CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW
sociology. Writers from earlier schools of criminological thought were
The field of criminology systematically studies the causes of crime.
The explanations for crime are not simple. We live in a complex
society, and the causes of crime are as complex as the society itself.
The criminologist attempts to explore the conditions leading to
criminal behavior and the factors in society that contribute to its
continued existence. This chapter and those that follow explore a wide
variety of theories regarding this theoretical explanation contribute to
an understanding of criminal behavior and also provide an important
framework for examining current policies and past as well as present
treatment efforts established to deal with or alleviate the crime
problem.
As shown in chapter 1, and thereafter, theories are important for the
development of political and social policies and treatment programs
for dealing with criminals and their victims. Each perspective provides
insight into the nature of crime and helps us to focus on different
aspects or dimensions of reality. As this chapter extensively explain
and analyzes crime and criminal behavior, you will see how elements
of each of these perspectives are used to help us explain crime.
These chapters focus on what are considered to be the most
important explanations for crime. In particular, this chapter's attempts
to explain crime date back through many centuries of recorded
history. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, for example,
people who engage in crime and other forms of deviant behavior
where thought to be possessed by demons or evil spirits. Exorcism
and banishment were among the treatments against crime. At the
same time, victims of crimes might view their loss as divine retribution
for some wrong that they or a family member had a committed in the
past.
During the past 300 years a variety of a scholars have develop
important theories or explanations of crime. These writers have come
from many fields. In the 18th and 19th centuries, they came from such
field as philosophy, theology, medicine, and psychiatry. In the 20th
and 21st centuries, many of these theories have come from such
fields as economics, psychology, political science, history, and
not primarily concerned with developing generalizations about crime,
criminal behavior, and the relationship between a varying crime rates
and social conditions. Instead, most early scholars who develop
theories about crime causation did so, as a criminologist Donald R.
Grassy has stated, “In an attempt to find a panacea for criminality.”
He also indicated that early writers made few, if any, efforts to “verify
the many theological or moralistic assertions by actually investigating
relevant situations; writers usually selected a general ‘cause’ of all
criminality and then sought to convince their readers that elimination
of the cause would eradicate crime both by reforming criminals and by
preventing future criminality.” Even though writers and philosophers.
Understanding why people commit crime has been a focus of
academic study for over 200 years. It is a subject that raises debate
amongst academicians, politicians, and the general public and
theories have been forwarded that emphasize factors such as biology,
psychology, and rationality as causes of offending.
Some of the earliest theories of why people were ‘bad’ focused upon
ideas around spirituality, witchcraft and demonology, yet this were
superseded by ideas that placed ‘rationally’ at the centre of
understanding the causes of crime.
While some criminology theories may today seen implausible, study of
the history and development of criminological theory is essential for
any serious student of the discipline. Such a study not only enables us
to grasp key ideas that have shaped the discipline, but also to
appreciate how various methodologies have been used to develop
theories and how these have refined over time.
This module will introduce you to various criminology theories and
perspectives. We will not only identify the various theoretical
perspectives that help us to understand and explain crime/criminal
behavior, we will also evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of
different criminological theories and perspective. As part of this we will
consider of the wider social and political context and which crime
occurs and can be explained and understood.
Theory – Definition
 Any system of ideas arranged in rational order that produce
general principles which increase our understanding &
explanations
 Derived from, and perspective, of particular facts, but those
principles are not dependent upon the particular thing to be
explained
 Foundation of criminology and of criminal justice
A Theory of Crime Problems
The Crime triangle (also known as the problem analysis triangle)
comes straight out of one of the main theories of environmental
criminology – routine activity theory.
“Routine Activity Theory” provides a simple and powerful insight into
the causes of crime problems. At its heart is the idea that in the
absence of effective controls, offenders will prey upon attractive
targets. To have a crime, a motivated offender must come to the
same place as an attractive target. For property crimes the target is a
thing or an object. For personal crimes the target is a person. If an
attractive target is never in the same place as a motivate offender, the
target will not be taken, damaged, or assaulted. Also, there are
controllers whose presence can prevent crime. If the controllers are
absent, or present but powerlessness, crime is possible.
First consider people who are influential in the lives of potential
offenders. In the case of juveniles these might be parents, close
relatives, siblings, peers, teachers, coaches, and other similarly
placed individuals. In the case of adults these people may include
intimate partners, close friends, relatives, and sometimes their
children. These people are called “handlers” in routine activity theory.
Crimes will take place where handlers are absent, weak, or corrupt.
Next considered targets, or victims. Guardians try to protect targets
from theft and damage and potential victims from attack and assault.
Formal guardians include the police, security guards, and others
whose job is to protect people and property from crime. Informal
guardians include neighbors, friends, and others who happen to be in
the same place as that attractive target. Parents, teachers, peers, and
others close to potential victims are also potential guardians. A target
with effective guardians is less likely to be attacked by a potential
offender than a target without guardian. If the guardians is absent,
weak, or corrupt little protection is provided the target.
Finally, consider places, someone owns every location and ownership
confers certain rights to regulate access to the site and behaviors of
people using the site. The owner and the agents of the owner (e.g.,
employees) look after the place and the people using the place.
Owners and their agents are called place managers. Place managers
control the behavior of offenders and potential victims. Examples of
place manager include merchants, lifeguards, parking lot attendants,
recreation and park workers, janitors, and motel clerks, and the
presence of an effective place manager crime is less likely than when
the manager is absent, weak, or corrupt.
All of the people in this theory used tool to help accomplish their
criminal or crime control objective. Tools that gang members use may
include spray paint cans, guns and cars. Offenders without access to
tools are less likely to be able escape handlers, enter unauthorized
places, and overcome victims, guardians, and managers Guardians
may be use light increase surveillance, engraving devices to mark
property, and other devices to help reduce the chances of
victimization. Place managers can use gates, fences, science and
other tools to regulate conduct. With effective tools handlers, victims,
guardians, and managers will have a greater chance of keeping
crimes from occurring. The tools use is often highly specific to the
crime in questions. The tools and offender needs for a burglary (e.g.,
screw driver) are likely to be different from those needed for robbery
(e.g., gun), for example

The relationship of the actors, places and tools is depicted in the
problem triangle, shown in Figure 1. Problems occur when offenders
are at the same places as target without any effective controller. If one
or more of the controllers is present, however, the chances of crime
are greatly reduced. The effectiveness of the people involve will
depend, in part of the tools they have available. Adding or subtracting
various elements in this model will alter the chances of crime.
The presence of attractive targets, weak handlers, ineffective
guardianship, and indifferent management is not randomly distributed
across places. Offenders do not wander aimlessly across the
landscape. Like everyone else, offenders have routine behaviors that
take them away from handlers and lead them to discover places with
attractive targets. Potential victims also follow routines that separate
them from affective guardians in places with weak management. The
spatial ordering of crimes opportunities and the routines of offenders
and victims creates many of the crime problems we see.
This theory of crime also suggests ways of preventing these
problems. The questions in the guide and the responses list are
organized around each of the 11 elements shown in Figure 1. The
guide as problems solvers as a series of questions about offenders,
handlers, targets, guardians, places, managers, and the tools used by
each. The answers to these questions, which will vary by problem,
suggest possible responses. Thus, responses are problems specific
(for example, a residential burglary problem in the neighborhood of
single family residences may require different responses than one in
large apartment complex, and a residential burglary problem in an
apartment complex near a heavily traveled highway may require
different responses than one in an apartment in a more isolated
location).
Though responses are problem specific, there are often several
possible responses to any a specific problem. Few problems will have
unique responses. Instead, the special insight of problem solvers is to
choose among possible responses that can be implemented. Further,
if one approach does not work, other backup responses are usually
possible.
Though it is possible to use the guide and responses list without
understanding the basics of routine activity theory, knowing this theory
helps use the guide and list with greater flexibility. For example, if
someone proposes a potential solution to a problem, it is possible to
determine if the solution is appropriate. To do this the problem solver
identifies which of the 58 possible responses the proposed solution
resembles most closely. The problem solver then works backwards
from the solution list to the question. The questions describe the types
of answers needed for the solution to fit the problem. If the answers to
the questions are consistent with the solution, the proposed solution
may be appropriate. In short, the more familiar one is with routine
activity theory, the more adaptable, the guide and solution list will be.
Additional information on routine activity theory can be found in the
references cited below, particularly, | Clark (1997) and Felon (1994)
Three Theories of Criminal Behavior
historically, there are three broad theoretical models of criminal
behavior
A) PSYCHOLOGICAL B) SOCIOLOGICAL C) BIOLOGICAL
All infer different methods of control, but it is difficult to completely
separate the three categories as it is generally accepted that all three
of the factors play a role in the expression of behavior. Moreover,
psychological science consists of several disciplines including
biological psychology and social psychology, so psychological
principles could be applied across all three domains.
However there are some general principles associated with each of
these paradigms that would be associated with some specific crime
controls policies. These results in admittedly narrow definitions for
each of the categories, but it do simplify the discussion herein.
PSYCOLOGICAL APPROACHES
There a many different psychological models of criminal behavior
ranging from early Freudian notions to later cognitive and social
psychological models. We cannot review them all here. Instead, we
will list the several fundamental assumptions of psychological theories
of criminality (and human behavior in general). These are:
1. The individual is the primary unit of analysis in psychological
theories
2. Personality is the major motivational element that drives behavior
within individuals
3. Normality is generally defined by social consensus.
4. Crimes then would result from abnormal, dysfunctional, or
inappropriate mental processes within the personality of the individual.
5. Criminal behavior may be purposeful for the individual insofar as is
addresses certain felt needs.
6. Defective, or abnormal, mental processes may have a variety of
causes, i.e., a diseased mind, in appropriate learning or improper
conditioning, the emulation of inappropriate role models, and
adjustment to inner conflicts. (Mischel, 1968).
The last assumption of the psychological model would suggest that a
variety of different causes or reasons exist for criminal behavior and
that the general principles target at the individual would be effective
for crime control. However, the model also assumes that there is a
subset of psychological criminal type, define currently as antisocial
personality disorder in the DSM-IV and previously defined as the
sociopath or psychopath (APA, 2002). This type of criminal exhibits
deviant behavior early in life and is associated with self centeredness
a lack of empathy, and a tendency to see others as a tools for their
ends. Controls for these individuals would be more extreme and
general public policies may not be stringent enough to curve the
behavior in this small subset of criminals.
Given these six principles to establish psychological explanations of
criminal behavior, we can suggest a first the traditional imprisonment,
fines, and other court sanctions are based on operant learning models
of behavior for crime control. Operant learning models are based on
the utilitarian concepts that all people wish to maximize pleasures and
minimize pain or discomfort. Skinnerian based social psychological
theories of reinforcement and punishment are influential in this model
of criminal control although the idea of punishment for crime has a
much longer history. (Jeffrey, 1990) Technically speaking,
punishments are any sanctions design to decrease as specific
behavior; thus, fines, jail sentences, etc., are all forms of punishment.
However, Skinner himself recognize that the punishment was
generally ineffective in behavior modification and that reinforcement
work better (e.g., skinner 1966).
A caveat should be applied here: punishment is effective if applied
properly, but unfortunately it really it is applied properly. Punishment
needs to be an immediate (or a close to the time the offense as
possible), inescapable, and sufficiently unpleasant (in fact, the more it
is subjectively perceived as harsh, the better). Given the judicial
system in the U.S., it would be hard to apply punishment to its
maximal effectiveness, thus it is not an effective deterrent, as
reflected in the stable homicide rates of states that carry the death
penalty. Nonetheless, punishments and sanctions for criminal
behavior are based on behavioral psychological principles.
Because harsh forms of punishment do not appear to significantly
decrease recidivism rates, other psychological principles have been
applied. In terms of cognitive-behavioral psychological principles
rehabilitation and relearning, retraining, or educational programs for
offenders are form of psychologically based methods to control crime.
These methods are based on the cognitive behavioral methods of
teaching and alternative functional response in a place of a formally
dysfunctional one as opposed to simple punishment. These programs
can take place in prisons or outside of the prisons and have long been
demonstrated to be successful (e.g., Mathias, 1995). So any form of
returning medication or reentry guidance is based on psychological
principles of criminality and reform. However, rehabilitation programs
are often rarely implemented in jail or prison. Many of these programs
appear to be especially beneficial for drug and alcohol offenders.
Likewise, any for education such as the DARE program and recent
efforts to curb bullying in schools are based on these methods. In line
with this, changing the environment of the offenders such as providing
more opportunities would be a psychological behavior all principle
design to cut crime.
In line with other psychological methods are policies aimed at
maintaining a visible presence of law enforcement and methods to
maintain self-awareness in tempting situations such methods are
preventative. For instance, it has been a well-known social
psychological principle that situations that diminish self-consciousness
and self-awareness leads individuals to being less restrains, less self-
regulated, and more likely to act without considering the
consequences of their actions (e.g,. Diener, 1979). The simple act of
placing mirrors in stores can increase self awareness and decrease
shoplifting. Likewise, the presence of visible law enforcement can cut
down on crime. Making sanctions and the consequences for crime
well publicized and available to the public is another psychological
method to control crime in this vein.
Various forms of criminal profiling are based heavily on psychological
principles and represent an effort to either apprehend existing
criminals or to identify persons at risk for certain behavior (Holmes &
Holmes, 2008). More recently there have been efforts to develop
methods to identify individuals at risk for certain forms of deviant
behavior including criminal activities based on personality and social
variables. These psychological variables can be identified in the
school or at the home at an early age and include such disorders and
learning disabilities, ADHD, depression, and others. Since many
individual with these problems often to go on demonstrate criminal
behavior or have legal problems later efforts and identify and treat
these issues are forms of psychological crime control policies (APA,
2002)
Thus, methods of crime control policies based on psychological
principles target the individual and attempt to reform or prevent
criminal behavior from that perspective. Any policies requiring
therapeutic intervention, retraining, or education are psychological in
nature. Any policy designed at preventing crime by targeting
individuals such as raising consciousness, promoting self-awareness,
or identifying individuals at risk are also psychological. Likewise,
psychologists have long recognized that the best predictor of future
behavior is the individual's past behavior (Mischel, 1968). So policies
and that are specifically designed to deal with repeat offenders are
also based on psychological principles of criminality.
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Sociological and psychological principles of criminality are intertwined
and technically not independent. As with psychological theories, there
are numerous sociological formulations of the cost and control of
criminality. We will define sociological notions of criminality as:
 attempting to connect the issues of the individuals criminality with
the broader social structures and cultural values of society, familial
or peer group.
 how the contradictions of all this interacting groups contribute to
criminality
 the ways these structures cultures and contradictions have
historically developed
 the current processes of change that this group are undergoing
 criminality is view from the point of view of the social construction
of criminality and its social causes
Traditional sociological theories proposed that crime was a result of
anomie; a term meaning “normlessness” or a feeling of a lack of social
norms, a lack of being connected to society. The term was made
popular by Emile Durkheim in (1897) who originally used the term to
explain suicide. Later sociologists used the term to describe the
dissociation of the individual from the collective conscience or the
criminality resulting from a lack of opportunity to achieve aspirations
or by the learning of criminal values and behaviors. Therefore
criminality results from the failure to properly socialized individual and
by unequal opportunities between groups. Durkheim believed that
crime was an inescapable fact of society and advocated maintaining
crime within reasonable boundaries
A feature of sociological theories is that society “constructs”
criminality. Thus, certain types of human activity are harmful and are
judged so by society as a whole. But it is also true that there are other
behaviors recognized by society as “criminal” that do not result in
harm to others and are therefore criminalize without sufficient ground,
there are so called “victimless” crimes. these include drug use,
prostitution, etc. therefore according to this view (if carried to
extreme), 100% of the members of a society are lawbreakers at some
point. one of the sociological policy methods of crime control would be
to advocate for decriminalization of these victimless crimes or at least
a vast reduction in their penalties (Schur, 1965).
An important sociological control would be to increase legitimate
opportunities for advancement and obtainment of goods and wealth in
areas where this do not exist. sociological controls targeted at this
goal could originate and higher State and Federal levels of
government as well as local levels of government and would include
programs designed to guarantee equal opportunities to all individuals.
Thus, social programs ranging from soup kitchens, job training,
educational funding, urban renewal project, and so forth would be in
line with sociological policies to control crime (Merton, 1968). other
related sociological controls for crime with consists of organizing and
empowering neighborhood residents with projects like neighborhood
crime watches, providing law-abiding, role models for children in
schools and in other venues, providing parental support for working
parents, and establishing community centers and downtrodden areas
to allow people to learn and engage positive activities
Social programs aimed at socializing children properly and providing
support for single family homes are also examples of sociological
methods to control crime. there are a number of these programs
including career academic (small learning communities in low-income
high schools offering academic and carol technical courses as well as
workplace opportunities).
Finally, sociological policies to control crime would advocate stronger
and harsher penalties for serious crime such as murder, rape, are
more effective law enforcement. Again, sociologists accept the
realities that crime is a social phenomenon that will not disappear no
matter how many interventions are enacted to control it. sociologist
note that of every 100 felonies committed within the united states,
only one is sent to prison. A vast number or unreported and of those
that are reported only a small portion goes to trial. if a justice system
is to work properly it must be able to rely on its law enforcement
system and judicial system to bring to justice and prosecute serious
offenders. the purpose of imprisonment include punishment,
rehabilitation, deterrence, and selective confinement. all of these
should be utilized where appropriate for the individual. (Hester &
Eglin, 1992)
BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES
Biological theories of criminality basically purport that criminal
behavior is the result of some flow in the biological makeup of the
individual. this physical flow could be due to…
1. Heredity
2. Neurotransmitter dysfunction
3. Brain abnormalities that were caused by either of the above,
improper development, or trauma (Raine, 2002)
Biological theorists would also endorse stricter penalties and better
law enforcement techniques for crime control, but there are several
methods of crime control that are specific to the biological theories of
criminality. I will discuss these briefly here.
Psychosurgery: Brain surgery to control behavior has rarely been
applied to criminal behavior certainly much more common between
the 1930’s to the late 1970’s there were over 40,000 frontal
lobotomies is performed. lobotomies were used to treat a wide range
of problem from depression, to schizophrenia. However, while widely
discussed as a potential treatment for criminal behavior a perusal of
the literature could not find a court ordered case for a lobotomy as a
sentence for a convicted criminal. lobotomies were also used for
people who were considered an annoyance because the
demonstrated behavior characterizes as moody or they were children
who were defiant with authority figures such as teachers. the
lobotomy involves separating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the
brains either surgically or in the case of the trans orbital lobotomy with
a sharp ice-pick like instrument that was inserted in the eye socket
between the upper eyelid and the eye. in this method the patient was
not anesthetize not even children the psychiatrist hit the end of the
instrument with a hammer to disconnect the nerves in the frontal lobe
of the brain. afterwards behavior were change, but a high price as you
can imagine. today the lobotomy has fallen out of a favor to
medications used to control behavior although some view the use of
medication as equivalent to a lobotomy (e.g., see Breggin, 2008).
Psychosurgery appears to be an option that will most likely not be put
into use due to the stigma associated with it
Chemical methods of control: the use of pharmacological
treatments to try to control crime has been ongoing into major areas:
chemical castration for sex offenders and pharmacological
interventions for drug or alcohol addicts. However, addicts can stop
the medication and return to use. sex offenders are closely monitored
and there is some evidence that this policy has been efficacious.
sometimes mentally ill people in the criminal justice system been
ordered to take medication to treat their mental illness. other
pharmacological interventions to control crimes implausible and are
being investigated but do not appear to have been widely used.
Others: deep brain stimulation is used for some disorders such as
Parkinson's disease, but has been yet investigated for criminal
behavior. biological theories have advocated changes in diet to deal
with criminality (Burton, 2002) and better relations between parents.
there is also the famous genetic XYY combination that was once
thought to be a marker for criminal type, but as it turned out these
individuals were found to be less intelligent or more likely to have
learning difficulties as opposed to being criminal types. while there are
many studies indicating a connection between antisocial personality
disorder or criminal behavioral and heredity, there are no policies
being implemented to advocate for selective breeding, genetic testing
etc. for criminals. i do not yet and vision a policy of genetic testing for
criminals as the variables are not stable enough in order to predict
with set of gene combinations are predictive of a biological criminal
type (Rutter, 2006) although this is certainly a possibility.
if the biological model of the criminal has a significant effect on policy
outside the use of chemical castration for sex offenders, it would be
the policy that certain forms of criminal behavior or certain individuals
may not be rehabilitated and the advocacy for harsher and stricter
imprisonment or even executions are viable methods of control in
these instances. the issue for the community as how to recognize as
significant biological contribution to criminal behavior since genetic
testing is and reliable and there are no other physical markers of
criminality it seems that currently in the absence of very harsh crimes
like murder and rape one must be recognized as a repeat offender
before we can acknowledge a possible innate tendency towards
criminality. by that time the damage, which is often irreparable, is
done. perhaps the answers lies in a stricter probation and parole
practices for first time offenders. However, this policy is expensive
and tax payers may not support it. the policy mandating convicted sex
offenders to be monitored over their lifetime and certain restriction
placed on them in a result of the acknowledgment of a biological
predisposition to engage in this crime and therefore traditional forms
of treatment or remediation do not appear to be effective. Similar
policies might follow with habitual criminal offenders based on the
biological theories of criminality
CHAPTER 2: EARLY GENERAL THEORIES ON THE CAUSES OF
CRIME
Demonology is the study of demons or beliefs about demons,
especially the methods used to someone and control them the original
sense of demon from the time of Homer onward, was a benevolent
being, but in English to the name now holds connotations of
malevolence in order to keep the distinction when referring to the
word in its original Greek meaning English may use the spelling
daemon or daimon.
Demons, when regarded as a spirit, may belong to either of the
classes of spirit recognized by primitive animism. That is to say, they
may be human comma or non human, separable souls, or discarnate
spirits which have never inhabited a body. A sharp distinction is often
drawn between these two classes, notably by Melanesians, several
African groups, and others Lot the Arab jinn, for example, are not
reducible to modify the human souls at the same time these classes
are frequently conceived as producing identical results e.g. diseases.
1. Demonological Theory
Theories in criminology: from demonological to Biological theories of
crime.
Demonology
Crime does not evolve from any single source. There can be several
reasons behind a person's criminal behavior. The theories in
criminology have tried to explain these reasons through several
theories. From demonology to the born criminal theory, several
theories have been advanced in an attempt to explain criminal
behavior. However, to grow a better understanding of crime and
deviant behavior, it is important to know these theories. They provide
different perspectives on crime. These theories are important for
understanding the sources of motivation or circumstances which may
lead to criminal behavior.
Demonology is one of the earliest theories in criminology. In the
ancient times people believed that evil spirits or demons entered
human body to commit sins. This was the release explanation given
regarding crime and criminal behavior. Terms like demons, witches
and windigo were used for people who had turned criminals.
An early explanation of crime is theological or religious Dot crime has
been view as a violation of religious doctrine it is called a sin a
violation of sacred obligation an individual who commits a crime has
been view as possessed by evil spirits or under divine rap criminal
acts where considered as indicia of basically evil human nature
suggesting adherence to Satan or under the spell of the prince of
darkness the causes of crime have been based in the superstitious
beliefs in which criminals were allegedly perceived as controlled by
otherworldly forces - the devil.
There are many myths, stories and legends that we know about. They
may be the product of our imagination or be well crafted by our
creative mind. Or maybe not? Demonology is a very old discipline
which developed itself out of theology. Existence of the demons (evil
beings) only confirms a fact that god exist.
Demonology is unfortunately a borderline science. This essentially
means that modern science will never accept any explanation that
involves non material or spiritual forms of evidence. Officially, any
crime that involves a demonic possession may be qualified as
insanity. Psychiatrist is those who at a request of the core make a
diagnosis and prognosis about a person's sanity or insanity. Modern
science tends to rationally and materially planes connections of crime
and demonic possessions. Main reasons are lawmaker request for a
legal form of evidence can be statements of witnesses , victims or
perpetrators thought those statements get there's a form of evidence
in court records and usually are back by consistencies and material
and circumstantial evidence or facts as well as with high credibility of
person who gave those statements.
Demonological explanation of crime was based on the mixture of
common logic and religious beliefs. Similar attempts to explain human
behavior were made by astrologist. Development of astrology starts
around 3500 BC. The position of heavenly bodies such as
constellations and planets affect human behavior. In the 13th century
theology attempted to explain crime in similar fashion as demonology
did before the theology. Introduction of the inquisition enable clerics to
be investigators prosecutors and judges at the same time
Criminology as a science looks out on this matters from a cultural and
a legal perspective. The legal perspective includes forensic psychiatry
and psychology, while the cultural perspective includes systems of
values and some ethnic group our nation. for an example there are
still some ritual practices among the tribes of African continent that
allow throwing of the first born male children to the pigs. Looking on it
from our perspective, this is not really a crime but among those tribes
this is a tradition. Systems of values are also different in organizations
like Cosa Nostra, narcotic cartels or other criminal organizations.
While some behaviors are desirable in that kind of organization. They
are banned or marked red by a normal society.
Criminology as a science was established at second half of 19th
century. however, interest research crime existed in earlier times of
history until criminology became an autonomous science crime must
research from the theological, metaphysical, legal (nomotechnical)
sociological, psychological, anthropological, psychiatry (medical) or
biological standpoint. Development of criminology theory starts with
demonology around 5500 BC according to some theories; the first
school of criminology was the demand logical school of criminology.
Criminology as a science was established at second half of the 19th
century
“People commit crimes under demonic or evil influences.”
2. Positivist Theory
Theories which existed before positivist theory of crime were
phrenology and physiognomic theories. Johann Lavater, the
physiognomist, thought that the shape of the skull and some facial
features had an impact on human behavior and actions. Later,
positivist theories of crime Cesare Lombroso took Lavater’s ideas and
began exploring other physical traits of a body. Lombroso, the criminal
anthropologist, not only researched the facial features and the shape
of the skull, but social conditions of individual like an employment and
medical history of illnesses. He compares a large number of criminals
and non criminals using human physical traits like ear size, hair
length, and other. Goring, the main critics of Lombroso, conducted the
research on crime heredity, but didn't find any differences in facial
features or other human physical traits between prison inmates,
asylum, inhabitants and non-criminals. The only physical differences
going found between an experimental and control group was the
significant dissimilarity in body weight and stature.
The criminals in goring’s research tend to have the lower weight and
small stature. Positivist’s theorists of crime argued that human
behavior is pre-disposed and fully determined by individual
differences and biological traits. In short, terms, what drives people's
towards prime is not a matter of free-will. The positivist is crime
theorist and criminal anthropologist Cesare Lombroso made attempts
to scientifically prove his thesis that criminal offenders were physically
different from non-offenders. Lombroso stated that atavistic features
are more akin to savages and criminal offenders. This view was held
by many biological positivists.
Positivist theory of crime presumed that scientific study of criminal
behavior should find the “causes” of such behavior. They also believe
that the causes of crime are beyond the control of the individual.
Explanations of positivist theory were deterministic. Lombroso was
influenced by Darwinian principles of evolution and uses these ideas
to support a thesis on inferiority of criminals. Positivist theory of crime
implemented the idea of social Darwinism that individuals or groups
develop certain physical and psychological attributes, which allow
them to function more efficiently in the social and natural environment.
We can object to positivist theories of crime that the theories never
accepted the idea about the equality of gender roles. Lombroso
thought that males were more lenient to a crime, because they were
more masculine that females in general. Italian historian Renzo Villa
thought that Lombroso's attempt to identify signs of criminality using
biological traits are an inevitable result and part of the contextual
development 19th century penal science and medicine. The positivist
theory of crime understanding was limited on the external appearance
or phenotype properties as the way to identify the physical
characteristics, which were present in criminal approach of
phrenology.
this theory acts on the proposition that one who commits a crime
cannot morally comprehend the wrongfulness of his actions and the
same way individuals of average intelligence or who are socially
accepted, etc are able to do so. The mind of these individuals has
been affected in a particular way and therefore does not have the
capability to make a conscious, rational choice to obey the law.
Unfortunately a case can be made based on this theory regarding
shootings on school campuses where students have murdered fellow
students usually become of some type of bullying involved.
In the early 1800s public executions used to be commonplace. The
idea was that society would be afraid of the public punishment that
came with wrongdoing and adjust their actions. This reasoning for
punishment aligns with a view known as utilitarianism. Utilitarianism
as a theory that one is motivated by pleasure and the fear of pain, so
punishments can be used as deterrent to commit crimes. In the mid-
1800s ideas about criminals and punishment is started to evolve.
Positivist criminology began to emerge, which is the study of
criminal behavior based upon external factors.
3. Neoclassical Crime Theory
Neoclassical crime theory is represented by the theoretical study of
Jeremy Bentham and Cesare Beccaria. Jeremy Bentham was a
founder of English utilitarianism. Bentham thought that human beings
are hedonistic and act only in their own self interest. Utilitarianism also
considered rational courses of action when people pursue own
interest. Utilitarian’s teachings are important part of criminal-justice
ethics today. Neoclassical crime theory is a continuation of classical
crime theory tradition development of neoclassical crime theory will
continue in 1980 with the forming of new sociological, theories i.e.
differential association and identification.
Although sources that mention neoclassical school and crime theory
of criminology are merely sparse, it main contribution to the field of
criminology is reflected through the understanding of individual
differences of the perpetrators. While classical school was wholly
concern with an explanation of crime neoclassical crime theories saw
some flaws in Beccaria’s theory of crime classical crime. Theory
completely concentrated on the criminal act and positivist crime theory
concentrated on the perpetrator. Positivist was obsessed with
behavioral prediction and classicist with a crime explanation.
Neoclassical crime theories sought to improve the instances towards
perpetrators who should have an impact on the level of guilt and
severity of punishment. Not all perpetrators should be treated in the
same fashion, because the evident differences exist among them.
Crime is a result of many conditions that have ultimately influence on
the perpetrators to commit it. Representative of neoclassical
criminology theory, Gabriel trade publish the book “penal philosophy”
in 1890 Gabriel Tarde who was a French sociologist and founder of
neoclassical criminology school in his book he criticize classical and
positivist criminology and text from both criminology. Neoclassical
criminology theory considers age, gender, and social class of the
perpetrators. The perpetrators are people who think feel act and
criminal behavior is learned within groups by imitation and
identification.
4. Classical Theory
The meaning of critical theory derives from Greek word kritikos
Meaning judgment or discernment, and in its present form goes back
to the 18th century
Classical theory in criminology has its roots in the theories of 18th
century Italian nobleman and economists, Cesare Beccaria and the
English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham. This was a time in history
when a punishment for crime was severe in the extreme, and both
men preferred that theory of utility. New theories like Beccaria and
Bentham look at the causes of criminal and delinquent behavior, and
began scientifically explained such deviance. They rejected theories
of naturalism and demonology which characterized the European
enlightenment as explanation for these types of behavior. The new
theories reflected the rationalism and humanitarianism of the
philosophy of the age of enlightenment.
Beccaria did not develop a completely new theory of criminology, but
rather such a way to make the punishment for committing a crime
rational. he believed that there should be a of punishment for more
and more serious crimes and the number of times a criminal had been
charged previously, the circumstances under which the death penalty
was impose whom would depend entirely on the severity of the crime
and not the actual committed or the degree of involvement in the act.
He was against judges having the broad discretion they possess and
favored definite punishment fitting each crime.
chance of rewards to them would be greater than the likelihood of
punishment.
It was the pain/pleasure view of human behavior: that human sought
to gain pleasure and avoid pain. These men believe that people acted
on the principle of free will: they made a choice of what behaviors to
indulge in and therefore should suffer consequences if caught in
criminal acts. the emphasis of human centered rationality let this
theories to the position that perpetrators of crimes should be held
personally responsible for the actions and punish according to the
severity of the crime under these circumstances, criminal law must
match the needs of the individual to the needs of society as a whole,
with neither wishing a crime to be committed.
Classical theory of crime explains that crime is a product of believes
that benefits of committing crimes are far greater. People opt in
decisions making between two scenarios A and B. a scenario is: a
‘crime isn't profitable because you will get caught’ and b scenario
present certainty in decision making “that you will never get caught’.
Most of the criminals think they'll never get caught.
Main principles of classical school of criminology

He published an historic piece an Essay ‘on crimes and punishment’,

in 1764, discussing why crime occurs and what society should do
about it. He advocated a proposition that punishment should be swift,
certain, and proportional to the crime. He also advocated the abolition
of both corporal and capital punishment, a revolutionary idea in his
time. His work was promoted by Bentham particularly in his book ‘An
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation’ Beccaria and
Bentham that people committed crimes when they believed that the