Introduction

Agricultural biotechnology are said to be a science that helps breeders to produce

precise genetic changes in agriculture this includes: pest resistance, herbicide resistance

and disease resistance in plants. Farmers are benefited by Agricultural Biotechnology

through technology that helps the farmers make their tasks a lot easier and to improve

their crop's quality. In short, Agricultural Biotechnology is a form of technology that

plays a part in environmental and economic sustainability. And because of this, farmers

often chooses biotech crops for it increases yield and makes a lower production cost.

The main point of our topic is that technology in the form of biotechnology is

being applied to agriculture to address problems and improve resistance to pest and

diseases and also enhance the quality and nutritional content of foods.

This module aims to deliver facts about Agricultural Biotechnology such as its

importance, benefits, and risks.

I
 1.1: What Agriculture Really Is?

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating

plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key

development in the rise of sedentary human

civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species

created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture

began thousands of years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000

years ago, nascent farmers began to plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep and

cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in

at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based

on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to

dominate agricultural output, though about 2 billion people

still depended on subsistence agriculture into the twenty-first.

The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra,

from ager, "field", which in its turn came from Greek αγρός, and cultūra, "cultivation" or

"growing". While agriculture usually refers to human activities, certain species of ant,

termite and ambrosia beetle also cultivate crops. Agriculture is defined with varying

scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which

maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related

II
services". Thus defined, it includes arable farming, horticulture, animal husbandry and

forestry, but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded.

1.2: How It All Began?

Agriculture began about 10,000 years ago

in an area called the Fertile Crescent, in modern-

day Iraq, Syria, and Jordan. At the time, there were

only about five million people in the world.

Humanity had a substantial knowledge of hunter-

gatherer techniques such as boatmaking, toolmaking, botany, and so forth, but anticipated

changes were taking place: the Ice Age was ending, so ice was disappearing and regions

like mountain ranges became traversable, while ocean levels were rising and inland seas

drying up. Mass human migration was the result.

Because everyone was moving around, people naturally congregated in the

boundaries between continents. The Fertile Crescent was such an area, located between

Europe, Asia, and Africa. This is where both civilization and agriculture began.

III
 Agriculture probably began in areas filled with animal dung, because there were a

variety of seeds there and ample fertilizer for them to grow. The original crops were

nothing like the crops people know today. The plants used were often husky, frail, or

otherwise difficult to digest or grow. Only through many generations of selective

breeding were their nutritional qualities optimized. Therefore, in a very important sense,

all the crops we consider "natural" are actually genetically engineered.

The first basic crop was wheat, which has two main forms that still exist today.

The first variety is called emmer, and still grows wild in the region. The second variety is

not wild, but probably emerged from the crossing of emmer with another wild grass. This

is bread wheat, which is still the most important crop on earth. Other plants cultivated

during this time include peas, lentils, barley, linseed, and grapes.

1.3: Different Eras of Agriculture

Ancient Origins

By 7000 BC, small-scale agriculture reached Egypt.

From at least 7000 BC the Indian subcontinent saw farming

of wheat and barley, as attested by archaeological

excavation at Mehrgarh in Balochistan.

IV
 By 6000 BC, mid-scale farming was entrenched on

the banks of the Nile. About this time, agriculture was

developed independently in the Far East, with rice, rather

than wheat, as the primary crop. Chinese and Indonesian

farmers went on to domesticate taro and beans including mung, soy and azuki. To

complement these new sources of carbohydrates, highly organized net fishing of rivers,

lakes and ocean shores in these areas brought in great volumes of essential protein.

Collectively, these new methods of farming and fishing inaugurated a human population

boom dwarfing all previous expansions, and is one that continues today.

By 5000 BC, the Sumerians had developed core

agricultural techniques including large scale intensive

cultivation of land, mono-cropping, organized irrigation,

and use of a specialized labour force, particularly along

the waterway now known as the Shatt al-Arab, from its Persian Gulf delta to the

confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates. Domestication of wild aurochs and mouflon into

cattle and sheep, respectively, ushered in the large-scale use of animals for food/fiber and

as beasts of burden. The shepherd joined the farmer as an essential provider for sedentary

and semi-nomadic societies. Maize, manioc, and arrowroot were first domesticated in the

Americas as far back as 5200 BC.

V
 The potato, tomato, pepper, squash, several varieties of bean, tobacco, and several

other plants were also developed in the New World, as was extensive terracing of steep

hillsides in much of Andean South America. The Greeks and Romans built on techniques

pioneered by the Sumerians but made few fundamentally new advances. Southern Greeks

struggled with very poor soils, yet managed to become a dominant society for years. The

Romans were noted for an emphasis on the cultivation of crops for trade.

Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages, Muslim farmers in North

Africa and the Near East developed and disseminated

agricultural technologies including irrigation systems based

on hydraulic and hydrostatic principles, the use of

machines such as norias, and the use of water raising machines, dams, and reservoirs.

They also wrote location-specific farming manuals, and were instrumental in the wider

adoption of crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes,

aubergines, and saffron. Muslims also brought lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and

sub-tropical crops such as bananas to Spain. The invention of a three field system of crop

rotation during the Middle Ages, and the importation of the Chinese-invented moldboard

plow, vastly improved agricultural efficiency. Another important development towards

the end of this period was the discovery and subsequent cultivation of fodder crops which

allowed over-wintering of livestock.

VI
Modern Era

After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds

occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the tomato, maize, potato, cocoa

and tobacco going from the New World to the Old, and

several varieties of wheat, spices, coffee, and sugar cane

going from the Old World to the New. The most

important animal exportations from the Old World to the New were those of the horse

and dog (dogs were already present in the pre-Columbian Americas but not in the

numbers and breeds suited to farm work). Although not usually food animals, the horse

(including donkeys and ponies) and dog quickly filled essential production roles on

western hemisphere farms.

By the early 1800s, agricultural techniques,

implements, seed stocks and cultivated plants selected and

given a unique name because of its decorative or useful

characteristics had so improved that yield per land unit was

many times that seen in the Middle Ages. With the rapid rise of mechanization in the late

19th and 20th centuries, particularly in the form of the tractor, farming tasks could be

done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible. These advances have led to

efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel,

Germany, and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit

at what may be the practical limit.

VII
 The Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing

ammonium nitrate represented a major

breakthrough and allowed crop yields to overcome

previous constraints. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced

productivity, the substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, selective

breeding, mechanization, water pollution, and farm subsidies. In recent years there has

been a backlash against the external environmental effects of conventional agriculture,

resulting in the organic movement.

Agricultural exploration expeditions, since the late

nineteenth century, have been mounted to find new species

and new agricultural practices in different areas of the world.

Two early examples of expeditions include Frank N. Meyer's fruit and nut collecting trip

to China and Japan from 1916 - 1918 and the Dorsett-Morse Oriental Agricultural

Exploration Expedition to China, Japan, and Korea from 1929 - 1931 to collect soybean

germplasm to support the rise in soybean agriculture in the United States.

In 2005, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, accounting

for almost one-sixth world share followed by the EU, India and the USA, according to

the International Monetary Fund. Economists measure the total factor productivity of

agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 2.6 times more

productive than it was in 1948.

VIII
 2.1: What is Agricultural Biotechnology?

For thousands of years, humans have manipulated nature to grow the best crops

and livestock. By matching together various strains of crops or animals, we've guided the

developmental path of countless organisms. If you were to step back in time thousands of

years, the crops you'd see would look very different -- in some cases, they'd be

unrecognizable!

Agricultural biotechnology, also known as agritech, is an area of agricultural

science involving the use of scientific tools and techniques, including genetic

engineering, molecular markers, molecular diagnostics, vaccines, and tissue culture, to

modify living organisms: plants, animals, and microorganisms. Crop biotechnology is

one aspect of agricultural biotechnology which has been greatly developed upon in recent

times. Desired trait are exported from a particular species of Crop to an entirely different

species. These transgene crops possess desirable characteristics in terms of flavor, colour

of flowers, growth rate, size of harvested products and resistance to diseases and pests.

Genes are the basic units of hereditary information. A gene is a segment of

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that expresses a particular trait or contributes to a specific

function. Genes determine everything from the color of your eyes to whether or not you

are allergic to certain substances.

IX
 As we learn more about which genes affect different aspects of an organism, we

can take steps to manipulate that feature or function. One way to do this is to take genetic

information from one organism and introduce it into another -- even if that organism

belongs to a completely different species. For example, if you found out that a particular

bacterium had a resistance to a certain herbicide, you might want to lift those genes so

that you could introduce them into crops. Then you could use herbicides to wipe out pest

plants such as weeds while the crops remain safe.

While some people might think that changing organisms at such a fundamental

level is unnatural, the truth is that we've been using a much cruder method of shaping

organisms for centuries. When farmers crossbreed plants, they are engaging in a primitive

form of this methodology. But with crossbreeding, all the genes of one type of organism

are introduced to all the genes of the second organism. It's not precise, and it can take

generations of plants before farmers arrive at the desired result.

Agricultural biotechnology lets scientists pick and choose which genes are

introduced to an organism. Let's take a look at some of the benefits of this technology.

X
 2.2: Uses and Benefits of Agricultural Biotechnology

World Hunger

Biotechnology holds great promise for increasing

the world’s food supply and improving the quality of that

food. It is estimated that 800 million people around the

world suffer from chronic food shortages, and millions more could go hungry due to

current and future food crises. Crops improved through biotechnology are producing

higher yields worldwide to help feed a hungry and growing world.

Biotechnology Provides Farmer and Community Benefits

The world’s farmers are not the only beneficiaries of

agricultural biotechnology. When the farmer benefits, the

local community benefits economically, and the consumers

in that community also benefit with a safe, nutritious and sustainable food supply. For

example, in Argentina, the economic gains resulting from a 140 percent increase in

soybean area since 1995 are estimated to have contributed towards the creation of

200,000 additional agriculture-related jobs and export-led economic growth.

XI
Increased Production and Plantings

Since the first commercialized crop in 1996, the world’s farmers have consistently

increased their plantings of biotech crops by double-digit growth rates every year. The

increase of 12 million hectares between 2005 and 2006 was the second highest in the last

five years and equivalent to an annual growth rate of 13 percent in 2006. The global area

of approved biotech crops in 2006 was 102 million hectares. Biotechnology helped

increase U.S. agricultural production yields by 8.34 billion pounds of corn and soybeans

on 123 million acres in 2005. Biotech plants that resist pests and diseases, tolerate harsh

growing conditions and reduce spoilage prevent farmers from losing billions of pounds of

important food crops annually.

Increased Farmer Income

Farmers earn higher incomes in every country where

biotech crops are grown. Worldwide, conservative estimates

indicate biotech crops increased farmer income by $ 4.8-6.5 billion

in 2004, part of a cumulative gain of $19-27 billion between 1996

and 2004. It is noteworthy that farmers in developing countries captured the majority of

the extra farm income from biotech crops. The largest gains in farm income have been in

the soybean sector, largely from cost savings. For example, the $3 billion additional

income generated by herbicide-tolerant biotech soybeans in 2006 was equivalent to

adding 6.7 percent to the value of the crop in the biotech-growing countries or adding the

equivalent of 5.6 percent to the $55 billion value of the global soybean crop in 2006.

XII
Cost Savings from Decreased Pesticide/Herbicide Use

Biotech crops decreased U.S. farmer’s production

costs by $1.4 billion in 2005, contributing to an increase in

net profits of $ 2 billion that year. For soybeans specifically,

farmers save an estimated $73/hectare in reduced input costs.

Because small farms around the world are hampered by the same pests, international

farming communities benefit when U.S. farmers are able to save on pesticide/ herbicide

costs and reinvest their funds into technology improvements. Increased productivity is a

benefit to any farmer, but tremendously enhances quality of life when a small-scale

farmer can escape from subsistence farming.

Safety

Most foods we eat today come from plants or animals that farmers have

“genetically modified” through centuries of conventional breeding. Plants and animal

species have been crossbred to develop useful new varieties with beneficial traits, such as

better taste or increased productivity. Traditional crossbreeding also produces changes in

the genetic makeup of a plant or animal. Modern agricultural biotechnology techniques

are different and substantially improved from traditional crossbreeding because they

allow for more precise development of crop and livestock varieties.

XIII
Biotechnology Provides Nutritional Benefits

Since the early efforts of biotechnology,

scientists have planned to use the technology to make

more nutritious foods to benefit consumers around

the world. As the technology developed, the first generation of agricultural biotechnology

products were focused more on input traits, which means these modifications made

insect, virus and weed control easier or more efficient for farmers. These first products

have been rapidly adopted by U.S. farmers, and now account for the majority of

soybeans, cotton and corn grown in the U.S. Agricultural biotechnology varieties focused

on consumer benefits are often called output traits. These products spent much more time

in development, but are moving towards commercial availability. Many of these would fit

into the category of “functional foods” because they provide added nutrition compared to

their conventional counterparts. Following are some examples of trait improvements in

the pipeline.

Biotechnology and Environmental Sustainability

Farmers live off the land, and so they take their environmental stewardship very

seriously. Agricultural biotechnology helps farmers provide a sustainable future for the

world’s agriculture systems. Extensive and repeated studies continue to verify that

biotechnology derived crops pose no risks to the environment unique or different from

conventionally developed crops. In fact, these studies show that biotechnology

significantly reduces agriculture’s impact to the environment.

XIV
Reduced Pesticide Use

Biotechnology provides targeted pest control methods that are dramatically

reducing impacts on non-target species. In 2005, biotech varieties markedly reduced

farmers’ needs to use pesticide applications, eliminating 69.7 million pounds of pesticide

use in the U.S. alone. Globally, it is estimated that pesticide applications decreased six

percent in the interval from 1996 to 2004, eliminating 379 million pounds of pesticide

applications.

Soil Management and Conservation Tillage

Although “no-till” was feasible on a limited number of

farmland soil types and in a limited number of U.S. latitudes

prior to the arrival of biotech crops, the biggest environmental

impact of biotech crops has been the adoption of no-till farming. No-till was made

feasible on many more U.S. soil types and in many more latitudes by herbicide tolerant

soybeans. In 2006, 89 percent (66.68 million acres) of U.S. soybean acreage was planted

with herbicide-tolerant varieties. Worldwide, 53 percent of all biotech crops were

herbicide-tolerant soybeans. These biotech varieties enabled farmers to almost

completely eliminate plowing on their applicable fields, which results in significant

benefits in terms of soil health and conservation, improved water retention/ decreased soil

erosion and decreased herbicide runoff.

XV
Water Quality

Most of the phosphorus in conventional soybeans is in

an indigestible form called phytic acid or phytate. Monogastric

animals such as pigs and poultry do not have the digestive

enzymes to degrade this phytate into a form of phosphorus that can be utilized. To

remedy this problem, producers add inorganic phosphorus to the diet. The end result of

the poor phosphorus utilization and the high amount of inorganic phosphorus that must

be added to the diet is that excessive phosphorus is excreted in the manure. This

contributes to environmental pollution when the phosphorus enters streams and

waterways. A gene for production of phytase has been successfully incorporated into

soybean and wheat, and is biologically active when the plants are used as animal feed. In

a study of broiler chickens, consumption of biotech soybeans containing phytase led to a

50 percent reduction in phosphorus excretion compared with a diet supplemented with an

intermediate level of nonphytate phosphorus. Feeding the biotech soybeans resulted in an

11 percent greater reduction in phosphorus excretion than feeding with conventional

soybeans to which the enzyme is added. Biotechnology is also being used in the

development of low phytate soybeans and corn by silencing the phytate gene in the seeds.

The resulting animal feed will allow livestock producers to save money they would have

spent on dietary supplements and it will also reduce phosphorus pollution and improve

water quality. The new soybean seed is expected to be commercially available in the next

decade.

XVI
Reduced Greenhouse Gasses

No-till farming reduces the use of agricultural machinery in fields, which leads to

a significant reduction in greenhouse emissions from farm equipment. In fact, crops

derived from agricultural biotechnology resulted in a significant reduction in the emission

of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the environment. This reduction in CO2 emissions with

biotech crops comes from two sources:

• Reduction in the use of diesel fuel in biotech crops, due to a reduction in pesticide

spray applications and a reduction in plowing.

• An increase in the amount of carbon held in the soil due to a reduction in plowing

associated with biotech crops.

These two factors contributed to a combined (conservative) reduction equal to a

14.76 billion kg of CO2 in 2006. This is the equivalent of removing 6.56 million cars

from the roads for one year.

Gene Flow and Outcrossing Risk

Herbicide tolerant soybeans have limited gene flow risk to nonbiotech varieties.

There are several reasons for this. Soy self-pollinates, which means it is less prone to

gene flow than crops that cross-pollinate. In addition, there are no sexually compatible

wild relatives in North America. It is estimated that outcrossing rates between adjacent

plants are two percent or less.

XVII
Pest Resistance

Issuance of formal import approvals for the LIBERTY LINK soybean (which is

resistant to glufosinate-ammonium herbicides) by all applicable overseas markets means

that, beginning in 2009, U.S. farmers will have the freedom to rotate between usage of

different herbicides on soybean fields, thereby helping to prevent the arising of

glyphosate- (ROUNDUP Agricultural Herbicide)-resistant weeds.

Biodiversity

No-till agriculture maintains soil health, the

conservation of topsoil and moisture content. It also

encourages the growth of habitats that support different

varieties of wildlife. For example, studies have shown that songbirds have actually

returned to agricultural fields in increasing numbers as biotech crop acreage has

increased. In addition, the vastly-increased usage of no-till and other conservation-tillage

production practices facilitated by biotech herbicide-resistant soybeans has made the U.S.

soybean crop significantly less vulnerable to drought.

XVIII
 2.3: Impacts of Agricultural Biotechnology

Impact on the Global Community

Agricultural biotechnology can help solve the global food crisis and make a

positive impact on world hunger. According to the United Nations, food production will

have to rise by 50 percent by the year 2030 to meet the demands of a growing population.

Agricultural biotechnology has been shown to multiply crop production by seven- to

tenfold in some developing countries, far beyond the production capabilities of traditional

agriculture, and the global community is taking

notice. In 2007, 12 million farmers in 23 countries

– 12 developing and 11 industrialized – planted

252 million acres of biotech crops, primarily

soybeans, corn, cotton and canola. Eleven million of these were small or resource-poor

farmers in developing countries. Farmers earn higher incomes in every country where

biotech crops are grown. When farmers benefit, their communities benefit as well.

Positive Impact on Human Health

Agricultural biotechnology is moving beyond input

traits and is focused on delivering consumer health benefits.

The soybean crop is a good example, with over 10 new

soybean varieties with human health benefits moving toward commercialization.

XIX
Beneficial traits include lower saturated fat, increased omega-3 fatty acids and increased

isoflavone content. Consumers can rest assured that agricultural biotechnology is safe.

These crops have been repeatedly studied and declared safe by expert panels the world

over. In the 12+ years that biotech crops have been commercially grown, there has not

been a single documented case of an ecosystem disrupted or a person made ill by these

foods.

Impact on the Environment

Arguably, the biggest environmental impact of biotech crops has been the

adoption of no-till farming. Herbicide-tolerant crops like biotech soybeans allowed

farmers to almost completely eliminate plowing on their fields, resulting in better soil

health and conservation, improved water retention/ decreased soil erosion and decreased

herbicide runoff. In fact, no-till farming has led to a global reduction of 14.76 billion kg

of carbon dioxide (CO2) in 2006, the equivalent of removing 6.56 million cars from the

roads for one year. Global pesticide applications decreased six percent in the 10 years

after biotechnology derived crops were first introduced, eliminating 379 million pounds

of pesticide applications. Biotechnology derived crops are improving water quality both

through less herbicide and pesticide in runoff from fields, and in the future through

reducing phosphorus excretion in livestock by using biotech derived feed that contains

reduced levels of phytate. These results show that agricultural biotechnology delivers

tangible and significant benefits for farmers, consumers and the environment. These

benefits add up to a more sustainable future. Consumers benefit with safe, healthy and

XX
abundant food to feed a growing population. Farmers reap the benefits of increased

productivity and income that contributes to agricultural sustainability in their

communities. Perhaps most importantly, biotechnology helps care for the environment by

decreasing agricultural chemical applications and carbon emissions.

XXI
 3.1: GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is a process that alters the

genetic structure of an organism by either removing or

introducing DNA. Unlike traditional animal and plant

breeding, which involves doing multiple crosses and

then selecting for the organism with the

desired phenotype, genetic engineering takes the gene directly from one organism and

inserts it in the other. This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any

organism (even ones from different domains) and prevents other undesirable genes from

also being added.

Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by

replacing the defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research

that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other

products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have

been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance

to environmental stresses.

The DNA can be introduced directly into the host organism or into a cell that is

then fused or hybridised with the host. This relies on recombinant nucleic acid techniques

XXII
to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of

that material either indirectly through a vector system or directly through micro-injection,

macro-injection or micro-encapsulation.

Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, in vitro

fertilisation, induction of polyploidy, mutagenesis and cell fusion techniques that do not

use recombinant nucleic acids or a genetically modified organism in the

process. However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include selective

breeding. Cloning and stem cell research, although not considered genetic

engineering, are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within

them. Synthetic biology is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step

further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism. Such synthetic

DNA as Artificially Expanded Genetic Information System and Hachimoji DNA is made

in this new field.

Plants, animals or micro organisms that have been changed through genetic

engineering are termed genetically modified organisms or GMOs. If genetic material

from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called transgenic. If

genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host

is used the resulting organism is called cisgenic. If genetic engineering is used to remove

genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed

a knockout organism. In Europe genetic modification is synonymous with genetic

XXIII
engineering while within the United States of America and Canada genetic modification

can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods.

3.2: GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS

What is a GMO?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are living organisms whose genetic

material has been artificially manipulated in a laboratory through genetic engineering.

This creates combinations of plant, animal, bacteria, and virus genes that do not occur in

nature or through traditional crossbreeding methods.

Most GMOs have been engineered to withstand the direct application of herbicide

and/or to produce an insecticide. However, new technologies are now being used to

artificially develop other traits in plants, such as a resistance to browning in apples, and

to create new organisms using synthetic biology. Despite biotech industry promises, there

is no evidence that any of the GMOs currently on the market offer increased yield,

drought tolerance, enhanced nutrition, or any other consumer benefit.

XXIV
EXAMPLES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

Maize

Genetically modified maize (corn) is a

genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have

been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-

desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to

herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize

has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other

insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was

approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of

recalls starting in 2000.

Soybean

The soybean is such an important crop that

scientist have looked into how they could

genetically modify it into making it even better.

They decided to alter a gene to improve its yield and

durability. By doing this the soybean will be resistant to several chemicals and

attacks from other organisms. These genetically modified soy beans are found in

several different types of aliments because modifying them has become such a great

XXV
success, of course there are several people against the idea of modifying a plant and

they believe that it can be harmful while others fully support it.

EXAMPLES OF GENTICALLY MODIFIED FARM ANIMALS

Pigs

The "Enviropig" has been genetically modified in such a manner that its

urine and feces contain almost 65 percent less phosphorus than usual. That could be

good news for lakes, rivers, and ocean deltas, where phosphorous from animal waste

can play a role in causing algal blooms. These outbursts

of algae rapidly deplete the water's oxygen, creating vast

dead zones for fish and other aquatic life.

Chickens

The scientists have successfully developed

genetically modified (transgenic) chickens that do not

transmit avian influenza virus to other chickens with

which they are in contact. This genetic modification has

the potential to stop bird flu outbreaks spreading within poultry flocks. This would

not only protect the health of domestic poultry but could also reduce the risk of bird

flu epidemics leading to new flu virus epidemics in the human population.

XXVI
 3.3: CROP MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Traditional Crossbreeding

For millennia, traditional crossbreeding has been the backbone of improving the

genetics of our crops. Typically, pollen from one plant is placed on the female part of the

flower of another, leading to the production of seeds that are hybrids of the two parents.

Then, plant breeders select the plants that have the beneficial traits they are looking for to

go on to the next generation. Apple varieties such as the Honeycrisp apple were

developed in this way – thousands of hybrid trees were made, grown, and tested to find

just one great new variety with a combination of genes that has never existed before.

Modern plant breeding often uses genetic markers to speed the selection process, and

may incorporate genes from wild varieties and closely-related species. Here are some

videos about the different techniques that plant breeders use. Crossbreeding can only

XXVII
make use of desirable traits if they are in the same or closely-related species, so

additional techniques have been developed to create new traits for plant breeders to use.

Mutagenesis

In nature, new traits often arise through spontaneous mutations. In the past

century, this process has been mimicked by scientists, who have used mutating chemicals

(such as ethyl methanesulfonate) or radioactivity to generate random mutations in plants,

and subsequently screening for new or desired traits. For more information on

mutagenesis, please view this post. The Ruby Red and the Star Ruby varieties of

grapefruits were developed using ionizing radiation. The mutations that they carry give

these fruit their characteristic deep red color. This article from the New York Times

provides many additional examples of crops that have been developed using this

technique.

Polyploidy

Most species have 2 sets of chromosomes: one set inherited from each parent.

This is known as diploidy. Polyploidy is the occurrence of more than 2 sets of

chromosomes. It can occur naturally, but polyploidy can also be induced through the use

of chemicals. This crop modification technique is usually used to increase the size of

fruits or to modify their fertility. For example, the seedless watermelon has 3 sets of

chromosomes and is created by crossing a watermelon with 4 sets of chromosomes with

XXVIII
another watermelon that has 2 sets, making a sterile watermelon with 3 sets of

chromosomes, much to the delight of picnic lovers throughout the globe. Potato species

also have many different number of chromosome copies, and potato breeders commonly

have to change the copy number of their varieties to breed new traits into them.

Protoplast Fusion

When sperm cells in pollen combine with the ova in the ovaries of a flower, this is

a fusion of two cells into one. Protoplast fusion is an artificial version of this process.

Beneficial traits can be moved from one species to another by fusing the protoplasts

(‘naked’ cells without the cell walls that give plants their structure) together and growing

a plant from the newly fused cell. One of the most commonly used traits that has been

developed with this process is the transfer of male sterility between species. If you have a

male sterile plant, you can more easily make hybrid seeds – especially for plants that

have small flowers and are difficult to cross. Male sterility was introduced to red cabbage

from daikon radishes, making it easier to produce hybrid seeds of this crop.

Transgenesis

Transgenesis is the process by which you introduce one or more genes into an

organism from another organism entirely. This usually involves handling and modifying

the DNA itself in a test tube, and then packaging it to insert it into the new organism.

There are several ways to introduce the new gene or ‘transform’ a plant such as biolistics

XXIX
(the “gene gun”), using Agrobacterium – a naturally occurring organism that inserts DNA

into plants, or by using electricity – a process called electroporation. Transgenic plants

have been generated with many useful traits, some of which have been commercialized.

For instance, papayas were transformed with a gene from the virus that infects the plant

to make it resistant to the virus. Other traits include insect resistance, herbicide tolerance,

and drought tolerance, and more. The creation of these ‘transgenic’ crops works even

though the genes can from from any other species because the genetic language is

universal to all life on this planet. Genes that originated from the same species can be

called ‘cisgenic’ or ‘intragenic’.

Genome Editing

Genome editing consists of using an enzyme system to change the DNA of a cell

at a specified sequence. There are different systems that can be used for genome editing,

the most promising of which is the CRISPR-Cas9 system (for more information on

genome editing and how it works, please view this post). The sulfonylurea (SU) herbicide

tolerant canola was developed to enable farmers to better control weeds and to enable

crop rotation. The crop was created using a patented genome editing system known as

Rapid Trait Development System (RTDS). You could conceivably edit the genome of

any crop to alter any gene you wanted, from introducing new genes to restoring ‘natural’

alleles from the ancestors of our crops.

XXX
 4.1: Is it Environment Friendly?

Biotech crops contribute to reducing the environmental impact of productive

agriculture, thereby increasing global food security without the need for increased land

clearance. Insect resistant crops offer an alternative to chemical inputs on some crops and

have allowed development of more targeted, flexible, effective and sustainable integrated

pest management programmes. Biotech applications in the R&D pipeline (disease

resistant, drought and stress tolerant crops) offer additional

opportunities to increase global food security while further

reducing the environmental footprint of agriculture.

The adoption of GM insect resistant and herbicide tolerant

technology has reduced pesticide spraying by 671.4 million kg

(8.2%) and, as a result, decreased the environmental impact

associated with herbicide and insecticide use on these crops (as

measured by the indicator, the Environmental Impact Quotient (EIQ)) by 18.4%. The

technology has also facilitated important cuts in fuel use and tillage changes, resulting in

a significant reduction in the release of greenhouse gas emissions from the GM cropping

area. In 2016, this was equivalent to removing 16.7 million cars from the roads.(Brookes

and Barfoot, 2018)

XXXI
 In 1950, the world population was 2.5 billion people. It is currently 7 billion, and

projections are that it will reach 9 billion by 2050. It is estimated that the world needs at

least 70% more food by 2050. Improvements in agricultural practices and technologies

have achieved huge successes in helping to meet the food, feed and fibre needs of this

growing population. However, by its very nature, agriculture is disruptive to the

environment, and much work and research is now taking place to limit and decrease the

“environmental footprint” it leaves.

Biotech crops help to reduce the environmental impact of productive agriculture

in several ways. Biotech crops have helped reduce the use of pesticides for several

economically important crops, contributing to reductions in fuel, water and packaging

that are eliminated from the manufacturing, distribution and application processes.

Biotech crops assist in bringing higher yields per hectare,

making farming more efficient and productive on limited land area.

Habitat destruction is the biggest single threat to biodiversity.

Higher yields mean farmers can produce increasing amounts of food without increasing

arable land and this has a major impact on protecting wildlife habitats.

Herbicide tolerant crops are great enablers of zero-tillage agriculture, a substantial

contributor to sustainable agriculture. Zero-tillage means sowing seed directly into the

XXXII
field, without first plowing to remove weeds. By leaving the soil undisturbed, more

moisture is retained, which is good for water conservation. Other indirect benefits of

zero-tillage are improved conservation of beneficial soil insects and earth worms. By

using fewer fuel powered agricultural machines, carbon dioxide emissions to the

atmosphere are decreased and fossil fuels are conserved. Less tractor traffic also causes

indirect benefits to soil quality, and hence a reduced contribution towards global

warming.

6 Ways GMOs Make Agriculture More Environmentally Friendly

1. Growing More While Using Less

Growing insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant crops enable farmers to grow

more with less. More than a third of the world’s potential crop production is lost each

year to pests, such as weeds, insects and diseases. Biotechnology and GMO crops — like

GM soybeans and GM cotton — help farmers minimize yield loss

from pests, and grow more food without bringing more land into

production.

2. Enhancing Biodiversity

Insect resistant Bt crops provide targeted pest control,

allowing important non-target insects like bees, butterflies,

earthworms and ladybugs to flourish. In addition, herbicide-tolerant crops help farmers to

XXXIII
make fewer pesticide applications, which protects beneficial organisms. And better water

management with drought- and herbicide-tolerant crops protect an ever-diminishing

resource and the ecosystems that depend on it.

3. Improving Soil Health

Soil health is critical to crop growth and food production,

and managing weeds is a constant problem farmers are challenged

with. One way farmers control weeds in their fields is through

tillage, turning over the top layer of soil to uproot the weeds, which leaves a field open to

erosion and run-off, and releases carbon dioxide. Conservation tillage is a practice

farmers can use to till the soil less often. Advances in biotechnology, particularly the

development of GMO crops, have been instrumental in facilitating conservation tillage

and resulting improvements in soil health. Here’s how conservation tillage works: instead

of tilling an entire field after harvest, farmers can leave the crop’s residue in the field, and

then plant seeds directly into that residue during the next planting season. This serves as a

“mulch” for the next season’s crop and protects the soil. The result? Improved soil health.

4. Conserving Our Water

Did you know that while you only need to drink about a

gallon of water per day, it takes 528 to 1,320 gallons of water to

grow the food you eat in a single day? Conservation tillage

XXXIV
increases soil moisture and water retention and can reduce the need for additional

irrigation. Also, drought-resistant traits help crops withstand times of drought, mitigating

the need for intensive irrigation. Conservation tillage, made more possible by GMO

crops, helps conserve our most precious natural resource.

5. Helping to Mitigate Nutrient Pollution

According to Environmental Protection Agency, nutrient

pollution has affected more than 100,000 miles of our waterways.

Nitrogen fertilizer is an essential nutrient to grow healthy and hearty

crops, but plants typically only absorb about half of the nitrogen applied to fields. Plant

researchers have been working to develop Nitrogen Use Efficient (NUE) GMO crops to

help plants more efficiently absorb fertilizers, enabling farmers to purchase and apply

less fertilizer, reducing nutrient pollution in our waters.

6. Reducing Carbon Dioxide Emissions

Imagine if 10 million cars were removed from the road?

There would be far less fuel emissions in the air. In 2014, 49.4

billion pounds (22.4 billion kg) of atmospheric carbon dioxide

emissions were reduced by conservation tillage and decreased fuel use made possible by

GMO crops — the equivalent to removing 10 million cars from the road!

XXXV
 Crop biotechnology and GMOs have significantly contributed to mitigating the

environmental effects of agriculture while preserving our natural resources. They are one

solution to combating climate change and addressing the world’s most pressing

environmental challenges.

4.2: Safety Testing and Regulation of Genetically

Engineered Foods

Development of US policy

The foundation of the US regulatory system for genetically engineered foods was

laid from the mid 1980s to the early 1990s during the Reagan and Bush administrations.

The Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP 1986) and the Council on

Competitiveness (Council, 1991), both White House agencies, decided early on that GE

crops and foods would be regulated under existing statutes designed for invasive plants,

chemical pesticides and food additives, and that use of recombinant DNA techniques per

se would not trigger any special regulatory consideration. These policy directives led to

the doctrine that later became known as ‘substantial equivalence’ (for more, see below

under Food and Drug Administration). Biotech industry and government officials have

testified to the great influence exerted by industry on the formulation of this policy,

which was designed to speed transgenic crops to market, while at the same time

reassuring consumers that GE foods have passed government review. According to Henry

XXXVI
Miller, in charge of biotechnology at the FDA from 1979-1994: “In this area, the US

government agencies have done exactly what big agribusiness has asked them to do and

told them to do” (as quoted in Eichenwald et al., 2001).

US DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE (USDA)

As of this writing, nearly 40,000 field trials of GE crops have

been authorized by the USDA. 84% overall, and 98% in 2002, have

taken place under a streamlined “notification” system introduced in

1993 (Caplan 2003). Under this system, the crop developer fills out an application,

specifying the plant, the gene transfer method, the transformation vector, the sources of

the foreign genetic sequences, and the size and location of the field trial. USDA then

notifies the pertinent state department of agriculture and normally issues an

“acknowledgement” within 30 days. A somewhat more involved permitting process is

reserved for experimental trials involving crops engineered to produce pharmaceuticals or

industrial compounds (NAS 2002).

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA)

The EPA’s primary role is regulation of the plant pesticides

in crops such as genetically engineered Bt corn, cotton and

potatoes3 . Bt crops are engineered to produce an insecticidal

XXXVII
protein derived from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. In 2003, Bt corn varieties

comprised 29% of all US corn, while 41% of US cotton contained a Bt trait (NASS,

2003). Bt potato plantings shrank from a peak of about 50,000 acres in 1998 and 1999 to

5,000 acres in 2000, due primarily to the decision of fast-food giants McDonald’s and

Burger King to source only non-Bt potatoes (EPA BRAD, 2001d, pp. I24-I25; Kilman,

2000).

FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION (FDA)

The US regulatory agency most commonly cited as

vouching for the safety of GE foods exercises the least authority

in regulating them. Theoretically, transgenic proteins in foods

fall under the “food additives” provisions of the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act

(FFDCA). Food additives must undergo extensive pre-market safety testing, including

long-term animal studies, unless they are deemed to be “generally recognized as safe”

(GRAS). The FDA has left it up to the biotech industry to decide whether or not a

transgenic protein is GRAS, and so exempt from testing (FDA Policy, 1992). The FDA

has yet to revoke an industry GRAS determination and require food additive testing of

any transgenic crop.

XXXVIII
 5.1: Updates About Agricultural Biotechnology

Agricultural Biotechnologies in the Asia-Pacific Region

The FAO Regional Meeting on Agricultural Biotechnologies in Sustainable Food

Systems and Nutrition in Asia-Pacific took place on 11-13 September 2017 in Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia. For this meeting, FAO commissioned Research and Information

System for Developing Countries (RIS), a New Delhi-based policy research institute, to

prepare a regional background study to assess the status of application, capacities and the

enabling environment for agricultural biotechnologies in the crop, livestock, forestry and

fisheries/aquaculture sectors in the Asia-Pacific region. This 173-page working

document, entitled “The status of application, capacities and the enabling environment

for agricultural biotechnologies in the Asia-Pacific Region” has recently been published,

as well as a related 4-page policy brief entitled “Realizing the potential of agricultural

biotechnology in the Asia-Pacific region”.

FAO Publications on Agricultural Biotechnologies Available

A number of major FAO publications on agricultural

biotechnologies are currently available on request. These

include the proceedings (organized in eight chapters covering the main highlights) of the

FAO international symposium on “The role of agricultural biotechnologies in sustainable

XXXIX
food systems and nutrition” which took place on 15-17 February 2016 at FAO

headquarters, Rome. The 2013 book entitled “Biotechnologies at work for smallholders:

Case studies from developing countries in crops, livestock and fish” which documents a

series of 19 case studies; the "Biosafety resource book", consisting of five modules,

based on materials from training courses organized by FAO from 2002 to 2010 ; and the

proceedings (containing ten chapters with an extensive series of FAO background

documents and five chapters dedicated to the outcomes) of the FAO international

technical conference on "Agricultural biotechnologies in developing countries: Options

and opportunities in crops, forestry, livestock, fisheries and agro-industry to face the

challenges of food insecurity and climate change" (ABDC-10), which took place in

Guadalajara, Mexico on 1-4 March 2010.

17th Regular Session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and

Agriculture

The 17th Regular Session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and

Agriculture (CGRFA) took place on 18-22 February 2019 in Rome, Italy. Agenda item 4

was dedicated to “’Digital sequence information’ on genetic resources for food and

agriculture”. The CGRFA considered a working document (number CGRFA-17/19/4) on

“’Digital sequence information’ on genetic resources for food and agriculture and its

relevance for food security”. It also took note of an 86-page background study paper

entitled “Exploratory fact-finding scoping study on “digital sequence information” on

genetic resources for food and agriculture”, by J.A. Heinemann, D.S. Coray and D.S.

XL
Thaler. The CGRFA is an intergovernmental body established by the FAO Conference in

1983, whose Members include 178 countries and the European Union. It provides the

only permanent forum for governments to specifically discuss and negotiate matters

relevant to biological diversity for food and agriculture, including all plant, animal,

forest, aquatic, micro-organism and invertebrate genetic resources for food and

agriculture.

Manual on Mutation Breeding

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and FAO recently published the

3rd edition of the “Manual on mutation breeding”, edited by M. Spencer-Lopes, B.P.

Forster and L. Jankuloski. Following the 2nd edition which was published in 1977, this

299-page book describes advances in plant mutation breeding, including basic irradiation

techniques as well as chemical mutagenesis, in both seed-propagated and vegetatively

propagated crops. The manual provides comprehensive overviews and guidelines for new

high-throughput screening methods - both phenotypic and genotypic - that are currently

available to enable the detection of rare and valuable mutant traits and reviews techniques

for increasing the efficiency of crop mutation breeding. It provides practical hands-on

methods in plant mutation breeding techniques, with clear illustrated step-by-step

protocols.

XLI
GM Food Safety Assessment in Bhutan

An FAO project to strengthen national capacity on genetically modified (GM)

food safety assessment is ongoing in Bhutan. Officials from the Bhutan Agriculture and

Food Regulatory Authority (BAFRA) have been trained through a workshop on

"Training on genetically modified (GM) food safety assessment, risk communication and

advocacies programme" which took place on 23-27 July 2018 in Thimphu, Bhutan. A

training workshop on “GM food safety assessment: Using a real case study” also took

place on 4-15 February 2019 in Paro, Bhutan, using a real-case dossier.

Proceedings of OECD Conference on Genome Editing

On 28-29 June 2018, the “OECD conference on genome editing: Applications in

agriculture – Implications for health, environment and regulation” took place at the

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) headquarters in

Paris, France. The conference provided the opportunity to learn and discuss genome

editing techniques, their current development and applications in agriculture, the science-

based safety considerations associated with their use, and the status of related regulatory

frameworks in different countries.

XLII
 5.2: The Future of Agricultural Biotechnology

The application of biological sciences in agriculture has become increasingly

prominent in the past decade. Genes were first inserted into corn using molecular

techniques in 1989, and by the late 1990s farmers were growing millions of acres of

transgenic corn. Clearly, the science of biotechnology for agriculture is in its infancy, yet

it shows an influence beyond its years.

One key finding is that particular phenotypic characteristics of a given transgenic

plant determine its likely environmental interactions; the fact that recombinant DNA

methods were used in its development only indirectly affects these interactions by

influencing the phenotypic characteristics of the transgenic plant. Indeed, the significance

of biotechnology for environmental risk resides primarily in the fact that a much broader

array of phenotypic traits can be incorporated into crop plants than was possible about a

decade ago. As such, our experience with the few herbicide-tolerant and insect- and

disease-resistant varieties that have been commercialized to date provides a very limited

basis for predicting questions needed to be asked when future plants with very different

phenotypic traits are assessed for environmental risks.

XLIII
THE NEXT TRANSGENIC CROPS

This section describes anticipated future transgenic crops, including some

expected to be commercialized in the next couple of years, others that may reach

commercial status on a midterm horizon sometime during the next decade, and others that

are mere twinkles of ideas for transgenic crops that will require research breakthroughs

before they can reach fruition. It is not possible to characterize the environmental hazards

that may be associated with all such crops in advance of knowledge about their

phenotypic characteristics and the agricultural ecology of the settings in which they will

be grown. However, the second part of this section offers a preliminary discussion of

some representative environmental risk issues that may be associated with these new

transgenic crops.

An Inventory of New Transgenic Crops

The first commercially produced transgenic crops

were based on single-gene traits. Among these was the

“Flavr-Savr” tomato, which used gene silencing to inhibit the

expression of an enzyme involved in fruit ripening (Kramer and Redenbaugh 1994). The

Flavr-Savr tomato was not a commercial success, but the technology was effective

because the fruit not only had a slow rate of ripening but also was less susceptible to

pathogen infection. Other early transgenic products were based on traits influencing

agronomic performance (i.e., pathogen, insect, and herbicide resistance). The rapid and

broad use by the American farmer of glyphosate-resistant soybeans and Bt-expressing

XLIV
cotton and corn attests to the commercial success of these transgenic crops (James 1998,

USDA-NASS 2001).

Based on the successes of these initial transgenic crops, research laboratories

throughout the world are now studying a wide variety of traits/ genes that could greatly

expand the spectrum of products from such plants. As was true of the first genetically

engineered crops, the rate at which new transgenic traits can be expected to appear in the

future depends largely on the number of genes encoding them. So traits controlled by

single genes, or traits that can be reduced or eliminated by the loss of expression through

gene silencing of a single gene or group of related genes, are likely to become the first

available. The next logical step for expansion is the integration of single-gene traits.

Crops with a set of single genes for a number of distinct traits already are in use. We can

only speculate about the number of genes controlling the development and architecture of

plants and the various physiological processes impacting yield. It seems safe to assume,

though, that genetically complex traits will require additional years of research to

understand, let alone express and regulate in a genetically engineered crop species.

Nevertheless, complex traits, including those controlling adaptation to abiotic stresses,

such as drought and salinity, flowering and reproduction, and hybrid vigor, are being

actively investigated, and it would not be surprising if some of these could be regulated in

crop plants by genetic engineering within the next 5 to 10 years.

XLV
Improved Agricultural Characteristics

Among the transgenic traits near commercial

release are new Bt genes that provide protection against

additional types of insect pests. One of these is a gene that

protects corn against corn rootworm damage (Kishore and

Shewmaker 1999). It is estimated that damage to corn roots by this pest result in losses

approaching $1 billion annually. By reducing the impact of this pest, it is expected that

not only will there be better corn yields but also better drought tolerance and fertilizer

utilization due to the healthier root system. Research is also being done to genetically

engineer tree crops to make them resistant to insects and herbicides and to increase their

rate of growth. For example, a Bt gene has been inserted into hybrid poplars to protect

them against defoliation by a leaf beetle. Acreage of hybrid poplars has increased because

of their good wood pulp characteristics, but they have been

susceptible to insect attack, which has prompted applications of

insecticides. Many of these new traits for improving agricultural

production on farm are ones that could have environmental

impacts that are similar in kind to the present generation of transgenic crops. Their value

accrues directly to the farmer and the seed company and only indirectly to other sectors

of society. Their potential risks, however, are borne by a wider segment of society. Thus,

risk analysis of this next generation of traits is likely to resemble present discussions and

debates about biotechnology. The evaluation of these risks is likely to become more

complicated and difficult as the range of transgenic crops expands from the major grain

crops to the more wild and perennial plants, such as pines and poplar.

XLVI
Improved Harvest Processing

Transgenic technology is also being applied to several commercially important

tree species, including poplar, eucalyptus, aspen, sweet gum, white spruce, walnut, and

apple (Kais 2001). The global demand for wood and wood products is growing along

with the human population. To reduce pressure on existing forests, forest plantations that

grow transgenic trees are expected to play an increasingly important role in meeting the

demand for tree products (Tzfira et al. 1998). As mentioned above, the first traits being

genetically engineered into trees are herbicide tolerance and insect resistance, which are

useful for establishing and maintaining young trees. Several traits are under development

to better adapt trees to postharvest processing, and these may become commercially

available in the near future. For example, there is research under way to modify the lignin

content of certain tree species, in order to improve pulping, the process by which wood

fibers are separated to make paper. Reduced lignin may improve the efficiency of paper

production and may reduce environmental pollution from the paper production process.

To restrict the transfer of transgenic traits to wild forest and orchard tree

populations, it is generally considered essential to simultaneously genetically engineer

reproductive sterility. Methods currently exist to do this in crop plants (Mariani et al.

1992, Williams 1995), so this technology is available.

Besides restricting gene flow, sterility is expected to cause

the trees to grow faster and produce more wood, since

energy would not be wasted producing flowers or fruit. It is

XLVII
likely that this issue will be investigated by a future National Research Council (NRC)

committee.

There is also interest in using genetic engineering technology to turn annual crop

plants into factories that produce valuable chemicals (for a recent review, see Somerville

and Bonetta 2001) and antibodies (Daniell et al. 2001). Plants have the capacity to

synthesize a variety of complex molecules, given the simple inputs of a few minerals,

carbon dioxide, water, and sunshine. It is widely thought that plants could provide a

“green” renewable source of chemicals to replace those currently obtained from

petroleum. This could also be a mechanism to create new markets for plant products as

well as utilize excess production of agricultural commodities. The feasibility of

producing a plastic precursor, polyhydroxybutyrate, in plants, was demonstrated several

years ago (Poirier et al. 1992), but this was not found to be an economically viable

process. Nevertheless, there is excellent potential for mass producing a variety of fatty

acids in plants that serve as precursors for valuable polymers, such as nylon. The

properties of plastics that incorporate starch could also be significantly improved as more

knowledge is learned about the biochemistry of starch synthesis. Several molecular

approaches, including genetic engineering, are being applied to reduce the phytate

content of corn.

XLVIII
Improved Food Quality and Novel Products for Human Use

Corn and soybeans are two of the most important food and feed commodities in

the United States and worldwide. Most (65 to 70%) of the 9 billion to 10 billion bushels

of corn produced annually in this country are used for livestock feed; about 25% is

exported, and the remaining 10% is processed into food ingredients, nonfood coatings

and adhesives, and ethanol (Corn Refiners Association 1999). In addition, approximately

20% of the dietary calories (of people) in the United States come from lipids obtained

from plant seeds, with soybean oil accounting for about one-third of the total. By altering

the lipid, protein, and carbohydrate composition of these seeds, it may be possible to

create more nutritious food and obtain byproducts with improved functional

characteristics. Several of the transgenic products discussed below are in field trials or

will soon be available for production.

Corn seed has a high caloric density because of its high starch and oil content, but

the protein it contains is deficient in several amino acids (lysine, methionine, tryptophan)

essential for swine, poultry, and human nutrition. Transgenic corn lines that contain

higher than normal levels of these amino acids and/or that produce proteins with higher

contents of these acids have been created, although they are not yet in commercial

production. Varieties of high-oil corn have been developed through nontransgenic

technology, but transgenic technology is also being used to increase the quantity and

quality of corn oil. As is also true of soybean oil, the stability and nutritional value of

XLIX
corn oil could be improved by increasing the proportion of monounsaturated fatty acid,

and there are efforts under way to do so by genetic engineering.

Natural soybean oil contains a significant proportion of di- and tri-unsaturated

fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic), and although these unsaturated fatty acids are

generally considered healthier to eat than the saturated fatty acids found mainly in animal

fat, they have a tendency to oxidize and become rancid. These unsaturated fatty acids are

also liquid at room temperature, which limits their functional properties for making

certain types of foods, such as margarine. The stability of soybean oil and its functional

properties are improved by hydrogenating the oil. This reduces the double bonds in the

unsaturated fatty acids, yielding monounsaturated trans-fatty acids. Although trans-

unsaturated fatty acids have been consumed for many years, there is increasing evidence

that they are unhealthy (Taubes 2001). To address this problem, soybean was genetically

engineered to produce an oil that contains predominantly a cismonounsaturated fatty acid

(oleic acid; Mazur et al. 1999). This was achieved through genetic engineering by

silencing the genes that produce linoleic and linolenic acid from oleic acid by a

desaturation reaction. The new product is soybean oil with approximately 85%

monounsaturated fatty acid, which has good stability, and reduced off-flavor and is

healthier to consume.

L
Appendix

LI
LII
LIII
 Bibliography

Agriculture. (2001, November 8). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

How did Agriculture Begin? (with pictures). (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.wisegeek.com/how-did-agriculture-begin.htm

Agriculture, Facts and History. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.crystalinks.com/agriculturehistory.html.

Agricultural biotechnology. (2002, September 28). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_biotechnology

What is agricultural biotechnology? (2010, July 6). Retrieved from

https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/genetic/agricultural-biotechnology.htm

404 Not Found. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://ussec.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/The-

Benefits-of-Biotechnology

LIV
Genetic engineering. (2001, October 21). Retrieved from

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering

404 Not Found. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nongmoproject.ortg/gmo-facts/

Page not found. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jun/24/genetically-engineered-animals-

the-five-controversal-science

Crop Modification Techniques. (2019, January 30). Retrieved from

https://biofortified.org/portfolio/crop-modification-techniques/amp/

Genetically modified maize. (2002, February 25). Retrieved from

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_maize

Genetically Modified Soybean. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://gmosoybean.weebly.com/

Genetically Engineered Pigs, Earth-Friendly Poop. (2010, April 5). Retrieved from

https://www.cbsnews.com/news/genetically-engineered-pigs-earth-friendly-poop/

LV
International, C. (n.d.). Environmental Benefits. Retrieved from

http://biotechbenefits.croplife.org/impact_areas/environmental-benefits/

Answers, G. (2017, April 19). 6 Ways GMOs Make Agriculture More Environmentally

Friendly. Retrieved from https://medium.com/@gmoanswers/6-ways-gmos-agriculture-

environmentally-friendly-15a9262d4f8d

404 Not Found. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/files/freese_safetytestingandregulationofgeneticallye

bgineeredfoods_nov212004_62269

Agricultural Biotechnologies: News. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.fao.org/biotech/biotech-news/en/

7 The Future of Agricultural Biotechnology | Environmental Effects of Transgenic Plants:

The Scope and Adequacy of Regulation. (n.d.). Retrieved from

https://www.nap.edu/read/10258/chapter/9#256

LVI
 Glossary

Acre - a unit in the U.S. and England equal to 43,560 square feet (4047 square meters).

Agrobacterium - is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria established by H. J. Conn that

uses horizontal gene transfer to cause tumors in plants.

Allergenicity - the property of being allergenic.

Arable - fit for or used for the growing of crops.

Biolistics - is a method for the delivery of nucleic acid to cells by high-speed particle

bombardment. The technique uses nucleic acid-coated particles propelled by a

pressurized gun (gene gun) to transfect cells or organelles. It can also be used to deliver

vaccines.

Breakthrough - a sudden advance especially in knowledge or technique.

Bt Crops - Bt Crops are named for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), a bacteria that naturally

produces a crystal protein that is toxic to many pest insects.

CRISPR-Cas9 - (pronounced “crisper”) stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short

Palindromic Repeats, which are the hallmark of a bacterial defense system that forms the

basis for CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technology.

Cisgenic - Describing a genetic modification in which genes from other species are not

involved.

LVII
Cloning - is the process of producing genetically identical individuals of an organism

either naturally or artificially.

Complement - something that completes something else or makes it better.

Congregate - to come together in a group or crowd.

Cultivate - to prepare or prepare and use for the raising of crops.

Disseminate - to cause (something, such as information) to go to many people.

Domains - complete and absolute ownership of land.

Domesticate - to breed or train (an animal) to need and accept the care of human beings.

Dung - the feces of an animal.

Electroporation - the action or process of introducing DNA or chromosomes into

bacteria or other cells using a pulse of electricity to briefly open the pores in the cell

membranes.

Entrench - to place (someone or something) in a very strong position that cannot easily

be changed.

Ethylmethanesulfolate - is a methanesulfonate ester resulting from the formal.

condensation of methanesulfonic acid with ethanol. It has a role as an alkylating agent, an

antineoplastic agent, a carcinogenic agent, a genotoxin, a mutagen and a teratogenic

agent.

Excavation - a cavity formed by cutting, digging, or scooping.

LVIII
Flavr-Savr - (also known as CGN-89564-2; pronounced "flavor saver"), a genetically

modified tomato, was the first commercially grown genetically engineered food to be

granted a license for human consumption.

Genetic Disorder - a genetic disorder is a genetic problem caused by one or more

abnormalities formed in the genome. Most genetic disorders are quite rare and affect one

person in every several thousands or millions. Genetic disorders may be hereditary or

non-hereditary, meaning that they are passed down from the parents' genes.

Genome - he haploid set of chromosomes in a gamete or microorganism, or in each cell

of a multicellular organism.

Genome Editing - the manipulation of the genetic material of a living organism by

deleting, replacing, or inserting a DNA sequence, typically with the aim of improving a

crop or farmed animal, or correcting a genetic disorder. "gene editing to date has focused

on curing single point mutations such as sickle cell anemia".

Genotypic - the genetic makeup of an organism or group of organisms with reference to

a single trait, set of traits, or an entire complex of traits.

Horticulture - the science of growing fruits, vegetables, and flowers

Husky - having less than a normal amount of strength or force

Hybridised - crossbreed (individuals of two different species or varieties). Recombinant

nucleic acid - Molecules that are constructed outside living cells by joining natural or

synthetic DNA to DNA molecules that can replicate in a living cell.

LIX
In vitro fertilization - a medical procedure whereby an egg is fertilized by sperm in a

test tube or elsewhere outside the body.

Inaugurated - to introduce (someone, such as a newly elected official) into a job or

position with a formal ceremony

Ionizingradiation - radiation consisting of particles, X-rays, or gamma rays with

sufficient energy to cause ionization in the medium through which it passes.

Micro-encapsulation - microencapsulation is a process in which tiny particles or

droplets are surrounded by a coating to give small capsules, of many useful properties. In

general, it is used to incorporate food ingredients, enzymes, cells or other materials on a

micro metric scale.

Micro-injection - microinjection is the use of a glass micropipette to inject a liquid

substance at a microscopic or borderline macroscopic level. The target is often a living

cell but may also include intercellular space.

Mitigate - to cause to become less harsh or hostile.

Mono-cropping - is the agricultural practice of growing a single crop year after year on

the same land, in the absence of rotation through other crops or growing multiple crops

on the same land polyculture

Monoculture - the cultivation or growth of a single crop or organism especially on

agricultural or forest land

LX
Mulch - a protective covering (as of sawdust, compost, or paper) spread or left on the

ground to reduce evaporation, maintain even soil temperature, prevent erosion, control

weeds, enrich the soil, or keep fruit (such as strawberries) clean.

Nascent - coming or having recently come into existence

Optimize - to make (something) as good or as effective as possible

Patent - open to public inspection

Phenotypic - relating to the observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the

interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Pharmaceutical - relating to medicinal drugs, or their preparation, use, or sale.

Pinpoint - a tiny dot or point; absolutely precise; to the finest degree; find or locate

exactly.

Polyhydroxybutyrate - is a polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), a polymer belonging to the

polyesters class that area of interest as bio-derived and biodegradable plastics.

Prominent - important; famous.

Sedentary - staying or living in one place instead of moving to different places

Stem Cell - an undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism which is capable of

giving rise to indefinitely more cells of the same type, and from which certain other kinds

of cell arise by differentiation.

Subsistence - the amount of food, money, etc., that is needed to stay alive

LXI
Substantial - large in amount, size, or number

Synthesize - to make (something) by combining different things; to combine (things) in

order to make something new; to make (something) from simpler substances through a

chemical process.

Synthetic - (of a substance) made by chemical synthesis, especially to imitate a natural

product.

Synthetic Biology - is a multidisciplinary area of research that seeks to create new

biological parts, devices, and systems, or to redesign systems that are already found in

nature.

Till - prepare and cultivate (land) for crops.

Thuringiensis - is a Gram-positive, soil-dwelling bacterium, commonly used as a

biological pesticide.

Vector System - vector (epidemiology), an organism that transmits a pathogen from

reservoir to host. Vector (molecular biology), vehicle used to transfer genetic material to

a target cell, such as: Plasmid vector. T-DNA Binary system or binary vector, a cloning

vector used to generate transgenic plants.

Yield - the amount or quantity produced or returned.

LXII