvist

Evidence based practice must be based on practice based evidence.


—Inspired by Sackett et al.
in “Evidence based medicine—What it is—and what it isn’t.” 1996

Comparative experience is a prerequisite for experimental and scientific medicine,


otherwise the physician may walk at random and become the sport of a thousand
illusions.
Claude Bernard—“Introduction a l’étude de la medicine expérimentale.” 1866

Abstract
For any human ailment, outcome assessment is a major step. In this chap-
ter the prognosis of persistent apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth is
discussed. However, the focus is on critically examining the evidence con-
cerning this condition and giving a brief overview of the challenges the
discipline of endodontics is facing for future clinical research in order to
close some of the essential “knowledge gaps” regarding apical periodonti-
tis in root-filled teeth.

9.1 Introduction asked questions concerned with the future of a


persistent apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth
When people are diagnosed with a disorder, they are likely to be as follows:
have many questions about how this will affect
them in the future. This also holds true for apical • How does this problem affect my risk of loos-
periodontitis in root-filled teeth. And perhaps this ening the tooth?
diagnosis will generate extra many anxieties • Will it affect my general health?
since the condition is preceded by a previous • What different options do I have?
treatment attempt that has somehow “failed” in • How likely is it that retreatment will cure the
achieving one or two of the fundamental objec- tooth?
tives of root canal treatment. Some frequently • Would it be a better idea to take the tooth out?
• If so, can it and should it be replaced?

What information should the dentist provide


T. Kvist, DDS, PhD and should any information be withheld from the
Department of Endodontology, Institute of patient? This issue is more deeply discussed in
Odontology, The Sahlgrenska Academy, Chap. 6: Decision making. This chapter will crit-
University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
e-mail: kvist@odontologi.gu.se ically discuss the present evidence base for the

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 103


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_9
104 T. Kvist

information we need to be able to convey to our as far as possible. The objective is to predict the
patients in the situation of facing a root-filled future of individual patients and their affected
tooth with persistent apical periodontitis. teeth as closely as possible. The intention in the
clinical setting is to avoid stating needlessly
vague prognoses and answer with confidence
9.2  linical Research: The Basis
C when it is deceiving. Therefore, studies aiming to
of Statements answer the clinical questions must be scrutinized
About Prognosis for quality [1, 2].

Prognosis is a prediction of the future course of a


condition following its onset with or without 9.2.1 Methods for Clinical Research
treatment. Studies on prognosis should tackle
and give solid answers to clinical questions. A Assessment prognosis can be carried out in a
group of patients with a condition such as apical number of ways. Evidence-based medicine/den-
periodontitis in a root-filled tooth or a particular tistry seeks to prioritize information in a hierar-
treatment in common, such as endodontic retreat- chy of evidence by study design from the most
ment, are identified and followed forward in time. biassed to the least biassed. Knowledge about
Clinical outcomes are measured. Often, condi- the biology of disease, in vitro studies and stud-
tions that are associated with a given outcome, ies in models, cadavers or animals are certainly
i.e. prognostic factors, are sought. The prognosis valuable to the discipline in many aspects. Yet
of a disease without interference is termed the this kind of research, even if skilfully per-
natural history of disease. The term clinical formed, will very sparsely, if at all, contribute to
course has been used to describe the evolution evidence-­ based answers to clinical questions.
(prognosis) of disease that has come under medi- Because of the complex biology of human
cal or dental care and treated in a variety of ways beings, the variation among individuals, the
that might affect the subsequent course of events. influence of chance and the interaction between
It is a difficult but indispensable task to make doctors and patients, valid answers to the clini-
clinical research on these issues. The studies may cal questions, must be searched for in clinical
be affected by biasses that have to be controlled research (Fig. 9.1).
gh
Hi
ce

Meta-analyses of RCTS.
en
d
vi
fe

Randomized controlled trials.


lo
ve

Fig. 9.1  The “evidence


Le

pyramid” illustrates how Prospective cohort studies.


different types of studies
Case-control studies.
basically are assessed
for their potential ability Case series.
to provide different
w

levels of scientific Case reports.


Lo

evidence for a specific Studies in models and in animals.


clinical question
9 Prognosis 105

9.2.1.1 Case Reports each of the groups. For an example Kim et al. [3]
A simple way of clinical research is the descrip- studied the influence of a presence of an isthmus
tion of clinical cases, which may show unique or area when performing endodontic surgery in
unusual features of the condition or outcome of maxillary and mandibular first molars. Of the 106
therapy. Such case analyses are quite common in teeth, 72 teeth had an isthmus, and 34 did not.
endodontic journals and at congresses. It is the The analysis revealed that the cumulative 4 years
only mean by which specific or even unexpected survival rate after surgery was 61.5 and 87.4%,
clinical events can be described and are therefore respectively, when an isthmus was present and
important as further examinations may be initi- absent.
ated. The limitation of case presentations is obvi-
ous. Information from a single case cannot be 9.2.1.4 Prospective Cohort Studies
transferred to other patients because of the wide Retrospective studies of any nature will not do
variation and many factors not controlled or well as they suffer the risk of having limited or no
checked for. control of a number of aspects relevant to out-
come. To provide good evidence, clinical research
9.2.1.2 Case Series requires being prospective. A type of clinical
Series of cases provide better information. research design that has gained increased atten-
Larger groups of patients with a particular dis- tion in recent years is the prospective cohort
ease or condition subjected to treatment are stud- observational study [4]. Cohort refers to a group
ied. The involvement of chance can be checked of patients. This study design implies that a large
by statistical analysis. Yet, the efficiency of the sample of patients can be treated and then be
clinical procedure cannot be ascertained to be assembled for follow-up examinations. An
better or equal to any other method if no control important factor of such studies is that a fairly
group is available. Sometimes, inclusion of data large number of clinics have to be included in
from prior studies or other authors’ results is order for the report to gain generalizability. Yet
used for comparison purposes. However, this the study design has the advantage to allow inclu-
procedure will not bring particular strong evi- sion of general dentists and therefore will give
dence to the report, as the conditions, under availability to aspects on endodontics at which
which the studies were conducted, may not have we have very little understanding.
been very similar.
Database-Based Studies
9.2.1.3 Case-Control Studies Given that a comprehensive registry of patients
Case-control studies also belong to the arsenal of under treatment currently is under way in many
methods of observational studies available for countries, valuable basic information on the effi-
clinical research. A case-control study assesses ciency of procedures can be gained [5]. However,
persons with a condition (or another outcome since validated data on diagnoses, treatment pro-
variable) of interest and a suitable control group tocols and other essential details often are lack-
of persons without the condition (comparison ing, this type of study cannot give answers to
group, reference group). The potential relation- more detailed clinical questions.
ship of a suspected risk factor or an attribute to
the condition is examined by comparing the 9.2.1.5 Randomized Controlled Trial
affected and non-affected subjects with regard to Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are genu-
how frequently the factor or attribute is present ine clinical experiments. Two or more groups of
(or, if quantitative, the levels of the attribute) in subjects receive different measures, are followed
106 T. Kvist

forward in time and are compared using an out- Yet, the long time they require to conduct
come assessment. The distinguishing feature of and the high costs make RCTs difficult to per-
an RCT is that patients are allocated to test and form. On a careful consideration, we must real-
control procedures in a strictly randomized man- ize that RCTs may not attain evidence-based
ner. This kind of study usually observes the effect research very easily for important clinical
of a single variable only. All other variables (back- questions for endodontic retreatment. In fact,
ground variables, confounders) are controlled by RCTs are ideal for testing the effects of drugs
the chance effect in both the test and the control because it can use placebo and be controlled
group. To be appropriate RCT requires further a double blinded. However, for assessment of
precalculated minimal number of patients to be important aspects of surgical interventions,
included in order to ensure that a statistical sig- such as endodontic retreatment procedures,
nificant difference between the test and the con- several predicaments occur. For example, it
trol procedure can be ascertained. RCTs are would probably be difficult to enrol a sufficient
indeed powerful tools as many of the biasses that number of root-filled teeth with apical peri-
affect nonrandomized trials can be eliminated. odontitis similar enough to be randomized to
In Fig. 9.2 the set-up of three different RCTs extraction and implant or non-surgical retreat-
is sketched. From a scientific perspective, these ment. But even if possible, it is likely that the
would be highly desirable to implement in order values and expectations of the patients, the
to provide significantly better knowledge of the dentists and the evaluators could influence the
prognosis for apical periodontitis in root-filled assessment of the outcome since neither
teeth. patients, dentists nor evaluators can be blinded

a Treatment procedure:
surgical retreatment

+ Healed

TX - Not healed

All patients with


Comparison of outcome of
the condition of
interest:
interest:
Sample Randomisation healing of apical periodontitis
root filled tooth
and apical
periodontitis

CTR + Healed

Control procedure:
non-surgical retreatment - Not healed

Fig. 9.2  Basic designs of three RCTs that should be non-surgical retreatment. (b) Comparing “functional
highly preferred to be carried out in order to increase the retention” following surgical retreatment versus extrac-
level of scientific evidence for crucial questions regarding tion and replacement with an implant. (c) Comparing
apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth. (a) Comparing the important outcomes following retreatment versus “no
outcome of periapical tissues following surgical versus intervention”
9 Prognosis 107

b
Treatment procedure:
surgical retreatment

+ Functional
retention

TX - Loss of tooth

All patients with


the condition Comparison of outcome of
of interest: interest:
root filled tooth Sample Randomisation functional retention
and apical
periodontitis

CTR + Functional
retention

Control procedure: - Loss of implant


extraction and
replacement with an
implant

c
Treatment procedure:
retreatment

TX

Comparison of outcomes of
All patients with interest:
the condition of
interest:
root filled tooth • Tooth retention and function
Sample Randomisation
and asymptomatic • Influence of general health
apical • Pain and discomfort
periodontitis • Progression or healing of lesion
• Costs

CTR

Control procedure:
no intervention

Fig. 9.2 (continued)

to the allocated treatment (Fig. 9.2a, b). Another the crucial and interesting comparison is at
concern is the long follow-­up time necessary to hand only after several years [6, 7].
a meaningful outcome comparison assessment. Finally, RCTs for the most central clinical
If, for example, surgical or non-surgical inter- questions have ethical challenges. For exam-
vention is compared to extraction implant ple, perhaps the utmost important and vital
placement in a randomized manner (Fig. 9.2b), RCT would be to randomly allocate ­individuals
108 T. Kvist

with asymptomatic apical periodontitis in root- are utilized. Meta-analysis is a specialized


filled teeth to retreatment or monitoring the type of systematic review, where data are
condition without intervention (Fig. 9.2c). The pooled for a quantitative rather than a qualita-
many difficulties involved in investigating the tive analysis. This type of study can provide
most relevant clinical questions with an RCT the highest level of evidence, if the report is
design have resulted in a limited number of limited to proper RCTs. However, a meta-
publications over the years. And most of them analysis cannot give a higher-quality evidence
are investigating relatively trivial issues [7] but than that which exist in the studies included in
still without evidence-based answers even to the analysis.
these.

9.2.1.6 Systematic Reviews 9.2.2 A


 ssessing the Quality
and Meta-Analyses of Available Research
There are several approaches to summarize the
scientific basis for clinical practice. In recent In assessing the scientific quality of a clinical
years, when thanks to developments of com- research report, a number of factors are essential.
puter and IT technology, large amounts of data These aspects sum up into an account of internal
and literature can be both searched and retrieved validity (the degree to which the results of a study
within a very short period of time, so-called sys- are correct for the sample of patients being stud-
tematic reviews have become increasingly com- ied) and the extent of external validity (generaliz-
mon. By definition the review must be conducted ability) (the degree to which the results of an
in a systematic way and contain at least four observation hold true in other settings).
components:
9.2.2.1 The PICO Concept
• Formulation of a clear question (or several A good starting point to use for evaluating the
clear questions) quality of a RCT is the PICO concept (Fig. 9.3).
• Searching and identifying relevant research It stands for population, intervention, control
• Collecting and critically analysing included procedure and outcome measure. The PICO
reports model can also be adopted for other types of
• Summarizing results, making conclusions and studies both for planning and for evaluating indi-
giving recommendations as to how to proceed vidual studies, for example, when pursuing a
in the clinical setting systematic review. At each “letter” there are
however many pitfalls that have to be avoided if
Systematic reviews are a special type of the study is to produce results of high internal
review article, which can be considered to pro- and external validity. PICO helps the researcher
vide the highest level of evidence when sev- or evaluator to systematically evaluate all the
eral similar RCTs on the same clinical question phases of a study.
9 Prognosis 109

Population (P) Humans


• Root filled permanent teeth with asymptomatic apical
periodontitis 4 years after root canal treatment
• “Healthy” patients
• No caries or any other indication for further
intervention than persistent apical periodontitis
• Maximum one tooth/individual

Intervention (I) • Surgical root canal retreatment


• Surgical procedure using surgical microscope,
ultrasonic preparation and retro-filling with
MTA

Control (C) • No intervention

Outcome (O) 5 Years after treatment


• General health evaluation
• Tooth retention and function
• Patients’ evaluation of pain and discomfort
• Healing of apical periodontitis
• Total costs of each option

Fig. 9.3  The PICO concept applied for a RCT on important outcomes following retreatment versus “no intervention”
of root-filled teeth with asymptomatic apical periodontitis

9.2.2.2 Biasses in Clinical Research Sampling Bias


“Bias” is the term for a process at any stage of Sampling bias arises when the sample of patients
inference tending to produce results and conclu- is systematically different from those suitable for
sions that deviate from the true condition system- the research question or the clinical use of the
atically. The quality of studies is subject to the information. For example, studies on the outcome
risk of being limited by numerous biasses. The of endodontic retreatment have exclusively been
problem affects all kinds of reports including the conducted in dental schools or specialist centres.
top articles in the evidence pyramid (prospective An important question is if these teeth are repre-
cohort studies and RCTs) (Fig. 9.1). Biasses are sentative of “root filled teeth with apical periodon-
in four wide-ranging categories, viz. sampling titis” in general? Perhaps the teeth treated are a
bias, selection bias, measurement bias and con- sample of “suitable teeth” for referral and treat-
founding bias [8]. ment [9]. When reporting a clinical study, it is
110 T. Kvist

always important to accurately describe the inclu- example, if survival of a group of teeth, which
sion and exclusion criteria for the subjects included had a surgical retreatment, is compared with a
in the study. group where non-surgical retreatment was con-
ducted. Perhaps the result showed a significantly
Selection Bias higher survival after 10 years in the non-­surgical
Selection bias arises when comparisons are retreatment group. Yet in further analyses of the
made on groups that differ in ways, other than data, it was revealed that in the non-­ surgical
the factors under study. Groups of patients often group, a new crown was placed more frequently
differ in many ways by age, sex, general health postoperatively than in the surgical group.
and severity of disease. If we compare the out- Consequently, it may be that the placement of the
come of two groups that differ on a specific issue new crown rather than the choice of treatment
of interest (e.g. surgical versus non-surgical explained the observed difference in outcome.
retreatment) but are dissimilar in any other way
and this difference itself is related to the out- 9.2.2.3 Statistical Analysis
come of interest, the comparison between the The observed difference between the intervention
groups will be biassed. Thus, little can be con- and the control group in a clinical study cannot
cluded from the results. In our example of surgi- be expected to represent a true difference because
cal versus non-­ surgical retreatment, if “easy of the random variation between the groups being
cases with easy access” (perhaps premolars and compared. Statistical tests help to estimate how
incisors) are more frequent in the non-surgical well the observed difference approximates the
group, the outcome may be systematically better real difference.
or poorer. Randomization is the best way to There are two main approaches to assess the
overcome these difficulties. The randomization role of chance in clinical studies, hypothesis test-
procedures must then be performed without ing and estimation. With hypothesis testing sta-
manipulation and be clearly described in the tistical tests are conducted to calculate the
methods of the study. probability that the observed result was by
chance. This calculation may result in both false-­
Measurement Bias positive and false-negative statistical errors. The
Measurement bias arises, when the means or type I error relates to the conclusion of an effect
methods of measurement are different among the of the tested procedure that does not exist in real-
groups of patients. This is the reason why histori- ity, while a type II error means that there is a
cal comparisons (data from other reports) often positive effect, which data failed to show. The
are invalid. Another problem may be the lack of acceptable size of the risk for errors of both types
common criteria for evaluating the outcome. For is a value judgement. It is customary to set the
example, when comparing results of non-surgical risk for type I errors to 1 or 5%. For type II errors,
and surgical endodontic procedures, there is no a considerably higher risk of error is normally
mutually recognized way to interpret “healing accepted, and the probability is usually given at
from “no healing” in radiographs. The problem 20%.
with intra- and interobserver variation must also In order to avoid statistical errors, sample
be handled in an appropriate way by using size is an important concern. A calculation
blinded and independent evaluators. (“power analysis”) should therefore be carried
out prior to the onset of a study to analyse how
Confounding Bias many patients should be needed to avoid a type
Confounding bias arises when two factors are II error. Generally speaking more patients are
associated with each other, and the effect of one required to detect small differences than if large
is confused with or distorted by the effect of differences are in centre of attention. However,
another, not measured or controlled, factor. For even with a proper “power analysis” and
9 Prognosis 111

respected in the implementation of the study, able, few, if any study, have been published in
researchers take the risk of being mistaken every the focus area of this book that reach this high
fifth time a study does not show a statistically number of attendance at this point postopera-
significant difference (type II error 20%). If a tively [7]. Losses of patients may be due to vari-
statistically significant difference is found, the ous reasons. A most important, which normally
risk of being mistaken is, however, only one cannot be checked, is that the treatment failed
(type I error 1%) or five (type I error 5%) in and resulted in a decision of the patient not to
hundred instances. attend the recall or to take the tooth out by
These potential errors in hypothesis testing another dentist.
have made many researchers and statisticians to
prefer estimation statistics [10]. This type of con- 9.2.2.6 Clinically Relevant Outcomes
trol for chance uses the data to define the range of Because of their selection and training, dentists in
values that is likely to include the true effect. general and scholars in particular tend to prefer
Point estimates (the observed effect) and confi- the kind of precise measurements the physical and
dence intervals are used here. They emphasize biologic sciences provide. They discount others
the size of the effect and not the p-value and show especially for research. Within endodontic retreat-
the range of plausible values. ment there are numerous studies concerned with
the quality of root fillings and disappearance or
9.2.2.4 Statistical and Clinical reduction of periapical radiolucencies. Yet, relief
Significance of symptoms, retaining a functional and asymp-
It is important to realize that statistical difference tomatic tooth in the long term and the feeling of
only tells if the difference observed is likely to be well-being are among the important outcomes of
true, but not that it is important or large. In clini- dental care. These are central concerns of patients
cal research, it is therefore highly important to and dentists alike. To guide clinical decisions,
clear the distinction between statistical and clini- reports of clinical research should therefore focus
cal significance. Even with a small p-value (the on more patient-centred outcomes.
risk of a type I error), it is not necessary so that
the difference is clinically important. In fact, 9.2.2.7 Efficacy and Effectiveness
completely trivial differences in well-designed Results of clinical studies must be judged in rela-
studies may be highly significant on a statistical tion to two broad questions. Can the diagnostic
level, if a large number of patients were studied, method or treatment work under ideal circum-
but the difference may be clinically of little or no stances? And does it work in ordinary settings?
relevance. The terms efficacy and effectiveness have been
applied here. It may be a question of the dentist’s
9.2.2.5 Loss to Follow-Up experience, ability, and attention to detail, meticu-
A serious problem in clinical research is the loss lousness and skill. It is seldom possible to assess
of patients to follow-up. Numerous examples the extent such factors influence the results in
exist in the endodontic retreatment literature, treatment studies and clinical evaluations. It is,
where too many patients were unable to attend however, reasonable to assume that in a clinical
the control. Short follow-up periods of 1 and discipline such as endodontics, these factors are
2 years may do well, but once extended, patient important, because of the technically complicated
losses increase, and the results can easily nature of many procedures. In endodontic retreat-
become invalidated. Thirty per cent is a com- ment, the diagnosis and treatment is often com-
mon figure used in systematic reviews as the plex, and the influence of the operator on the
highest loss of patients for recall in a study to be results cannot be overvalued. So far most clinical
included in a systematic review. However, while studies have been conducted in academic or
5 and 10 years follow-up data are highly desir- ­specialist settings (efficacy), where devices that
112 T. Kvist

s­ubstantially facilitate the technical procedures It also well-known that a “successful” out-
are widely spread and will affect the outcome rate come is not always the case and that great many
of retreatment procedures. For the future, it is patients present with asymptomatic persistent
important that clinical research also is conducted in signs of apical periodontitis. Statements of the
general practice where most of teeth with persistent prognosis of this condition, which is the subject
apical periodontitis are managed (effectiveness). of this book, suffer from an even greater lack of
evidence than that of primary root canal treat-
9.2.2.8 Publication Bias ments [7, 11–17]. And this applies both to the
Dentists and researchers prefer good news. It is effects of inaction (natural course) and the vari-
much less appealing to author and publish an article ous forms of treatment (clinical course).
where the results are disappointing, negative or per-
haps much worse than previously published, than to
describe successful treatments. It must be realized 9.3.1 N
 atural History of Apical
that research projects that attain publication status Periodontitis in Root-Filled
are a biassed sample of all researches being con- Teeth
ducted. Hence, it is not unreasonable to assume that
our inclination for “good” and positive results leads The prognosis of a disease without interference
to a biassed publication of articles. For example, is termed the natural history of disease. Great
imagine a group of clinicians, who have performed many root-filled teeth with apical periodontitis
an excellent study from a methodological point of will not be detected and diagnosed. They remain
view about surgical endodontics. But they had a unrecognized, because they are asymptomatic,
healing rate of 50% in both the intervention and and even if detected they are not considered for
control group. With what degree of enthusiasm will any intervention. Even, when root-filled teeth
the writing of this article begin? What will the reac- cause mild pain, tenderness or fistulas are con-
tion be of journal editors and reviewers, if the article sidered among the ordinary discomforts of daily
after all was written and submitted? living. Or, the patient may be suffering both
pain and other symptoms for a prolonged period
of time but because of economic limitations, it
9.3  tatements About Prognosis
S has not been able to seek further dental care.
About Apical Periodontitis Remarkably little is known about the frequency
in Root-Filled Teeth of pain and other symptoms as well as general
health hazards from root-filled teeth with apical
Unfortunately, in recent years, careful analyses periodontitis (see Chap. 4: Consequences).
of the scientific basis for the methods that we
apply in endodontics as a clinical discipline
within dentistry have demonstrated extensive 9.3.2 Clinical Course
shortcomings [11]. The situation is worrying for
diagnostic and treatment procedures as well as The term clinical course has been used to describe
for evaluation of the results of the methods. the evolution (prognosis) of disease that has
It is generally acknowledged that teeth with come under medical or dental care and treated in
inflamed, necrotic and infected pulps can be a variety of ways that might affect the subsequent
treated endodontically to achieve a healthy out- course of events.
come that can last many years. This bulk of
knowledge has repeatedly been presented in sci- 9.3.2.1 Retreatment
entific journals reviews and textbooks of end- Chronic periapical asymptomatic lesions as
odontics. There are, however, few clinical studies well as exacerbation or aggravation of persis-
of high scientific quality [11]. tent apical periodontitis of root-filled teeth
9 Prognosis 113

may be cured by endodontic non-surgical or 9.4 Endodontic Retreatment


surgical retreatment. There is insufficient sci- Need for Research
entific support on which to determine whether
surgical and non-­surgical retreatment of root- In the future, there is a need for more high-­quality
filled teeth gives systematically different out- research on natural as well as clinical course of
comes, both in the short and long term, with apical periodontitis in root-filled teeth.
respect to healing of apical periodontitis or Endodontic retreatment methods need to be eval-
tooth survival [6, 7, 11]. uated whether they are effective in terms of pro-
During the last 20-year period, clinical end- moting healing of apical periodontitis and
odontics has undergone a technological develop- resulting in long-term tooth survival. In this con-
ment of rare unprecedented proportions. Rotary text, it is also important to evaluate the alterna-
instrumentation alloys have facilitated the pains- tives to retreatment, extraction and replacement
taking work of removing old root fillings. Super by a tooth-supporting bridge or an implant from
flexible properties of nickel-titanium instruments the perspective of quality of life and cost-­
allow root canals to be successfully instrumented effectiveness [9, 20].
in a predictable way.
An equally significant addition to the end-
odontic armamentarium is the operating micro- 9.5  hort Answers to Clinical
S
scope. With its help, previously untreated parts of Questions
the root canal system can be visualized during
both surgical and non-surgical retreatment. This chapter shows that despite a considerable
Parallel with the increasing use of the operating documentation gathered through the years about
microscope, a wide range of specialized instru- the management of apical periodontitis in root-­
ments have been developed, primarily in connec- filled teeth, it is difficult to give evidence-based
tion with surgical endodontics. In addition, the answers to many clinical questions. However,
introduction of ultrasonic instruments has further from the bulk of information, it can be concluded
improved treatment options. that many individuals will not directly suffer
Much effort has also been expended on trying from the condition but also that the condition
to develop new materials for safer retrograde may, in many cases, be cured and possibly save
sealing of the root canal. Alternatively, techno- many of root-filled teeth afflicted by a persistent
logical achievements have significantly changed apical lesion.
the clinical routine of endodontic retreatment Based on current best empirical and scientific
procedures. knowledge, the following general short answers
In environments of clinical excellence, non-­ to “the clinical questions” may be appropriate:
surgical as well as surgical retreatment has
shown favourable outcomes on the periapical tis- • How does this problem affect my risk of loos-
sues of “endodontic failures” [17, 18]. It is likely ening the tooth?
that more root-filled teeth with apical periodon- The risk of loosening a root-filled tooth is
titis can be successfully treated surgically com- higher than for a healthy tooth in general.
pared with reports from before microsurgical To what extent a persistent lesion affects
techniques were used [17, 19]. Frequency of the risk is not well known.
periapical healing after retreatment has been • Will it affect my general health?
reported to reach approximately 80–90% for With the current state of knowledge, it is
both methods [17, 18]. High-quality clinical unlikely that apical periodontitis in root-­
studies of long-­term follow-up of teeth that have filled teeth would constitute a significant
undergone surgical-or nonsurgical retreatment health risk. But it cannot be entirely ruled
are so far rare. out that the chronic inflammation may
114 T. Kvist

r­ epresent a small but contributing negative • How often will a root-filled tooth with persis-
factor for poorer health in the long term. tent but asymptomatic periapical inflamma-
• What different options do I have? tion result in the occurrence of pain and
If the lesion is asymptomatic and small, some swelling?
prefer to do nothing or just to “follow it” • Which are the prognostic factors to predict an
regularly and intervene only if symptoms exacerbation of asymptomatic periapical
occur or if it expands. The other option is to inflammation, particularly in a root-filled tooth?
perform a retreatment. Depending on the • How often will retreatment of a root-filled
position of the tooth, how it is restored, the tooth with apical periodontitis result in overall
size of lesion, the quality of root filling and better consequences than leaving the condi-
the overall treatment plan, surgical or non-­ tion untreated in the long term?
surgical retreatment may be appropriate. • What method of retreatment (surgical or non-­
• How likely is it that retreatment will cure the surgical) will have the best results in the long
tooth? term?
In cases with persistent disease, surgical or • How cost-effective are retreatment methods
non-surgical retreatment performed by compared to extraction and replacement?
skilled specialists using modern armamen- • Are there any risks to general health when
tarium is able to cure the lesion in about teeth with a periapical inflammatory process
80–90% of the cases. remain untreated?
• Would it be a better idea to take the tooth out?
In most cases no. But if the tooth is afflicted
by periodontal disease or the remaining
tooth substance does not provide condi-
Take-Home Lessons
tions for a high-quality restoration, it might
• From the bulk of evidence available
be a better idea.
from many years of clinical research
• If so, can it be replaced?
and clinical experience, it stands
In the majority of cases, a lost tooth can be
clear that root-filled teeth with apical
replaced by an implant or a fixed
periodontitis may be successfully
­
prosthesis.
retreated in order to give remedy to
symptoms, to establish sound periapi-
cal tissues and to promote long-term
9.6 Knowledge Gaps
survival.
• Few high-quality studies are available to
There are few clinical studies of high scientific
evidence-based answers to a number of
quality within the field of endodontics.
clinical questions.
Consequently, there are many knowledge gaps
• Prognosis for an individual case must
[9]. Further clinical studies with high quality are
be based not only on the scientific lit-
necessary to give our patients less vague answers
erature but also in rationale and logi-
to the following questions:
cal thinking based on basic knowledge
of biology and technology and the
• Will root-filled teeth survive long term and
conditions that are at hand in every
what factors influence the loss of endodonti-
case.
cally treated teeth?
9 Prognosis 115

Group. Large-scale clinical endodontic research


Benchmark Papers in the National Dental Practice-Based Research
Network: study overview and methods. J Endod.
• Bergenholtz G, Kvist T. Evidence-based
2012;38:1470–8.
endodontics. Endod Top. 2014;31:3–18. 5. Raedel M, Hartmann A, Bohm S, Walter MH. Three-­
This review thoroughly presents the year outcomes of apicectomy (apicoectomy): mining
concept of evidence-based practice and an insurance database. J Dent. 2015;43(10):1218–22.
6. Kvist T, Reit C. Results of endodontic retreat-
discusses and how the concept has been
ment: a randomized clinical study comparing
applied to endodontics. The focus is on surgical and nonsurgical procedures. J Endod.
treatment procedures in endodontics. 1999;25(12):814–7.
The means used in the process and how 7. Del Fabbro M, Corbella S, Sequeira-Byron P, Tsesis
I, Rosen E, Lolato A, Taschieri S. Endodontic proce-
far our knowledge base has reached are
dures for retreatment of periapical lesions. Cochrane
addressed. Aspects are conveyed at the Database Syst Rev. 2016;10:CD005511.
end on what future research in clinical 8. Sacket DL. Bias in analytic research. J Chronic Dis.
endodontics should take into account. 1979;32:51–63.
9. Sebring D, Dimenäs H, Engstrand S, Kvist
• Swedish Council on Health Technology
T. Characteristics of teeth referred to a public dental
Assessment. Methods of diagnosis and specialist clinic in endodontics. Int Endod J. 2016;
treatment in endodontics—a systematic https://doi.org/10.1111/iej.12671. [Epub ahead of print].
review. 2010;Report No 203:1–491. http:// 10. Braitman LE. Confidence intervals assess both clini-
cal significance and statistical significance. Ann
www.sbu.se. A comprehensive review on
Intern Med. 1991;114:515–7.
the evidence available in Endodontics. 11. Swedish Council on Health Technology Assessment.
• Del Fabbro M, Corbella S, Sequeira-­ Methods of diagnosis and treatment in endodontics—
Byron P, Tsesis I, Rosen E, Lolato A, a systematic review. Report no. 203; 2010. p. 1–491.
http://www.sbu.se.
Taschieri S. Endodontic procedures for
12. Ng YL, Mann V, Gulabivala K. Outcome of second-
retreatment of periapical lesions. ary root canal treatment: a systematic review of the
Cochrane Database Syst Rev. literature. Int Endod J. 2008;41(12):1026–46.
2016;10:CD005511. An updated com- 13. Ng YL, Mann V, Gulabivala K. Tooth survival

following non-surgical root canal treatment: a
plete review on the high-quality studies
systematic review of the literature. Int Endod
(RCT’s) available for different aspects J. 2010;43(3):171–89.
endodontic retreatment. 14. Nixdorf DR, Moana-Filho EJ, Law AS, McGuire LA,
Hodges JS, John MT. Frequency of persistent tooth
pain after root canal therapy: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. J Endod. 2010;36:224–30.
15. Torabinejad M, Corr R, Handysides R, Shabahang
References S. Outcomes of nonsurgical retreatment and end-
odontic surgery: a systematic review. J Endod.
1. Sackett DL, Rosenberg WM, Gray JA, Haynes RB, 2009;35(7):930.
Richardson WS. Evidence based medicine: what it is 16.
Petersson A, Axelsson S, Davidson T, Frisk
and what it isn’t. BMJ. 1996;312(7023):71–2. F, Hakeberg M, Kvist T, Norlund A, Mejàre I,
2. Bergenholtz G, Kvist T. Evidence-based endodontics. Portenier I, Sandberg H, Tranaeus S, Bergenholtz
Endod Top. 2014;31:3–18. G. Radiological diagnosis of periapical bone tissue
3. Kim S, Jung H, Kim S, Shin SJ, Kim E. The influ- lesions in endodontics: a systematic review. Int Endod
ence of an isthmus on the outcomes of surgically J. 2012;45:783–801.
treated molars: a retrospective study. J Endod. 17. Tsesis I, Rosen E, Taschieri S, Telishevsky Strauss Y,
2016;42:1029–34. Ceresoli V, Del Fabbro M. Outcomes of surgical end-
4. Nixdorf DR, Law AS, Look JO, Rindal DB, Durand odontic treatment performed by a modern technique:
EU, Kang W, Agee BS, Fellows JL, Gordan VV, an updated meta-analysis of the literature. J Endod.
Gilbert GH, National Dental PBRN Collaborative 2013;39:332–9.
116 T. Kvist

18. Ng YL, Mann V, Gulabivala K. A prospective study 20. Torabinejad M, Anderson P, Bader J, Brown LJ,
of the factors affecting outcomes of nonsurgical root Chen LH, Goodacre CJ, Kattadiyil MT, Kutsenko
canal treatment: part 1: periapical health. Int Endod D, Lozada J, Patel R, Petersen F, Puterman I,
J. 2011;44:583–609. White SN. Outcomes of root canal treatment
19. Setzer FC, Shah SB, Kohli MR, Karabucak B, Kim and restoration, implant-supported single crowns,
S. Outcome of endodontic surgery: a meta-analysis of fixed partial dentures, and extraction without
the literature—part 1: comparison of traditional root-­ replacement: a systematic review. J Prosthet Dent.
end surgery and endodontic microsurgery. J Endod. 2007;98:285–311.
2010;36:1757–65.
Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth
Replacement
10
Pernilla Holmberg

It takes a special kind of compass in the field of dental science


and art to understand the present and to navigate the future
of clinical prosthodontics with so many options available!

Abstract
There are different prosthetic treatment options to choose amongst when a
tooth is extracted, and there are numerous factors, both evident and hid-
den, which will affect the decision-making process and finally result in a
construction best suited for each patient or no construction at all. The den-
tist must in the decision-making process combine the best available evi-
dence with clinical data, weigh all the factors against each other and in
agreement with the patient choose the best treatment. The restorative den-
tist of modern age will face an even faster progression of new techniques
and dental materials than before, thus making the prosthetic decision-­
making even more challenging.

10.1 Introduction extracted tooth or tooth loss per se may have


grave social, professional or psychological con-
When extraction of a root-filled tooth is selected sequences, and for others the loss of a tooth may
due to endodontic treatment failure or inevitable be seen as a natural consequence with no further
because of caries or fracture, the dentist must re-­ implications.
evaluate the existing information about the The intention of this chapter is to provide the
patient and also gather additional information in reader with a brief outline of available treatment
order to make a treatment decision for the miss- options when a tooth is extracted and leaves a
ing tooth. For some patients the effect of an single-tooth gap and also to present three similar
patient cases who have received three different
tooth replacements. Since there is no possible
way to cover the entire prosthodontic field in
P. Holmberg, DDS detail in one chapter, the interested reader is
Department of Oral Prosthodontics and National Oral
Disability Centre, Institute for Postgraduate Dental
referred to the extensive and excellent textbooks
Education, Jönköping, Sweden on the prosthodontic aspects in detail on replace-
e-mail: pernilla.holmberg@liv.se ment of teeth.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 117


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5_10
118 P. Holmberg

10.2 Decision-Making i­ndividual patient. In conclusion this implies


and Evidence-Based integrating personal clinical experience and
Dentistry skills with the best possible available, exter-
nal, clinical evidence [5].
D.V Lindley, Professor in Statistics, stated in
1970: “decision-making is something which con-
cerns all of us, both as the makers of the choice 10.3 T
 o Arrive at the Correct
and as sufferers of consequences”. The process Prosthodontic Treatment?
of clinical decision-making within each clinician
is a complex process, and many minor decisions “Primum non nocere”! “First do no harm” is still
both consciously and subconsciously are made very much valid and known amongst clinicians
prior to reaching the final decision of which treat- today. It is essential that a clinician is able to
ment option to choose. Consequently, human diagnose the problem before deciding on how, or
errors can be made during these complex pro- whether, to treat the patient. Failures of endodon-
cesses, and therefore a good clinician should tic therapies and resulting in necessary tooth
reflect on the alternatives, become aware of the extractions can make the patients suspicious to
uncertainties, be able to modify his/her judge- dental treatment. Why did the earlier treatment
ment on the basis of accumulated evidence, bal- result in loss of the tooth? These patients place
ance the judgement of the risks of various kinds greater demands on the skill of the dental team. It
and finally consider the possible consequences of is essential that the clinician is able to diagnose
each treatment option [1]. the problems thoroughly before deciding on how,
Most clinicians have encountered patients or whether, to treat the patient. There is no “cor-
who have basically the same dentitions, yet rect” way to organize the information-gathering
slightly different treatment options have been process, but it is important to have a strategy or a
prescribed. Furthermore, during a professional model in this process and clinical decision-­
life different treatment strategies and philoso- making as a way to meet the patient’s expecta-
phies will come and go. Certain will prevail over tions and treat the whole patient and not only the
others, and to make the context even more com- single-tooth loss. The clinician who is not mind-
plex, observations from medicine and dentistry ful about her or his behavioural basis of care may
suggest that the decisions of healthcare profes- well find her/himself providing treatment that
sionals themselves may be highly variable, even may not have an optimal outcome. The best way
in the case of relatively simple interventions, and to arrive at a diagnosis is not to collect as much
influenced by a number of personal, educational information as possible but to reject as much as
and economic considerations [2, 3]. possible irrelevant information, according to
Thus, the factors that determine treatment Webber’s model [6].
selection are diverse, and clinical decision-­ The ultimate goal of restorative dentistry is the
making could be consistent and straightfor- preservation of teeth and surrounding oral struc-
ward if there were clear and accepted tures and further to restore appropriate function
guidelines and furthermore if the recom- and aesthetics. This goal is not always met, and
mended actions were universally acceptable to the proposed prosthesis may not be maintainable
patients and care providers as well as sup- by either the patient or the clinical professionals,
ported by unequivocal evidence [3, 4]. and consequently there will be a likely significant
Although there are few real evidence-based biological cost. Single-tooth replacement may be
guidelines in fixed and removable prosthodon- achieved through no replacement at all (NRA), a
tics, the clinician ought to have an established removable partial denture (RPD), the use of a
practice on which to base his or her treatment conventional fixed dental prosthesis (FDP), a
plans as well as to consciously, clearly and resin-bonded fixed dental prosthesis (RBFDP) or
wisely use the latest and best evidence as the a dental implant-supported single crown (ISSC)
basis for decisions in the treatment of the (Fig. 10.1).
10  Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth Replacement 119

Temporary
Patient case
Tooth Migration Removable Trauma toothll
Decision-making
Prosthesis Endodontics fails
&
Consequences? Extraction
operator’s clinical
experience Eating
Clinical Data
No treatment & Life-style Drinking
At all Systematic Age Smoking
Resin-Bonded reviews Medical History Profession
Permanent ? Fixed dental Implant supported Economy
Cantilever
Temporary ? Prosthesis single crown Social history Perception
Dental fixed
Ability
prosthesis
2-Unit 2-Unit End- Dental history Motivation
Survival & (Two-retainer) (single-retainer) Material Abutment Expectiotions
complication selection ? Prosthetic Periapical
Survival &
rates ? Survival & assessment Remaining teeh Perio
complication
complication Rates ? Oral hygiene Caries
rates ?
Oral status Occlusion
Radiographic Force patiern
PMF All-Ceramic Panoramic - Assessment Masticatory apparatus
Ridge assessment
Laboratory Perl BTW CT
Techniques Apical
Monolithic Veneered CBCT Vertical Horizontal

New Techniques Aesthetics


Smileline
Soft tissue
Scanners CAD /CAM
contour

Fig. 10.1  A rough outline model for the prosthetic treatment options, single-tooth gap

10.4 Gathering Information d­ entistry and of their attitude or motivation for


dental care. It also gives a hint of the patient’s
10.4.1 Patient History ability to maintain an acceptable standard of oral
hygiene and the previous dental care given.
10.4.1.1 The Medical History
The patient’s general health must be comprehen-
sively recorded to make sure whether it will 10.4.2 The Oral Status
affect the selection of treatment procedures or
not. The dental procedures or the restoration This examination encompasses the charting of
itself must never be injurious to the health of the remaining teeth and their status. An evaluation of
patient. Moreover, the caregiver should make the occlusion must be done as well as the health of
sure that no member of the dental team or other the masticatory apparatus. Furthermore, the level
patients will be harmed as a consequence of pro- of oral hygiene should be assessed. Individual teeth
viding dental care to a patient who has an infec- may need more specific investigations such as pulp
tious disease. vitality tests or a thorough assessment of the peri-
odontal status. The clinical collection of informa-
10.4.1.2 The Social History tion and assessment will be accompanied by a
It is important to learn about the patient’s life- more or less extensive radiologic examination.
style including eating, drinking and smoking
habits. Lifestyle factors can have a big impact on
both the treatment itself and the outcome and 10.4.3 Radiographic Assessments
maintenance of it. In most patients’ lives, the
economy plays a major part which prosthetic There are different imaging techniques and each
treatment is affordable. one has its advantages and disadvantages, which
the clinician must be aware of. The patient must
10.4.1.3 The Dental History not be exposed unnecessarily to ionizing radia-
By listening to the patient’s own description of tion and still there is a need to decide on the best
previous experience, it helps the dentist to gain available means to obtain the required and neces-
an impression of the patient’s perceptions of sary information [7].
120 P. Holmberg

10.4.4 Ridge and Bone Assessment v­ ertical bone loss of 11–22% after 6 months fol-
lowing tooth extraction and that the most rapid
When selecting between different replacement resorption takes place in the first year. The risk of
options, an evaluation of the ridges is essential. unfavourable bone loss is particularly high in the
This may be done by using a gloved finger to anterior maxilla which is commonly known to
roughly estimate the outline and form. By plac- exhibit a thin or even partially absent buccal bone
ing a local anaesthetic and using a sterile probe plate [10–13].
with a rubber stopper, the thickness of the mucosa The loss of bone often leaves a condition of
from the surface to the bone can be measured [8]. poor quality and quantity of bone which many
Alternatively, this may be achieved using radio- times is inadequate for the placement of dental
graphs via a CT scan, but this is more expensive implants but also changes the gingival contours.
and not always available for the practising den- This can also be critical in determining the use-
tist. Bone quality is usually assessed radiographi- fulness of a tooth-borne fixed bridge. If normal
cally to determine relative densities. tooth morphology is to be maintained, this will
give wide embrasures at the gingiva and may
result in problems with speech or eating/drink-
10.4.5 Space Assessment ing. The alternative of blocking the embrasures
will lead to a poor aesthetic appearance since the
Is the available tooth space large enough to incor- inciso-gingival connectors will be too long [14,
porate a single tooth? It could very well be that 15] (Figs. 10.2 and 10.3).
the available space is too large for one single
tooth or too small. If it is too large, there is an
option to accept the gap as it is or to reduce the
space via orthodontics or by reshaping the neigh-
bouring teeth. If the edentulous space is too
small, there is an option of increasing the space
orthodontically or accepting the gap. Evaluation
of the vertical dimensions is mandatory before
any prosthetic restoration is placed. Lack of ver-
tical space may require an increase in the occlu- Fig. 10.2  Bone deficiencies at site 22 after extraction
sal vertical dimensions and can be done in many resulting in a long inciso-gingival line and poor aesthetic
different ways [9]. with a tooth-borne fixed bridge. The gingival outline of
pontic 22 will be situated higher compared to the neigh-
bouring teeth. The aesthetics was solved with pre-­
prosthetic crown lengthening of the front teeth
10.5 E
 xtraction and Ridge
Augmentation

When a tooth is extracted, it is indisputably fol-


lowed by a reduction of the alveolar ridge.
Moreover, it is well established that both hori-
zontal and vertical changes of hard- and soft-­
tissue dimensions take place at the edentulous
site. The buccal cortical plate of the alveolar pro-
cess may be resorbed even prior to tooth extrac-
tion as a result of inflammatory tooth disease,
developmental defects and trauma or a combina-
tion of these factors. Recent review studies have Fig. 10.3  Staged ridge augmentation at implant site 21
shown horizontal bone loss of 29–63% and compared to simultaneous ridge augmentation at site 11
10  Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth Replacement 121

Consequently, different measures have been zones. Studies have shown that individuals are
taken to avoid this bone modelling process such usually more concerned about replacing missing
as immediate implant placement and bone graft- anterior teeth than posterior teeth, since a great
ing in order to counteract this catabolic process majority of patients find aesthetics more important
and preserve the dimensions of the alveolar ridge. than function. In some cases, the choice of not
Bone augmentation procedures to rebuild defi- replacing a missing tooth could also be due to
cient ridge contours are mandatory to enable socio-economic factors [18]. The clinician must
optimal dental implant placement and position- also be aware of that drifting and tipping of neigh-
ing. Sufficient bone volume, favourable three-­ bouring teeth to an extraction site are commonly
dimensional implant positioning and stable reported phenomena and make an assessment of
peri-implant soft-tissue conditions are consid- the consequences following tooth extraction. In a
ered prerequisites to achieve long-term implant study by Craddock and co-­workers, they found the
functions and aesthetics [11, 13]. teeth mesial to the extraction site had a tendency to
Alveolar ridge rebuilding can be undertaken at tip distally. The upper teeth showed a higher
different times during treatment and is generally degree of tipping and also in subjects with a cusp-
categorized as simultaneous or staged. In the to-cusp buccal occlusion. Moreover, the tipping of
staged approach, the alveolar bone is first recon- the tooth distal to the extraction site was more
structed in an initial surgery. Implant placement is prevalent in individuals with a reduced overbite
then carried out 2–6 months later. In contrast, in and in the lower arch. The tipping of the distal
the simultaneous approach, implant placement and tooth could be in some cases extreme [19]. A com-
alveolar ridge reestablishment are undertaken dur- plete dentition is not always necessary, but the cli-
ing the same surgery. The size of the defect affects nician needs to evaluate the risks and consequences
the healing time. The simultaneous approach is with not replacing a missing tooth and explain and
obviously the preferred technique by the patient inform the patient thoroughly.
and clinician alike, since it reduces treatment time
and cost. However, if the residual bone volume
precludes primary implant stability or results in 10.7 R
 emovable Partial Denture
inadequate prosthodontic implant positioning, the (RPD)
staged approach is recommended [16, 17].
Thus, the clinician is required to carefully A removable partial denture effectively serves
plan the extraction of a compromised tooth and to temporarily to stabilize the occlusion and prevent
perform the surgical intervention according to a unwanted drifting of the adjacent and opponent
precise schedule and gentle touch in order to pro- teeth into the space of the extracted tooth. The
mote favourable hard- and soft-tissue conditions denture is usually made of acrylic or acrylic and
at the upcoming edentulous site. In addition, it is metal. The overall treatment time for this option
possible to reduce healing periods and number of is short and the cost can be very low. There is
surgical interventions, especially when implant always a risk of soft-tissue irritation and bone
treatment is planned [13]. problems. However, in younger patients, it is a
The best way to treat a ridge deficiency is to pre- good therapy waiting for the right age to place a
vent it from occurring! fixed replacement of the extracted tooth.
Sometimes a removable denture suggested as
temporary substitute turns out to be very well tol-
erated as a final treatment and preferred option
10.6 No Replacement at All (NRA) for replacing a single missing tooth. However,
RPDs are mostly used as a temporary replace-
Sometimes “less is more”! Rarely is NRA chosen ment or a compromise because of severe prob-
when a single tooth is missing in the aesthetic zone lems with surrounding teeth and perhaps general,
or in a position which is important to load-­bearing health or economy.
122 P. Holmberg

10.8 F
 ixed Dental Prosthesis Failure of a FDP is not particularly alarm-
(FDP) ing per se, but the biologic consequences that
many times will ensue may be the cause of
It seems apparent that the most ancient dental great concern. Caries is the most reported
prosthetic appliances have been of fixed bridge cause of prosthesis failure and results in loss
work and man has for many centuries tried to of dental hard structures, structural compro-
hold artificial or detached natural teeth from one mises and loss of abutment teeth, while loss of
mouth to another in place by means of wires or retention of the FDP was the most common
ligatures. technical complication [21]. Goodacre and
Spolnik [24] reported that 3–23% of the abut-
ment teeth used requires endodontic treatment
10.8.1 Survival and Complication after placement of a FDP. Abutment fractures
Rates and endodontic failures present additional
complications to FDP since abutment teeth
Fixed dental prosthesis for teeth have taken a that have been further weakened must support
variety of designs throughout the history. The larger prostheses [24]. In a meta-­analysis con-
initial placement of a fixed dental prosthesis ducted by Scurria et al. [25], prosthesis sur-
is rarely the end of treatment and many times vival dropped to 69% at 15 years, as in
the patient enters the “cycle of rerestoration” accordance of another study where Lindquist
leading to expansion of prostheses carrying and Karlsson [26] indicated a survival rate of
increased biological and technical risks and fixed partial prosthesis that drops significantly
consequently higher costs of dental care. Socio- after approximately 10 years and after 20 years
economic factors and better oral hygiene regi- the survival rate was 65%.
mens with patients included in regular recall
programmes have led to an increased number of
teeth and to a shift from fully to more partially 10.8.2 Material Selection
edentulous patients over the past decades. This
has resulted in a trend towards higher frequen- The evolution in material science has led to the
cies of fixed dental prostheses. Fixed dental introduction of new framework materials, and
prosthesis (FDP) are associated with the sacri- the tradition with using metal-based recon-
fice of sound tooth tissue and inherent risks of structions for fixed dental reconstructions is
pulp injury [20–23]. One study conducted partially changing in favour for all-ceramic
amongst 66 practising dentists showed that materials, e.g. monolithic materials rather than
70% of treatment recommendations resulted in a framework with a veneer. In a recent system-
an increased number of restored surfaces [22]. atic review (Pjetursson et al. [20]) comparing
A considerable disadvantage with bridgework survival rates of all types of all-ceramic FDPs
replacing a single tooth is that the neighbouring with conventional metal-ceramic FDPs, the
healthy teeth have to be involved, affected and incidence of framework fractures was signifi-
damaged. Owing to the variety of techniques cantly higher for reinforced glass-ceramic FDP
employed and materials used, failing reconstruc- as well as infiltrated glass-ceramic FDPs. The
tions may be attributed to several causes. Some incidence for ceramic fracture and loss of
studies attribute over 50% of failures to the den- retention was significantly higher for densely
tists and materials used. Moreover, biological sintered zirconia FDPs compared to metal-
and technical complications have been reported ceramic constructions. In conclusion, the sur-
in a variety of studies including secondary caries, vival rate for all-ceramic FDPs was lower than
loss of retention and marginal defects [22]. for metal-ceramic FDPS [20].
10  Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth Replacement 123

10.8.3 Cantilever Fixed Dental anterior regions of the mouth. This method has
Prostheses both short-term and long-term benefits in that
prosthesis can be placed with minimal or no
Pjetursson et al. [27] conducted a review on can- tooth preparation [30]. In the early 1970s,
tilever fixed partial prosthesis where the cumula- Rochette developed and introduced a more
tive failure rate was 18.2% after a 10-year complex procedure compared to the previous
follow-up time, as compared with the results for bonded acrylic denture tooth. The bridge frame-
conventional end-abutment-supported fixed par- work was laboratory-­manufactured and perfo-
tial prosthesis which showed a 10.9% failure rated with tapering holes in order to lock the
rate. Of the abutment teeth considered vital at framework in place, covering the lingual sur-
the time of cementation, 32.6% lost their pulp faces and with a more aesthetic pontic [30].
vitality over a period of 10 years, and this was Livaditis and co-­workers from Maryland in the
the most common biological complication [27]. USA extended it further to include the posterior
In an earlier study by Karlsson [28], two-thirds region and also developed the etched alloy
of the failed cantilever fixed partial prosthesis technique to overcome the shortcomings with
had a terminal root-canal-treated abutment indi- the Rochette technique.
cating that cantilever fixed partial prosthesis was
more prone to failure, if based on a nonvital ter-
minal abutment. Randow and Glantz [29] con- 10.9.1 Survival and Complication
ducted a study on root-canal-treated teeth and Rates
found that the pain threshold was almost twice as
high on these nonvital teeth as compared to vital The survival rates vary widely between studies,
teeth. Comparing one-cantilever pontic with but debonding is the most frequent occurring
fixed partial prosthesis with multiple extensions, technical complication. When there are no reli-
there was no significant difference [27]. Another able mechanical and chemical bonds between
common biological complication was caries at metal/resin and dental/resin surfaces, the reten-
the abutment teeth, and in several studies an tion lock will degrade faster over time being [30,
association between loss of retention and sec- 31]. Pjetursson et al. [32] has shown a cumulative
ondary caries was noted. This might be debat- rate of 19.2% during a 5-year observation time.
able which of the two conditions occurred first The debonding was most frequent in the metal-­
and led to the other. The most frequent technical ceramic RBFDPs with a perforated framework,
complication was loss of retention. In conclu- and the posterior bridges showed a higher rate as
sion, it seems that there is a higher risk for bio- well with debonding compared to the anterior.
logical and technical complications for the Since the development of the first RBBs in the
cantilever FPP compared to the conventional 1970s, there have been significant changes in the
end-abutment-supported fixed partial prosthesis design, the materials used and the tooth prepara-
after 10 years and the estimated survival rate is tion to improve the longevity of the prosthesis.
81.8% after a 10-year observation period [27].

10.9.2 Material Selection


10.9 R
 esin-Bonded Fixed Dental
Prosthesis (RBFDP) The first all-ceramic RBFDPs were introduced in
the early 1990s as to benefit from the advantages
The resin-bonded fixed dental prosthesis pro- with a predictable adhesive cementation proce-
vides a method for replacing missing teeth or dure and debonding was seldom a complication,
splinting periodontally weakened teeth in the but they showed a high risk for fracture due to
124 P. Holmberg

their brittleness. In order to improve their stabil- p­ osition to optimize the emergence profiles of the
ity, the design was changed from two-retainer to restoration to achieve this, called currently “the
single-retainer cantilever RBFDP, and conse- restorative-driven surgical concept” [37].
quently the survival rates were improved. In a Earlier research concerning the use of dental
retrospective study of all-ceramic single-retainer implants (DI) in partial edentulism and single-­
cantilever resin-bonded fixed dental prostheses tooth replacement reported survival rates of
by Sailer et al. [33], there were no problems with 93.6–97.5%, respectively, during a 5-year fol-
debonding and no catastrophic failures, thus low-­up, and the prosthetic complications were
100% survival after a 6-year follow-up. relatively low with the most common complica-
tion being abutment or screw loosening [35, 38,
39]. In concordance, a newer systematic review
10.10 Implant-Supported Single by Jung et al. [40] showed survival rates mount-
Crown (ISSC) ing to 97.2% at 5 years and 89.4% after 10 years.
Biological, technical and aesthetic complications
The use of an implant-supported single crown were frequent with the highest cumulative com-
preserves the adjacent teeth and the surrounding plication rate with soft-tissue complications
oral tissues. Consequently, there is no risk of encompassing peri-implantitis, fistulas, gingivitis
loss of vitality of abutment teeth or further or other signs of inflammation. Technical compli-
weakening of an already weak abutment tooth cations such as abutment and screw loosening
due to tooth substance loss. Today, many also showed a high rate, mostly due to one older
patients also oppose and reject treatments which study who reported on first generation of SCs on
involve tooth preparations; thus, the osseointe- Brånemark implants. And if excluded from the
gration method has opened up possibilities for study, the cumulative incidence of screw loosen-
implant-supported single crowns for replacing a ing decreased. Fractures of components, such as
missing tooth [34–36]. In the early days of implants, abutments and occlusal screw were rare
implants, the primary goal was osseointegra- complications.
tion, but now it is taken for granted and even for
the implant to remain in function for years.
Today the focus has shifted towards the aesthet- 10.11 W
 hich Prosthetic Treatment
ics and how to augment and contour the alveolar for the Single-Tooth Gap?
ridge. Comparing Fixed Dental
Prostheses (FDPs)
and Implant-Supported
10.10.1 S
 urvival and Complication Single Crowns (ISSCs)
Rates
The question confronting each clinician is when
The replacement of missing teeth, especially in to apply which prosthetic treatment option and
the anterior zone, has always been a challenge for to use these therapeutic approaches to their max-
the dentist, and a major challenge for the restor- imum benefit for the patient [34]. Today, a
ative dentist is to provide the patient with an greater demand is placed on the diagnostic and
implant-supported crown which is in harmony treatment planning by the clinician, as a conse-
with the neighbouring teeth and soft tissue in quence of the introduction of newer surgical and
order to restore function and aesthetics. It is of restorative techniques as well as newer restor-
great importance to place the implants in a ative materials that has significantly expanded
10  Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth Replacement 125

the available treatment options. In an ideal pros- psychological profile of each patient. The
thetic world, the treatment decisions should be patients’ preferences as well as their willingness
based on well-­performed reviews of the avail- to pay for different alternatives will finally result
able evidence and, if possible, on formal quanti- in the “best option” in each for the particular con-
tative evidence synthesis and meta-analysis [41]. text and clinical situation.
Since there is no clear-cut percentage of survival
rates between the two options, the decision-mak-
ing process is partially based on operator’s clini- 10.12 Replacing a Single Missing
cal experience, skill and inclinations and patient Tooth—Analysis
preferences [42]. and Treatment Planning
In the daily clinical practice, patient and clini-
cian satisfaction is not only influenced by sur- These three patients have in common that they
vival rates. Survival is usually defined as the all have experienced dental trauma in relatively
implants or prostheses remaining in situ with or young age where the upper right central incisor
without modification during the observation have undergone root canal treatment but later
time, but not necessarily free of complications the tooth has been extracted. They have
[43]. Both implant-supported crowns and tooth-­ received different prosthetic treatments even
supported fixed dental prostheses exhibit a vari- though the same tooth is missing. The exam-
ety of complications. One meta-analysis of 5- and ples are given to show the reader how different
10-year survival rates of FDPs and ISSCs, per- factors in the information gathering affect the
formed by Pjetursson et al. [41], showed an esti- treatment option selected.
mated 5-year survival rate of conventional
tooth-supported fixed dental prostheses of 93.8%,
cantilevered FDPs of 91.4% and implant-­ 10.12.1 Case 1
supported single crowns of 94.5%, respectively.
After 10 years of function, the estimated survival A 19-year-old man was referred for replace-
decreased to 89.2% for conventional FDPs, ment of a missing maxillary central incisor due
80.3% for cantilever FDPs and 89.4% for to trauma and later on failed endodontics. The
implant-supported SCs. upper right lateral and central incisors were
Failures of conventional FDPs were most fre- intruded at the trauma occasion when the
quently attributed to biological factors like caries patient was 11 years old. The teeth were reposi-
and loss of pulp vitality as compared to more tioned, fixated and underwent root canal ther-
technical complications for the ISSCs such as apy. Two years later the central incisor showed
ceramic fractures or chipping, abutment or screw ankylosis, and therefore a decision was made to
loosening and loss of retention [41]. decoronate the tooth in order to preserve the
In summary, the clinician cannot solely use alveolar ridge while the patient was growing
the published estimated survival and complica- and was replaced with a temporary removable
tion rates on group level to make clinical decision denture [44]. Orthodontic treatment was per-
for the individual patient, since there is no scien- formed due to inadequate space for the upper
tific evidence for the superiority of any of the canines and a prenormal growth development.
options. The wise clinician and dental team make The treatment with a single-tooth implant was
their decision-making on the best available evi- postponed until the patient turned 20 so most of
dence together with a professional and meticu- the developmental growth would have taken
lous evaluation of the unique medical, oral and place (Figs. 10.4–10.7).
126 P. Holmberg

Fig. 10.4  The tooth gap shows a thick gingiva biotype


[45], square teeth and a low lipline (which is not shown at
these photos). Triangular teeth are supposed to pose a
greater risk for failed aesthetics, and this risk is most
likely associated with the emergence profile and tissue
support [46]. Minor vertical tissue deficiency. Surgery
was performed according to a two-stage protocol, and the
patient underwent a rigorous oral hygiene schedule

Fig. 10.5  Three months after the implant was placed, a


temporary crown with a moderate emergence profile was
fabricated by the dental technician using a titanium post
for temporary restorations in order to condition the
mucosa and attain soft-tissue stability
Figs. 10.6 and 10.7 A screw-retained all-ceramic
crown. The implant shoulder was located a bit too far
palatally due to the loss of the horizontal bone which
resulted in a restoration with a ridge—lap design.
Satisfactory aesthetics
10  Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth Replacement 127

10.12.2 Case 2

A 14-year-old girl was referred for an interim res-


toration replacing the upper right central incisor
due to an old trauma and failed endodontics and in
waiting for an implant replacement. The patient
couldn’t accept the aesthetics of the resin-­bonded
fixed restoration metal/ceramics and which also
had debonded several times. The patient was very
anxious in the dental treatment situation so all
dental treatment was performed under sedation
with nitrous oxide. A single-tooth replacement
with an implant is planned but the patient is too
young for such a treatment (Figs. 10.8–10.10).

Figs. 10.9 and 10.10  A new resin-bonded bridge in


lithium disilicate glass-ceramic for the press technique
was performed and cemented according to the instructions
of the manufacturer. Only one tooth supports the resin-­
bonded bridge. Better aesthetics and harmony in the out-
Fig. 10.8  Note the greyish discoloration and the dis- line were achieved, and the young patient was satisfied.
harmony with the adjacent teeth. Deficient horizontal Efforts have been made to interlock the upper right lateral
width of the hard tissue at the site. Medium gingiva bio- incisor with the pontic, in order to prevent it from migra-
type. This patient will probably need horizontal bone tion with continued growth. Regular and continued check-­
augmentation prior to implant installment and/or soft- ups whether orthodontic site preparation will be needed in
tissue grafting the future for a single-tooth implant
128 P. Holmberg

10.12.3 Case 3

A 26-year-old man was admitted for improving


the aesthetics in the frontal upper jaw. The
patient’s new girlfriend had persuaded the patient
to seek dental treatment. The upper right central
incisor was lost due to failed endodontics follow-
ing a trauma. The tooth was extracted and replaced
with a resin-bonded bridge in metal-­ceramic. He
did not wish for a prolonged and extensive dental
treatment since he suffered from dental anxiety.
He declined treatment with extraction of two pre-
molars and orthodontic site preparation for a sin-
gle-tooth implant (Figs. 10.11–10.15).

Figs. 10.13–10.15 An all-ceramic tooth-supported


fixed dental prostheses and an all-ceramic veneer were
planned for and executed to optimize the aesthetic.
Prior to treatment decision, a wax set-up was made.
Care was taken not to place the margins of the crown
subgingivally due to the already present soft-tissue
recessions. Better harmony was achieved with the mid-
line shift and tooth shape. In this particular case, the
biologic price consisted of the loss of tooth substances
Figs. 10.11 and 10.12  Not enough restorative space for when being prepared for a fixed dental prosthesis.
a dental implant at site 11. Grey discolouration of the left
maxillary central incisor. Triangular tooth shape with thin
gingival biotype at least where the snuff induced lesions
can be seen but also elsewhere. This patient is at greater
risk for soft-tissue recession. The interocclusal space for
any restoration is advantageous. Medium lip line. Midline
shift probably due to tooth migration
10  Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth Replacement 129

10.13 Outlook Prosthetic precious alloys has given way for these newer
Treatments in 2017 techniques. Alloys having a high proportion of
precious metals in the fabrication of porce-
Today, the field of dental science and art have lain-metal fused constructions have been
changed dramatically, and the restorative den- slowly replaced/substituted by cobalt-chro-
tist has a greater number of options available mium. Increasing aesthetic demands from
for tooth preparation techniques, impression patients as well as clinician have made it pos-
taking and restorative materials than in the past. sible for new full-ceramic materials and sys-
It has not only changed the way dentists run tems to emerge. A paramount change of
their practice but also the dental laboratory concept was the introduction the PROCERA
world. Mechanical engineering, laser milling system in 1993 since the white alumina cop-
techniques and lately 3D printing and design ings could be produced in the dental labora-
have emerged and are evolving in an increasing tory using CAD/CAM. Further development
pace. The introduction of intraoral scanners in came with zirconia CAD/CAM copings which
2003 made it possible to switch from the ana- were introduced in the late 1990s. This mate-
logue to the digital world, and today there is a rial was stronger and in a sense “self-healing”
wide use of CAD/CAM in the dental laboratory when small cracks occurred and therefore
environment and dental offices. The intraoral more suitable for load-­bearing reconstructions
scanners in 2017 can be used for almost any such as posterior FDPs. It is now possible to
indication for a ­ tooth-­
supported construction stain zirconia in tooth-shade colours and use it
compared to the implant-­supported construc- as a monolithic restoration to avoid veneering
tions since they do not have a periodontal liga- material prone to chip off effects. The coloured
ment and show less flexibility than a natural zirconia is milled out of the same material as
tooth. If a construction does not show a 100% the core material. Polished zirconia is the least
fit, the tooth can be displaced by force but not abrasive dental material available [47, 48].
the implant. All new techniques and materials The field of implant therapy has evolved at
have a learning curve for both the dental team least as quickly as that of restorative dentistry in
and the dental technician, and thus all dental general. The use of wider varieties of implant
situations cannot be scanned which conse- diameters, lengths and morphologies and implant
quently will lead back to more conventional surface technology has changed many of the
methods. Combining scanning technology and basic tenants of implantology. The time neces-
CAD/CAM procedures makes it possible to sary to attain osseointegration has been signifi-
reduce clinical and dental laboratory working cantly shortened, and the initial strength of the
time significantly [47]. osseointegrative bond is dramatically increased.
Milling and printing of implant-supported Finally, the understanding of implant capabilities
and tooth-borne fixed prostheses are consid- in various sites and load applications continues to
ered to be the “golden” standard today, and the evolve and has given us better tools to maximize
traditional waxing up and casting in gold or treatment outcomes for our patients.
130 P. Holmberg

Take-Home Message at least 5 years. Clin Oral Implants Res.


• Few real evidence-based guidelines exist 2004;15:654–66.
in fixed and removable prosthodontics. • Pjetursson BE, Tan K, Lang NP, Brägger
• The best way to treat a ridge deficiency U, Egger M, Zwahlen M. A systematic
is to prevent it from occurring! review of the survival and complication
• The clinician is required to carefully rates of fixed partial dentures (FDPS) after
plan the tooth extraction in order to opti- an observation period of least 5 years. IV
mize the hard- and soft-tissue condi- Cantilever or extension FDPs. Clin Oral
tions at the edentulous site. Implants Res. 2004;15:667–67.
• Failures of conventional FDP are most • Pjetursson BE, Brägger U, Lang NP,
frequently attributed to biological fac- Zwahlen M. Comparison of survival and
tors like caries and loss of pulp vitality. complication rates of tooth-supported
• Cantilever FDP present higher clinical (FDPs) and implant-supported FDPs and
risk compared to conventional FDP. single crowns (SCs). Clin Oral Implants
• Adequate retention and long-life expec- Res. 2007;18(Suppl 3):97–113.
tancy for RBFP depend on framework • Pjetursson BE, Sailer I, Makarov NA,
material chosen, how many retainers Zwahlen M, Thoma DS. All-ceramic or
incorporated and precise intra-enamel-­ metal-ceramic tooth-supported fixed
placed preparations that add mechanical dental prostheses (FDPs)? A systematic
retention. review of the survival and complication
• Scientific evidence suggests that treat- rates. Part II: Multiple-unit FDPs. Dent
ment with implant-supported SCs in a Mater. 2015;31:624–39.
tooth gap can be considered as a safe
and predictable option.

References
Benchmark Papers
1. Anusavice KJ. Decision analysis in restorative den-
The following references are in particular tistry. J Dent Educ. 1992;56:812–22.
important since they are all systematic 2. McCord JF, Grant AA, Youngson CC, Watson RM,
reviews or meta-analysis of the available Davis DM. What we do with the information: deci-
evidence and contribute to the treatment sion making. In: Parkinson M, comissioning editor.
Missing teeth: a guide to treatment options. London:
decision-making phase: Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier Science Limited;
2003. p. 11–7.
• Jung RE, Zembic A, Pjetursson BE, 3. Pennington MW, Vernazza CR, Shackley P,
Zwahlen M, Thoma DS. Systematic review Armstrong NT, Whitworth JM, Steele JG. Evaluation
of the cost-effectiveness of root canal treatment using
of the survival rate and the incidence of conventional approaches versus replacement with an
biological, technical, and aesthetic compli- implant. Int Endod J. 2009;42:874–83.
cations of single crowns on implants 4. Kay E, Nuttall N. Clinical decision making. London:
reported in longitudinal studies with a BDJ Books; 1997.
5. Scarlett D. Evidence based medicine. How to practice
mean follow-up of 5 years. Clin Oral and teach EBM. New York: Churchill-Livingstone;
Implants Res. 2012;23(Suppl 6):2–21. 1977.
• Ken T, Pjetursson BE, Lang NP, Chan 6. Webber RL. Computers in dental radiography: a sce-
ES. A systematic review of the survival nario for the future. J Am Dent Assoc. 1985;111:419–24.
7. Whaites E. Essentials of dental radiography and radiol-
and complication rates of fixed partial ogy. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1996.
dentures after an observation period of 8. Atwood DA. Some clinical factors related to the resorp-
tion of residual ridges. J Prosthet Dent. 2001;86:119–25.
10  Alternatives: Extraction and Tooth Replacement 131

9. McCord FJ, Grant AA, Youngson CC, Watson RM, 23. Ken T, Pjetursson BE, Lang NP, Chan ESY. A system-
Davis DM. Information gathering. In: Parkinson atic review of the survival and complication rates of
M, comissioning editor. Missing teeth. London: fixed partial dentures after an observation period of at
Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier Science Limited; least 5 years. Clin Oral Implants Res. 2004;15:654–66.
2003. p. 1–10. 24. Goodacre CJ, Spolnik KJ. The prosthodontic man-
10. Hansson S, Halldin A. Alveolar ridge resorption
agement of endodontically treated teeth: a literature
after tooth extraction: a consequence of a fundamen- review. Part I. Success and failure data, treatment con-
tal principle of bone physiology. J Dent Biomech. cepts. J Prosthodont. 1994;3:243–50.
2012;3:1758736012456543. 25. Scurria MS, Bader JD, Shugars DA. Meta-analysis
11. Tan WL, Wong TL, Wong MC, Lang NP. A system- of fixed partial denture survival: prostheses and abut-
atic review of post-extractional alveolar hard and soft ment. J Prosthet Dent. 1998;79:459–64.
tissue dimensional changes in humans. Clin Oral 26. Lindquist K, Karlsson S. Success rate and failure for
Implants Res. 2012;23(Suppl 5):1–21. fixed partial dentures after 20 years of service: Part
12. Hof M, Pommer B, Strbac GD, Sütö D, Watzek
I. Int J Prosthodont. 1998;11(2):133–8.
G, Zechner W. Esthetic evaluation of single-tooth 27. Pjetursson BE, Tan K, Lang NP, Brägger U, Egger
implants in the anterior maxilla following autolo- M, Zwahlen M. A systematic review of the survival
gous bone augmentation. Clin Oral Implants Res. and complication rates of fixed partial dentures
2013;24(Suppl A100):88–93. (FDPS) after an observation period of least 5 years.
13. Kuchler U, von Arx T. Horizontal ridge augmentation IV Cantilever or extension FDPs. Clin Oral Implants
in conjunction with or prior to implant placement in Res. 2004;15:667–7.
the anterior maxilla: a systematic review. Int J Oral 28. Karlsson S. Failures and length of service in fixed
Maxillofac Implants. 2014;29(Suppl):14–24. prosthodontics after long-term function. A longitudi-
14. Kubilius M, Kubilius R, Glwiznys A. The preserva- nal clinical study. Swed Dent J. 1989;13:185–92.
tion of alveolar bone ridge during tooth extraction. 29. Randow K, Glantz PO. On cantilever loading of vital
Stomatologija. 2012;14:3–11. and non-vital teeth. An experimental clinical study.
15. McCord JF, Grant AA, Youngson CC, Watson RM, Acta Odontol Scand. 1986;44:271–7.
Davis DM. Fixed prosthodontic options. In: Parkinson 30. Simonsen R, Thomson V, Barrach G. Historical devel-
M, comissioning editor. Missing teeth: a guide to opment of the etched fixed partial denture. In: Simonsen
treatment options. London: Churchill Livingstone, R, editor. Etched cast restorations: clinical and labora-
Elsevier Science Limited; 2003. p. 18–34. tory techniques. Chicago, IL: Quintessence Publishing
16. von Arx T, Buser D. Horizontal ridge augmentation Co; 1983. p. 15–32.
using autogenous block grafts and the guided bone 31. Livaditis GJ, Thomson VP. Etched casting: an

regeneration technique with collagen membranes: improved retentive mechanism for resin-bonded
a clinical study with 42 patients. Clin Oral Implants retainers. J Prosth Dent. 1982;47:52–8.
Res. 2006;17:359–66. 32. Pjetursson BE, Tan WC, Tan K, Brägger U, Zwahlen
17. Buser D, Bornstein MM, Weber HP, Grutter L,
M, Lang NP. A systematic review of the survival and
Schmid B, Belser UC. Early implant placement with complication rates of resin-bonded bridges after an
simultaneous guided bone regeneration following
­ observation time of at least 5 years. Clin Oral Implants
single-­tooth extraction in the esthetic zone: a cross- Res. 2008;19:131–41.
sectional, retrospective study in 45 subjects with a 2–4- 33.
Sailer I, Bonani T, Brodbeck U, Hämmerle
year follow-up. J Periodontol. 2008;79(9):1773–81. C. Retrospective clinical study of single-retainer
18. Elias AC, Sheiham A. The relationship between satis- cantilever anterior and posterior glass-ceramic resin-­
faction with mouth and number and position of teeth. bonded fixed dental prostheses at a mean follow-up of
J Oral Rehabil. 1998;25:649–61. 6 years. Int J Prosthodont. 2013;26(5):443–50. https://
19. Craddock HL, Youngson CC, Manogue M, Blance doi.org/10.11607/ijp.3368.
A. Occlusal changes following posterior tooth loss 34. Fugazotti PA. Evidence-based decision making:

in adults. Part 2. Clinical parameters associated with replacement of the single missing tooth. Dent Clin
movement of teeth adjacent to the site of posterior North Am. 2009;53:97–129.
tooth loss. J Prosthodont. 2007;16:495–501. 35. Andersson B, Ödman P, Lindvall A-M, Lithner

20. Pjetursson BE, Sailer I, Makarov NA, Zwahlen M, B. Single tooth restorations supported by osseointe-
Thoma DS. All-ceramic or metal-ceramic tooth-­ grated implants: results and experiences from a pro-
supported fixed dental prostheses (FDPs)? A system- spective study after 2–3 years. Int J Oral Maxillofac
atic review of the survival and complication rates. Part Implants. 1995;10:702–11.
II: Multiple-unit FDPs. Den Mater. 2015;31(6):624–39. 36. Albrektsson T, Zarb G, Worthington P, Eriksson

21. Avivi-Arber L, Zarb GA. Clinical effectiveness of AR. The long-term efficacy of currently used dental
implant supported single-tooth replacement. The Toronto implants: a review and proposed criteria of success.
study. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 1996;11:311–21. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 1986;1:11–25.
22. Brantley CF, Bader JD, Sugars DA, Nesbit SP. Does 37. Evans CDJ, Chen ST. Esthetic outcomes of imme-
the cycle of re-restoration lead to larger restorations? diate implant placements. Clin Oral Implants Res.
J Am Dent Assoc. 1995;126:1407–13. 2008;19:73–80.
132 P. Holmberg

38. Lindh T, Gunne J, Tillberg A, Molin M. A meta-­ decade: comparison of survival and complication rates
analysis of implants in partial edentulism. Clin Oral in older and newer publication. Int J Oral Maxillofac
Implants Res. 1998;9:80–90. Implants. 2014;29(Suppl):308–24.
39. Priest G. Single-tooth implants and their role in pre- 44. Cohenca N, Stabholz A. Decoronation—a conser-

serving remaining teeth: a 10-year survival study. Int vative method to treat ankylosed teeth for preserva-
J Oral Maxillofac Implants. 1999;14:181–8. tion of alveolar ridge prior to permanent prosthetic
40. Jung RE, Zembic A, Pjetursson BE, Zwahlen M, ­reconstruction: a literature review and case presenta-
Thoma DS. Systematic review of the survival rate and tion. Dent Traumatol. 2007;23:87–94.
the incidence of biological, technical, and aesthetic 45. Kois JC, Kan JY. Predictable peri-implant gingival
complications of single crowns on implants reported in aesthetics: surgical and prosthodontic rationales.
longitudinal studies with a mean follow-­up of 5 years. Pract Proced Aesthet Dent. 2001;13(9):691–698;quiz
Clin Oral Implants Res. 2012;23(Suppl 6):2–21. 700, 721–2.
41. Pjetursson BE, Brägger U, Lang NP, Zwahlen
46. Takei HH. The interdental space. Dent Clin North
M. Comparison of survival and complication rates of Am. 1980;24(2):169–76.
tooth-supported (FDPs) and implant-supported FDPs 47. Derksen W, Wismeijer D, Hanssen S, Tahmaseb

and single crowns (SCs). Clin Oral Implants Res. A. Dental technician of the future. Forum Implantol.
2007;18(Suppl 3):97–113. 2015;11(1):12–20.
42. Bouchard P, Renouard F, Bourgeois D, Fromentin O, 48.
Ioannidis A, Reichart D, Fehmer V, Sailer
Jeanneret MH, Beresniak A. Cost-effectiveness mod- I. Benefits and current limitations of monolithic
eling of dental implant vs. bridge. Clin Oral Implants all-ceramic implant reconstructions on titanium
Res. 2009;20:583–7. implant abutments: a case presentation. Forum
43. Pjetursson BE, Asgeirsson AG, Zwahlen M, Sailer Implantol. 2015;11(1):22–7.
I. Improvements in implant dentistry over the last
Index

A Bleeding control, 84
Antimicrobial resistance, 28 Bone augmentation, 121
Apical fenestration, 44 Buccal cortical plate, 120
Apical granuloma, 27 Buccal entrance, 80
Apical lesions, 100
Apical periodontitis
clinical questions, 113–114 C
endodontic epidemiology, 8 Cardiovascular disease (CVD), 35
cross-sectional studies, 8–9 CBCT. See Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT)
longitudinal studies, 9–12 Cell death, 28
methodology selection, 12 Chronic apical lesions, 26
frequency and prevalence of, 14 Chronic apical periodontitis, 35
history, 112 Chronic inflammatory lesion, 27
incidence of, 15, 16 Chronic periapical asymptomatic lesions, 112
on intraoral radiographs, 50 Clinical decision making, descriptive projects, 55
nonendodontic lesions misdiagnosed as, 49 endodontic retreatment
population surveys vs. clinical studies, 8 benefits, 58–59
prevalence of, 36 decision making, 57–58
prognosis, 112–113 praxis concept, 58
radiographic examination, 12–13 personal values, 58
risk indicators Clinical decision making, prescriptive projects, 59
individual-specific, 15 autonomy and information, 61–62
tooth-specific, 14–15 monitors and blunters, 62–63
Asymptomatic lesions, 34, 35 ethics, 60
Asymptomatic tooth evidence-based decision making, 61
lesion, 51 expected utility theory, 61
widened periapical contour, 51 informed consent, 63–64
Atypical odontalgia, 45 authorized, 65
information about risks, 64
information about treatment, 64
B information on costs, 64
Biofilm. See also Root canal biofilms Strindberg system, 60–61
bacteria in, 23 Clinical research, apical periodontitis
extra-radicular, 25, 26 biasses, 109
formation, 22, 24, 26 confounding, 110
growth and maturation of, 25 measurement, 110
infections, 3 sampling, 109–110
in root-filled teeth, 26 selection, 110
matrix, 25 case reports, 105

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 133


T. Kvist (ed.), Apical Periodontitis in Root-Filled Teeth,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57250-5
134 Index

Clinical research, apical periodontitis (cont.) pulpitis, 45


case-control studies, 105 vertical root fracture, 44–45
clinically relevant outcomes, 111 diagnostic determination, situations
database-based studies, 105 and guidelines, 50–51
efficacy and effectiveness, 111–112 diagnostic strategy, 49
loss to follow-up, 111 exceptions from benefit from the doubt strategy, 50
methods, 104–105 options, 55–56
PICO concept, 108 radiographic diagnosis, uncertainties in, 45–49
prospective cohort studies, 105 radiographic evaluation
publication bias, 112 reliability, 46–47
randomized controlled trials, 105–108 validity, 47–48
statistical analysis, 110–111 radiographic examination, 45–49
statistical and clinical significance, 111 Disease, defined, 3–4
systemic reviews and meta-analysed, 108 Dormant cell, 27
Colonizers, 23–25
Cone beam computed tomography
(CBCT), 3, 12, 44, 48, 90, 91 E
advantages, 47 Endodontic microorganisms
disadvantages, 47 resistance of, 28
in endodontics, 48 tolerance of, 28–30
Consequences Endodontic retreatment decision making, 56, 57
for dentists Endodontics, 2, 21
diagnosis, 36–37 CBCT in, 48
liability, 37–38 contemporary, 1
specialists need, 38 infections, persistent, 21
training and armamentarium, 38 modern, 2
for third party, 39 Endosolv™, 94
Consequences for patients Enterococcus faecalis, 24, 29
biological Expected utility theory (EUT), 61
flare-ups of asymptomatic lesions, 34 Extraction
local spread of disease, 34 and ridge augmentation, 120
loss of tooth, 34 of root-filled tooth, 117
persistent pain, 34 Extra-radicular colonization, 25–26
systemic effects, 35
economic aspects, 36
psychological consequences, 35
Contemporary endodontics, 1 F
Coronary heart disease (CHD), 35 Fixed dental prosthesis (FDP), 122, 124, 125
cantilever, 123
material selection, 122
D survival and complication rates, 122
Decision making. See also Clinical decision making
and evidence-based dentistry, 118
evidence-based, 61 G
philosophical justification, 65–66 Granulomas, 27
Dental care Granulomatous tissues,
high-quality, 2 Mycobacterium tuberculosis in, 27
medical and, variation in, 57 Guttasolv™, 94
Dental implants (DI), 3, 124
Dentistry
decision making and evidence-based, 118 H
goal of restorative, 118 Health-care procedure, variation in, 57
Dentists, 51, 62–64, 68, 117, 119 High-quality dental care, 2
consequences for, 36–38 Host-microbe interactions, 26–27
role, 39
Diagnostic methods, apical periodontitis
arguments for benefit of doubt strategy, 49–50 I
clinical differential diagnosis Implant-supported single crown (ISSC), 124
apical fenestration, 44 Intraoral radiographs, apical periodontitis on, 50
nonodontogenic pain, 45 ISSC. See Implant-supported single crown (ISSC)
Index 135

J P
Juxtaradicular radiolucency, 82 PAI. See Periapical index (PAI)
Patient
dental history, 119
L
medical history, 119
Lesion
social history, 119
asymptomatic, 34, 35
Periapical expressions, radiological and histological, 13
chronic apical, 26
Periapical index (PAI), 13, 46
chronic inflammatory, 27
Periapical lesions, 76
chronic periapical asymptomatic, 112
Periapical radiolucency, 82
nonendodontic, 49
Persistent endodontic infections, 21
periapical, 76
Phantom tooth pain. See Atypical odontalgia
Phenotypic tolerance, 28
M PICO concept, 108, 109
Microbial biofilm communities, 22 PICO model, 108
Microbial resistance vs. tolerance, 27 PMNs, 27
Microbiota, 22 Prosthetic treatment, 2017, 129
Mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA), 85 Prosthodontic treatment, 118–119
Modern endodontics, 2 single-tooth gap, 124
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 27 Pulpitis, 45

N
Q
Naturalist theory, 4
Quorum sensing, 25
Neuralgia, trigeminal, 45
Neuropathic pain, 45
No Replacement at All (NRA), 121
R
Nonendodontic lesions, misdiagnosed as apical
Radiographic assessments, 119
periodontitis, 49
Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), 105
Nonodontogenic pain, 45
design, 106
Non-surgical retreatment, apical periodontitis
PICO concept for, 109
access preparation, 93
RBFDP. See Resin-bonded fixed dental prosthesis
chemical disinfection
(RBFDP)
chlorhexidine and iodine-potassium iodide, 98
RCTs. See Randomized controlled trials (RCTs)
EDTA, 98
Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve, 47
irrigation, 97–99
Referred pain, from temporomandibular disorder, 45
sodium hypochlorite, 98
Removable partial denture (RPD), 121
coronal restoration assessment, 91–92
Resin-bonded fixed dental prosthesis (RBFDP), 123
crowns, cores and posts removal, 92
material selection, 123–124
follow-up, 99–101
survival and complication rates, 123
gutta-percha and sealer removal, 93–94
Resistance vs. tolerance, 27–29
instrument fractures, 95–97
Resuscitation-promoting factors (Rpf), 27
instrumentation of apical part, 94–95
Ridge and bone assessment, 120
inter-appointment dressings, calcium hydroxide, 99
Ridge augmentation, 120
ledges, 95
extraction and, 120–121
magnification and illumination, 91
Risk indicators, for apical periodontitis
overinstrumentation, 97
individual-specific, 15
perforations, 97
tooth-specific, 14
plastic carriers removal, 94
Root canal biofilms, 22–24
root filling material removal, 93
growth and maturation, 25
root filling procedure, 99
initial adherence to surfaces, 23
rubber dam and aseptic working field, 93
secondary colonizers, 23
solvents removal, 94
Root canal infections, 14, 15, 83, 90
X-ray examination, 90–91
chronic, 29
Normativist theory, 4
Enterococcus faecalis in, 25
NRA. See No Replacement at All (NRA)
health and, 3
Root canal perforations, 97
O Root canal treatment
Oral status, patient, 119 controversies of success and failures of, 46
Orthopantomogram, 79 time passed since primary, 46
136 Index

Root-filled tooth soft tissue management, 84


cross-sectional studies reporting on, 10–11 suturing, 85
extraction of, 117 technical considerations, 74–76
frequency and prevalence of, 14 Surgical/nonsurgical retreatment,
loss of, 16 apical periodontitis, 66–67
pain from, 50 accessibility to root canal, 67–68
pulpitis in, 45 costs, 68
RPD. See Removable partial denture (RPD) preferences of clinician and patient, 68
restorative requirement of tooth, 68
size of bone destruction, 67
S
technical quality of previous treatment, 67
Single missing tooth replacement, 125–128
Single-rooted maxillary incisor, 83
Single-tooth gap, prosthodontic treatment, 119, 124
Single-tooth replacement, 118 T
Soft tissue management, 84 Temporomandibular disorder, referred pain from, 45
Streptococcus oralis, 29 Tissue growth factors (TGF-β), 27
Stress-regulator mechanism, 29 Tooth. See also specific types of tooth
Strindberg system, 60 loss of, 34
Stropko™ irrigation needle, 97 space assessment, 120
Surgical retreatment, apical periodontitis, 73–74 Trigeminal neuralgia, 45
anatomical considerations, 78–82
biological considerations, 76–78
bleeding control during surgery, 84–85
U
indications, contraindications, and treatment
Upper lateral incisor, 75
planning, 74
Upper right canine, 82
medical considerations, 82–83
postoperative information and complications, 85–86
prognosis, 86
root resection and retrograde treatment V
of root canal, 85 Vertical root fracture, 44

You might also like