Chapter

HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA

-AN OVERVIEW
 Chapter 3
Higher Education Scenario in India-An Overview
3.1 Introductory Observation
At the dawn of the 21st century, we stand poised between a disintegrating past
an undefined future, when established landmarks are on its last legs and new
ones are yet to appear.
In today's era of knowledge-driven economy and learning societies, both formal
and informal education is playing an increasingly vital role in promoting
econorruc solidarity, social cohesion, individual growth, sustainable
development, and a culture of peace and world citizenship. Therefore, a new
paradigm must evolve that is developmental, human-centered, environmentally
sound, and all-inclusive, so as to prepare learners to be contributors to
knowledge and not just mere recipients of knowledge. It has opened up new
challenges and opportunities for higher educational institutions - whether
public, private, or hybrid.
The issue of higher education in India has always been in the limelight for being
one of the chief driving forces contributing to skyward social mobility. Sound
education, undoubtedly, paves the way for an exalted career.
However, our Indian Education System is presently confronted with a great
paradox. Although one faces that deja vu when penning the same subject, it
echoes that on the one hand we have the creme-de-la-creme-the IIMs and IITs
that are ranked as one the best institutes globally, while on the other hand, there
are a vast number of schools in the country that have literally no access to even
basic infrastructure! We are now 'independent' for over 60 years and the goal of
universal literacy appears to be a distant dream.
Yet, with a slight tinge of optimism, it may be boasted that Indian professionals
are regarded among the best in the world are in great demand. This might well
signify the !inherent strength of Indian education system. In this chapter an
honest effort has been made to candidly highlight the following topics which are

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central to our understanding of the scenano prevailing m the Indian higher

education system:
I.) Concept of Higher Education
II.) Role of Higher Education in India
III.) Scanning the Past of Higher Education in India
IV.) Critical Issues in Indian Higher Education
V.) Role of Teachers in Higher Education
VI.) Indian Higher Education Scenario
VII.) Concluding Remarks
3.2 Concept of Higher Education
"Education is an ornament in prosperity and a refuge in adversity."
-Aristotle
In today' s Indian society, marked by a vast variety of socio-cultural and
linguistic diversities, ideologies and opinions; the significance of higher
education is eyed in contrary fashion by different people. The pluralism of
views is quite inevitable and some would opine it should be held in the same
token. However, one indispensable question that tickles our mind is what is
higher in higher education? Professors and students will definitely acknowledge
the fact, that it is not just about the higher level of educational structure in the
country and there certainly exists greater dimensions. Surely, today's rat race
for grabbing high-profile employments, at the hasty conclusion of one's higher
education cannot be the true connotation of the value of education. Hence, it
requires assertion that there appears to be, if not endless, at least a few problems
with the Indian higher education system, which require pulling right.
In terms of level, higher education includes college and university teaching-
leaning towards which students' progress to attain higher educational
qualification. Higher education imparts in-depth knowledge and understanding
so as to advance the students to new frontiers of knowledge in different walks of
life (subject domains). It is about knowing more and more about less and less. It
develops the students' ability to question and seek truth and makes him/her

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competent to critique on contemporary Issues. It broadens the intellectual
powers of the individual within a narrow specialization, but also gives him/her a
1
wider perspective of the world around •

According to Ronald Barnett ( 1992), there are four predominant concepts of

2
higher education:
Higher education as the production of qualified human resources. In this view,
higher education is eyed as a process in which the students are counted as
"products" absorbed in the labour market. Thus, higher education becomes
input to the growth and development of business and industry.
Higher education as training for a research career. Higher education, in this
light, is seen as the preparation for qualified scientists and researchers who
would develop the frontiers of knowledge ad infinitum! Quality within this
viewpoint is more about research publications and transmission of the academic
rigour to quality research.
Higher Education as the efficient management of teaching provision. Imparting
knowledge, as it is opined by many, forms the core of educational institutions.
Thus, higher education institutions focus on efficient management of teaching-
learning provisions by improving the quality of teaching and hence, enabling a
higher completion rate among the students.
Higher education as a matter of extending l(fe-chances. In this observation,
higher education is but, an opportunity to participate in the development process
of the individual through a flexible, continuing mode of education.
Remarkably, all the above concepts of higher education are not exclusive; rather
they are integrated and give an overall picture of what is higher in higher
education. If we consider the activities of various colleges and universities, we
will realize that teaching, research and extension form the three main functions
of higher education.
Thus, a well-developed and equitable system of higher education that upholds
quality learning as a consequence of both teaching and research is a key
ingredient of success in the emerging knowledge economy.

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3.3 Role of Higher Education In India
Two observations require declaration at the outset of any statement on higher
education in India: Firstly, higher education plays a key role in the realization of
India's extraordinary potential and aspirations for economic and technological
advancement. Secondly, this potential and its connotations for individual
advancement call for an extraordinary demand of higher education among
India's youth. Obviously, these two reflections are relevant for a host of other
countries. However, bearing in mind both the sheer size of the country and the
nature of its development potential, they become exceptionally powerful forces
for determining the social, economic, and political dynamics of higher
education in lndia 3 .
Higher education is by and large, recognized to embrace teaching, research and
extension. If we critically analyse the assortment of concepts pertaining to
higher education, we can note the various roles personated by higher education
in our society. Higher education is the fount or feeder system in all walks of life
and therefore supplies the much-needed human resources in management,
planning, design, teaching and research. It is essentially the gateway to
multifaceted development and prosperity in the country. Scientific and
technological advancement and economic evolution of a country are as
dependant on the higher education system as they are on the working class.
Whatever development of indigenous technology and capabilities in agriculture,
food security and other industrial areas, we have achieved over the years. can
definitely be attributed to our world-class higher education infrastmcture.
Needless to mention, higher education also provides prospects for life-long
learning, allowing people to upgrade their knowledge and skills from time to
time centred on their societal needs.
In this regard, it will be beneficial for us to discuss the roles to be played by the
higher education institutions in the modern societ/:

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 • To strive for and foster new knowledge, to engross vigorously and
audaciously in the pursuit of verity, and to interpret timeworn knowledge
and beliefs in the light of new needs and discoveries;
• To furnish the right kind of leadership in all vocations, to recognize gifted
youth and work up their potential to the fullest by cultivating physical
fitness, developing the powers of the mind and instilling in them the right
interests, attitudes, moral and intellectual values;
• To present the society-competent men and women trained in
agriculture, arts, medicine, science and technology and several other
professions, who will also be refined beings, imbibed with a sense of
social objective;
• To strive to elevate quality and social justice, and to reduce social and
cultural disparities through diffusion of education, and
• To foster in the teachers and students and by virtue of them in the society
by and large-the attitudes and values needed for developing the 'good
life' in individuals and society.
The report of the UNESCO International Commission on Education in the 21st
century labelled "Learning: The Treasure Within", popularly tagged as the
Delors Commission, emphasized four pillars of education-learning to know,
learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. While higher
education indoctrinates all these four in individuals and the society, the report
drew our attention to the following specific functions of higher education:
i) To prepare students for learning and teaching
ii) To provide highly specialized training courses suited to the requisites of
economic and social life;
iii) To be open to all, so as to cater to the numerous aspects of lifelong
education in the widest sense; and

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iv) To promote international cooperation through internationalization of
research, technology, networking, and free movement of persons of scientific
ideas 5 .
3.4 Scanning the Past of Higher Education in India
India has a long and esteemed history in the arena of higher education. It was
regarded as a noble centre of wisdom. In ancient times, the country was known
to have shouldered some of the oldest formal universities in the world. The
more striking of these ancient universities were Takshila (now in Pakistan),
Nalanda (in the modern state of Bihar) and Ujjaini (in modern Madhya
Pradesh). These were famous in the prehistoric world and caught the fancy of
students from all over India, Central Asia, China and South-east Asia. The
Hindu-Buddhist University of Takshila, the oldest, was probably established in
sixth century B.C. Sad, Takshila University was besmirched and totally
destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji. This event not only brought an end to the
university, but was also followed by a massive decline in the practise of
Buddhism in India. In 1235, Sultan Iltutmish completely annihilated Ujjaini, a
major centre for mathematics, literature, philosophy and astronomy. History of
higher education in India had thus embarked on its journey with quite a bang,
which had to face temporary hindrance in the form of external invasion. It is
relevant to note that, at exactly the same time, half-way across the world,
Oxford University was being established.
The following centuries stood witness to the emergence of a few centres of
Islamic and Hindu learning. However, India did not give birth to another world-
class university for centuries, many. Just like in any other sphere in daily life, it
was only during British colonial rule that formal university education
rejuvenated. Modern and state-of-the-art colleges were established in Agra,
Nagpur, Calcutta (now Kolkata), Bombay (now Mumbai) and Madras (now
Chennai) at the onset of the nineteenth century. The introduction of western
learning, made accessible through the knowledge of English, was a very vital
factor that allowed the emergence of India's petite bourgeoisie. And so, this

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termed 'aam aadmi' would go on to generate legends after legends, when it
came to history of higher education in India. In 1857, three federal examining
universities on the pattern of London University were instituted in the three
main British-governed cities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. The prevailing
colleges were affiliated to these universities. Over the next several decades,
more universities were brought to being, and by 1947, there were 25 universities
in the country.
Post-Independence, history of higher education in India went through phases of
rapid expansion. The number of universities in the country multiplied from 25
in 1947 to 348 in 2005. Enrolment rose from 0.1 million in 1947 to 10.5 million
in 2005. In present times, the countries higher educational institutions have an
enrolment of 10.5 million students and a turn-out of 2.5 million each year.
Approximately, 45 per cent of the students pursue the Arts discipline, 20 per
cent in Sciences and 18 per cent in Commerce. The remaining 17 per cent are
enrolled into professional courses like law and medicine. The sheer numbers
may appear to be colossal, but that appears pretty small for a country of India's
. 6
SIZe .

3.5 Critical Issues in Indian Higher Education

As mentioned previously. the higher education system in India has fostered in
an extraordinary fashion, to evolve into one of the world's largest system,
unique in its class. Statistics reveal that India has the third largest system of
higher education in the world, third only to USA and China, catering to about
10 million students through 0.5 million teachers and more than 16000 higher
education systems. However, the system is put up with issues of concern at
present, like financing and management including access, equity and relevance,
reorientation of programmes by laying emphasis on health consciousness,
values and ethics and quality of higher education together with the assessment
of institutions and their accreditation. These issues are relevant for the country,
as it is now engaged in the use of higher education as a powerful tool to build a
knowledge-based information society, suited to the essence of the 21st century.

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Nonetheless, our Indian higher education system is presently exposed to several
challenges. The challenge of global competitiveness has been added to other
demanding tasks such as access, equity, relevance, quality, privatisation and
internationalisation in the face of a resource crunch. Thus, whenever an
individual silts down to write on the mess that one finds in the arena of higher
education, one is struck by a sense of awe as well as a sense of inability to pen
down anything new. It is probably a reaction to the fact that there are still
certain shortcomings in our Indian system of higher education.
Excellence and expansion: Quantity and quality in Indian higher education
Many bureaucrats approve that Indian higher education, despite significant and
remarkable progress over the past decade, still copes with major challenges in
both quantitative and qualitative terms. Perhaps the clearest and boldest
statement of this issue can be found in the "Report to the Nation 2006" of the
National Knowledge Commission which concludes that there is ''a quiet crisis
in hif?her education in India that runs deep" 7 , and that it has to do with both the
quantity and the quality of higher education in India. Recognizing this dual
challenge, the Indian Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh, in a recent oration,
sternly criticized the serious qualitative deficiencies in Indian higher education
while at the same time announcing plans for a major expansion of the system.
Reflecting on the findings of a confidential report by the National Assessment
and Accreditation Council (NAAC), which is affiliated to the University Grants
Commission (UGC), he voiced his concern over the fact that two thirds (68 per
cent) of the nation's universities and 90 per cent of its colleges are "of middling
or poor quallity" and that well over half of the faculty in India's colleges do not
have the fitting degree qualifications 8 . The Prime Minister did not forget to put
across his concern over the fact that a mere 7 per cent of India's 18 to 24 year
olds enter higher education as compared to 21 per cent in Germany and 34 per
cent in the USl). He announced the plans of the government to set up at least
one "Central University" in each of the 16 states that do not presently do not
have one, and at least one degree-granting college in each of the 350 (out of

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604) districts that are without one. The "central universities" are to become "a
symbol of excellence, a model of efficiency, and an example in terms of
academic standards and university governance for other state universities to
emulate". While these plans are to a great extent, more unpresumptuous than
what the National Knowledge Commission has proposed (it foresees an
expansion of the university system alone from the existing 350 to a projected
total of 1,500 institutions, including 50 "national universities" as centres of
excellence 10), the additional expense to the government of the Prime Minister's
11
development plans is already estimated at around $13 billion •

Again, it is true that a meagre handful of institutions in India emphasize both

quality and quantity in their ways of imparting education. That is why a
commerce student would have to keep his/her heads down in order to enter a
Shri Ram College of Commerce, Delhi, while a private or local institution
would probably invite him/her to join their academy! It is not critical of the
latter bodies, but there certainly exists a difference in quality as well as quantity.
Regulation and governanc~

Above and beyond its quantitative constraints and qualitative deficits, our
Indian higher education is also considered to be sub-optimally organized and
noticeably over-regulated, thereby confining initiatives for change and stifling
or misdirecting private initiatives. In its assessment of the prevailing regulatory
arrangements, the National Knowledge Commission concludes: "In sum, the
existing regulatory frame-.,vork constrains the supply (~f good institutions,
excessivel_v regulates existing institutions in the wrong places, and is not
conducive to innovation or creativity in higher education 12 ." Pratap Bhanu
Mehta, President of the Centre for Policy Research, acquiesces: "Our regulation
is faulty, because it contemplates very little place for diversitv of
. 13 "
expenments .
It is not surprising that one of the key recommendations of the National
Knowledge Commission, right behind the spreading out of the system, is to alter
the system of regulation for higher education, claiming that "the system, as a

88
whole. is over-regulated but under governed" and proposmg to establish an
'Independent Regulatory Authority for Higher Education' (IRAHE) that is to
operate "at an arm's length from the Government and independent of all
stakeholders". A particularly eye-catching fragment of the debate on this issue
centres around the need for novel forms of governance in Indian Higher
Education, where the spotlight would be on the twin postulates of Autonomy
and Accountability. An important step was taken in this regard by the Central
Advisory Board of Education (CABE) which paved the way for a special
committee to design ways for promoting both autonomy and accountability in
Indian higher education. The Committee has come up with a wide range of
recommendations in 2005 14 ; to judge from the analysis of the National
Knowledge Commission cited above; yet, no major breakthrough in this matter
seems as yet to have been achieved.
Both the extent and the nature of the regulatory arrangements appear to inhibit
both the reform of Indian higher education and the mobilization of privatized
additional resources for its further development. The debate over new forms of
governance, especially with regard to the twin issues of autonomy and
accountability, is thus of critical importance for the future of the system.
The privatization of higher education
The last few decades has witnessed a massive advancement in higher education,
in terms of the extent to which private institutions have flown into the scene and
have attempted to respond to the mammoth demand for education at the post-
secondary level. This is specifically true in the fields of engineering, medicine,
and management, and much less at the broader level of university education.
The institutional variants of privatization range from miniature technical
colleges to internationally acknowledged professional schools such as the
Indian Business School in Hyderabad 15 , the technical and teacher training
institutions created by the Gondia Education Society in Maharashtra 16 , major
educational conglomerates like Symbiosis in Pune and awai 7 or recent plans
for the $3.5-billion, elite Vedanta University in Orissa 18 • Many of these

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institutions owe their existence and success to the entrepreneurial spirit and
resources of successful and/or visionary individuals such as the late Shri
Manoharbhai Patel in the case of Gondi, S.B. Mujumdar in the case of
Symbiosis or the "metals-and-mining mogul" Anil Agarwal in the case of
Vedanta; quite a few politicians appear also to have actively participated in, and
benefited from, the growth of private professional education. The strong
emergence of the private sector is intensely reflected in the funding pattern:
While the government's share in overall education expenditure has declined
from 80 per cent in 1983 to 67 per cent in 1999, private expenditure on
education has augmented more than ten times over the same time period.
It is fascinating to note, the size of the private sector is formidable in the field of
professional training: According to 2003 figures for 19 major Indian states from
the Medical Council of India (MCI) and the All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE). of 198 Medical Colleges, 44 per cent were private, and of
1102 Engineering Colleges., as many as 92 per cent were privately owned and
regulated IY; similar conditions prevail in business management. As of 2011,
there are 1522 degree-granting engineering colleges in India with an annual
student intake of 582,000, plus 1,244 polytechnics with an annual intake of
265,000. The Medical Council of India currently recognizes 273 Indian medical
20
colleges, with a total capacity to train 31 ,298 Indian medical students .

However, pitiful to restate, these institutions face shortage of faculty and

concerns have been raised over the quality of education as well. In some
instances, competition between public and private institutions has begun to add
.
to Improvements on bot h sic
. les-'I .

It is evident, on the one hand, that in order to meet the massive demand for
higher education, India will need to attract momentous private investment in
terms of both philanthropy and individual fees.
What has gained limelight in the meantime Is the accountability of these
privatized educational bodies-who are they accountable to? The constraining
disposition of the regulatory framework applies particularly to private

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institutions and there arises a strict need for affiliating such institutions to public
universities. For instance, in 2002, the Ministry of Human Resources
Development, Government of India conferred the " Deemed to be University"
status on Symbiosis University, Pune, and further in 2006 the University Grallls
Commission, Government of India via its notification withdrew the word
'Deemed' and renamed the University as Symbiosis International University.
The proportion of philanthropic contributions to higher education has dropped
off from more than 12 per cent in the 1950s to less than 3 per cent in the
1990s 22 . Some particularly critical observers attribute this general reluctance to
involve the private sector in higher education to an "ideological commitment to
some principle of equality". Is there any means by virtue of which we can
bridge these gaps? In a report of the University Grants Commission, December
2003, several recommendations were laid down, a few of which shall be
discussed here:
It is the primary responsibility of the State to provide the eligible with good
quality higher education at reasonable cost. In fact, the investment in this area
by the State shall be stepped-up to 3% of the GDP. This is essential for the
intellectual strength of the State to address equity concerns.
A huge dedicated fund say, National Human Resource Development Fund, to
the tune of at least one- per cent of the GOP, may be created to tackle the equity
problems. It shall be the accepted principle that 'no talented person shall be
denied access to higher education opportunities on the grounds of economic
and social bachvardness '. This fund may be dedicated to offer direct financial
support in the form of scholarships, partial financial assistance and educational
loans to students directly, based on the criteria of talent and financial and social
backwardness.
Industries may be encouraged to be partners with educational institutions
directly for the development of human resources dedicated to their interests.
This could happen in the areas of creating infrastructure, faculty sharing and

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direct support with funds. The UGC may set-up a High Power Committee to
explore these possibilities and to work out the modalities for such a partnership.
The areas not capable of attracting private funds shall be supported sufficiently
well from public funds. This, as indicated earlier, is essential for the balanced
intellectual growth of the society
Strong quality control measures to assure performance above an acceptable
benchmark is essential for the institutions. We are at the moment weak in this
regard. The various rating agencies shall evolve scientific, transparent and
consistent benchmarking techniques for this purpose. A regulatory system to
ensure compliance to the set bench marking is needed with sufficient powers to
close down non-complying institutions is a need of the hour.
Staffing higher education
If education is 'higher', staffing should also be 'higher' in its true essence l
Should the ambitious plans of both the public and the private sector for the
massive development of higher education in India have a chance to flourish, one
of the key prerequisites is a large and highly capable pool of scholars who can
provide academic leadership in teaching and research. Many of these scholars
already exist or are moving into the ranks of the professoriate at the better
Indian and foreign universities; many more will be needed to satisfy the
growing demand and to take the place of the large numbers of college and
university faculty who are not up to the standards of an internationally
competitive system of higher education 23 .
To judge from the existing analyses of the situation, the achievement of this
goal appears to require a combination of several different strategies, including:
• A remodelling in the criteria for academic recruitment and promotion,
• Significant improvements in the economic condition of the academic
teaching profession,
• A very ambitious program for the identification, training, support and
placement of young scholars, and

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 • A major effort at repatriating successful Indian scholars from abroad.
None of these measures is a cakewalk-all of them will have to overcome
deficits where standards for academic recruitment have been rather lax or
arbitrary, where the remuneration of teaching in higher education has been
rather dismal, when compared to opportunities both abroad and in the private
sector, where graduate and doctoral programs have been short on capacity,
academic rigor, and financial support, and where the increasingly intensive
efforts to restore Indian scholars from abroad have so far met with only limited
success.
Adequate staffing may well be the critical bottleneck in India's ambitious plans
for expansion and excellence. To cope with it will require a concerted effort
involving the academic culture; economic conditions, graduate training, and
bringing back expatriate Indian scholars.
It would now be pe11inent to us now briefly ponder upon the core values of
NAAC 2-I. The Indian higher education system is in a relentless state of change
and flux due to the snowballing needs of expanding access to higher education,
impact of technology on the delivery of education, increasing participation from
the private bodies and the impact of globalization in recent years. Taking
cognizance of these developments and the role of higher education in society,
NAAC has developed five core values: contributing to national development,
fostering global competencies among students, inculcating a value system in
students, promoting the use of technology and quest for excellence. The detailed
explanation of these values from the NAAC (2004) document on Guidelines for
Re-Accreditation is organized as:

Contributing to national development

It is marvellous a fact that majority of the Higher Education Institutions (HEis)
have a remarkable capacity to acclimatise to change, and at the same time
pursue the avowed goals and objectives they have set forth for themselves.

93
Contributing to national development, explicitly or implicitly, has always been a
fundamental objective of Indian HEis, for instance, by catering to the cause of
social justice, ensuring equity and increasing access to higher education.
Fostering global competencies among students
Lately, the progresses embraced in the global state of affairs have been so vivid,
that the NAAC was rather compelled to rope into its scope of assessment, the
development of skills of students in India such that their skills are at par with
those of their counterparts abroad. With liberalization and globalization of
economic events, the need to develop human resources of high calibre and
evidently, the demand for higher education at nationally comparable and
internationally acceptable standards has skyrocketed. Therefore, the HEis
should prepare students with global competencies to lucratively hug success in
the changing world order. This requires them to be innovative, creative and
entrepreneurial in their approach to skills-development among students. Let
theory and practise meet-should be the motto!
Inculcating a value system in students
Although skills development is critical to the success of students in the job
market, skills are worthless in the absence of an appropriate value system. HEis
have the responsibility of inculcating an appreciable value system in students.
In a country like India with cultural pluralities and diversities, it is essential that
students imbibe values commensurate with social, cultural, economic and
environmental realities at the local, national and universal levels.
Promoting the use of technology
Most of the noteworthy developments that one can observe today can be
attributed to the impact of science and technology. While the pros of using
modern tools in everyday life are well recognized, the use of technology in our
way of 'learning' and 'administering' leaves much to be desired. The degree of
use of technological innovations in educational transactions, both academic and
administrative, signifies that our system of education is still not in terms with
new technology. Obviously., archetypal modes of delivering higher education

94
have become inadequate. To keep pace with the developments in other spheres
of human endeavour, HEis have to build on the recent technological
developments and enrich the learning experiences they provide to students.
Conscious effort is needed to invest on hardware and to train the faculty
suitably to overcome their initial reluctance in using anything new and gadget-
oriented. On top of using technology as a learning resource, administering the
activities of the institution in a technology-enabled pattern is sure to contribute
to effective institutional functioning.
Quest for excellence
While contributing to nation building and development of students, institutions
should also demonstrate the drive to develop themselves into centres of
excellence.
Higher education is the backbone of any society. It is the quality of higher
education that decides the quality of human resources in a country. Higher
education, as we see today, is a complex system facilitating teaching, research,
extension and international collaboration and mutual understanding.

3.6 Role of Teachers in Higher Education

"The aim r~f' teaching is simple: it is to make student learning possible ... To teach
is to make an assumption about tvhat and how the student learns; therefore, to
teach well implies learning about students' learning"
-Ramsden, 1992
Superior faculty is a must for any higher educational institution aspiring for
quality. It is high time that an Indian Higher Educational Service, along the
lines of the lAS, is established. This has the advantage of quality control of the
teaching faculty for higher education. A new Human Resource Development
Policy shall be evolved to facilitate this. This could assure that there is
continuous infusion of young blood in to the teaching cadre; which is not
happening at the moment. With some restrictions on faculty appointments, the

95
present evil of inbreeding can be eliminated. The inbreeding is responsible for
25
the devastation many departments at Indian Universities .

As in economics, we make use of the Latin phrase 'ceteris paribus', signifying,

all other things remaining constant, at the university level or the graduate level
(under/ post), we are bound to assume the motivation and discipline shall
remain fixed at a high level. They are expected to bring their own, already
developed cognitive abilities to bear on the subject matter. Nevertheless, the
pedagogue still has a crucial and necessitating role to play in the process of
student learning, by effectively manoeuvring an ambience conducive enough for
inspiring the students' desire and ability to learn.
The requirement of the teacher in higher education has several dimensions
allied to it:
• It involves the provisiOn of a broad and well laid-out context of
knowledge within which students can site and comprehend the content of
their more specific studies;
• It involves the creation of a learning environment in which students are
encouraged to think prudently and critically and express their thoughts,
and in which they wish to confront and resolve difficulties rather than
gloss over them.
• It involves a constant monitoring and reflecting on the processes of
teaching and student understanding and seeking to nurture them.
Most difficult of all perhaps-it involves aiding students to accomplish their
own aims. and adopt the notion that underlies higher education that students'
learning requires-from their commitment, work, responsibility for their own
learning, and a willingness to accept risks, and that this process has its own
rewards, not the least of which is that learning can be fun!
Pointless to mention. these are not hassle-free tasks, and there is no simple way
to achieve them. The manner in which teachers' teach must be carefully tailored
to suit both that which is to be learnt and those who are to learn it. To add

96
another ingredient- the teaching modes should be the fruit of the aims of
professors, that is, what they expect the students to know, to grasp, to be able to
perform, and to value, our informed conceptions of how students learn, and the
institutional context - with all of its constraints and possibilities - within which
the learning is to be staged. Most teachers will have had familiarity with the
'traditional' university pattern of teaching and learning.
If we focus deeply on the teaching process, we still come to the conclusion that
there are massive changes in this field as well, and all of them have an influence
on the role of teachers. Primarily, teachers in modern classrooms are no longer
lecturers, but facilitators. Their main objective is to frame goals and organise
the learning process accordingly. Then, in the past, teachers used to follow a
syllabus which was compulsory for them. Nowadays, teachers are handed a
National Curriculum, a Core Curriculum and a Local (School) curriculum that
they have to consider But, contrarily, they have absolute freedom to choose the
teaching materials or the textbook, make up a syllabus of their own and teach
their pupils so that they can perform well both at examinations and in life.
Curriculum design is a task teachers have to be geared up for, although the
present generation of teachers has been growing into making up syllabi for
years ::!6 .
Learning should more often than not, be vta audio-visual mode. It reqmres
teachers and professors well-bestowed with the skills required to handle
computer peripherals. Adequate and frequent workshops and seminars in this
regard allow them to be up-to-date with the technology of today. This aspect is
simultaneously linked with infrastructural and economic problems, which is
further, tied to political forces, which is the basic essence of it all!
One of the greatest challenges for teachers is that their role in the institutional
management has also changed. The institution needs them as individuals, who
can make decisions and cope with the stress of the changing scenario. At the
same time teachers need to be able to work in teams, co-operate with colleagues
and parents, they have to write projects to gain money for the school

97
programmes, they are not required to be PR experts and need to do all these
things for a modest monthly income.
In fact, the success of a teacher will be at that point when, quality education is
imparted to every single child-that is when the economic value of good quality
education can be harnessed in its true potential. The present is at almost at
opposite poles-there lies the grievance!

3. 7 Indian Higher Education Scenario

By global standards, India is doing fairly well. It runs the third largest higher
educational system and has the third largest pool of skilled manpower in the
world, despite the fact that only 7.2% of the youth in the 17 to 23 age-group
have access to higher education. It is important for us to note that the
educational structure in India operates at all conceivable levels from pre-school
to post -doctoral is of colossal proportions. According to a World Bank report,
there are more than 7,40,000 formal schools; more than 3.6 million teachers are
working on full time basis; there are more than 175 Universities offering under-
graduate and post-graduate courses and about 6000 colleges affiliated to these
. . . "7
umversitles- .
Hence we need to focus on numbers and statistical data. There has been growth
over the breath of years, no doubt, but, this growth should have been more
concrete and devoid of flaws. Now, the ''Strategies and Schemes during
Eleventh Plan Period (2007-2012) for Universities and Colleges" has recently
been published (January 2011) by the University Grants Commission, New
Delhi. Our Honourable Prime Minister, Dr. Manmohan Singh labelled the
Eleventh Plan as "Education Plan" and described it as "Second Wave" in the
development of higher education, which is reflected in setting a target 15 per
cent of enrolment rate. This is further backed by a quantum jump in the
financial allocation from Rs. 3294 crores during the Tenth Plan to Rs. 46,449
crores in the Eleventh Plan. The unprecedented expansion in institutional
capacity is ret1ected in the establishment of about 1464 new educational

98
institutions --comprising 30 central universities, 8 IITs, 7 liM, 20 NITs, and 20
lilT's, 3 IISER, 2 Schools of Planning & Architecture, 374 model colleges and
1000 Polytechnics 2x. We shall now delve a little deeper into the important
constituents of the Indian higher education system in little more detail.

.G.r.f!.Jf.fh...QfJ!IJ:ir.~r.~.!.t~~§.l'l.l.'!:4.~f!.
29

According to the University Grants Commission, the latest official data on

students and colleges in India portrays a healthy growth in terms of institutional
capacity. Between 2004 and 2009, the number of colleges has increased by
nearly 9,000 and student enrolment by 3.65 million students 30 .
Boiling down to the same fact-this vigorous growth in numbers again has its
share of paradoxes and problems. It thus becomes obvious that when contrasted
to other growth indicator like GDP, higher education has gravely lagged behind.
Yet, there are indications of overcapacity and disenchantment. Over past six
decades, India has traversed a long distance on the path of expanding the
institutional capacity in higher education (as in Table 3.1). In the year 1950, the
country had just 25 university-level institutions; this figure has soared up to 417
in 2007, which nearly equalls a 17-fold increase. The growth of degree colleges
during the period has been even larger-nearly 30-times. The number of
colleges has skyrocketed from 700 to 25,951!

99
TABLE 3.1: Institutions of Higher Education and their Intake Ca~acity

Capacity Indicators 1950 1991 2004 2006 2009

No. of University level

25 177 320 367 467
institutions

No. of colleges 700 7346 16,885 18,064 25,951

""
No. of teachers (in thousands) 15 272 457 488 588

No. of students enrolled (in

0.1 4.9 9.95 11.2 13.6
million)

*Total university level institutions by 01.07.2010 add up to 534

In India, university-level institutions widely differ in terms of their structure and
coverage (as illustrated in Table 3.2). These could be sub-divided into six broad
groups (in the year 2009):
Central universities (40)
State universities (234)
Deemed universities (128)
Institutions of national importance, established under central legislation (39),
Institutions of national importance, established under state legislation (5), and
Private universities (21)
The diversity is thus, apparent and perceptible.

100
TABLE 3.2: University-level Institutions in India

Type 2002 2006 2007 2009 2010

Central universities 18 20 25 40 41

State universities 178 217 231 234 257

Deemed universities 52 102 102 128 1304

Institutions of National Importance

5 5 5 5 5
(by State Legislation)
Institutions of National Importance
12 . 13 33 39 39
(by Central Legislation)

Private Universities 10 21 21 61

TOTAL 265 367 367 467 533

*The figures for 2010 are up to 01.07.2010

Equally wide is the disciplinary-orientation of the universities in the country.

Available data (as in Table 3) reveals that most universities (54 per cent) are
multi-disciplinary in character. Another 6.3 per cent universities (women
universities and the open universities) are also multi-disciplinary, while the rest
are discipline specific (Agriculture, Engineering, Law and Medical of the
others).

101
TABLE 3.3: Central and State Universities and their Disciplinary-
orientation
Type Number Percentage
General (multi-disciplinary) 126 54
Agricultural, veterinary and fishery 39 16.7
Technological 14 6
Language 11 5
Medical 9 4
Law 6 2.6
Woman (multi -disciplinary) 5 1.3
Open 11 5
Others 16 5.7
TOTAL 237 100

It may be noted in this connection that, with the exception of the Agriculture
and Medical Universities, which are supported and overseen by the Ministries
of Agriculture and of Health & Family Welfare respectively, the rest of the
universities are under the purview of the UGC.
One of the noteworthy features of higher education in India has been the system
of affiliation . There are 'unitary' universities (with or without constituent or
associated colleges), as well as affiliating universities. The latter recognize and
facilitate colleges sited in district and sub-divisional towns, or even distant
places, which would have remained, otherwise, unattended.
The state universities have been forerunners in this regard. Yet there are many a
few central universities which are affiliating in character. Over the years,
affiliated colleges have played a vital role in ensuring access to higher education
by a large population in the four quarters of the country- over 85 per cent of
the students are enrolled in these colleges. At present, there are 6 central
universities and 114 state universities which are affiliating in character.

102
However, several state universities have an unwieldy number of affiliated
colleges. Reportedly, in 2004, Osmania University had 607 affiliated colleges,
and Dr. Hari Singh Gaur University, 890. Doubtless, a system of this kind
burdens these universities with administrative work .

.Gr.9.Jf.[!.!..J!l.!!..~gr.gf!._ . f..Q.!.!.!!.K.~J.•.Lr!:.l.!!:.4ig
As pointed out earlier, the number of colleges in India has increased from about
700, in the year 1950, to a whopping 25,951, in 2009 31 • On an average, the
country has approximately 5 colleges for every 2 development blocks.
The following table (Table 3.4) probes into the depths of the colleges in India.
TABLE 3.4: Number of Colleges in India

Type 2005 2006 2009

Total number of colleges 17,625 18,064 25,951

Colleges recognized under Section 2(f) of the

5,589 6,109 7,176
UGC Act
Colleges eligible to rece1ve development
5,273 5,525 5,936
grants u/s 12(B) of the UGC Act

Out of these, 7,178 colleges are recognised by the UGC under Section 2(f) of
the UGC Act and 5,936 colleges are eligible to receive development grants
under Section 12(B) of the UGC Act.

.Gr.9..~!.!.!.J!l.I.~.q_f..!!.~r...!f..
In 2007, there were close to five lakh faculty teachers in universities and
colleges. If spoken in general, this makes for a student-teacher ratio of 22:1,
although this ratio is relatively on lower side (18: 1).
As Fig 3.1 reveals, the proportion of Professors and Readers in university
teaching departments and colleges is distinctly larger than in affiliated colleges.
Going by student-teacher ratio or the proportion of senior faculty members,

103
university teaching departments and colleges have a greater probability of
ensuring 'quality' in higher education.

Fig 3.1: FACULTY MEMBERS IN UNIVERSITIES/COLLEGES

FACULTY MEMBERS IN UNIVERSITIES/COLLEGES

(AS OF 2006)

()I"JIJ,;R<;
J.l~.

nnt t: K ~
2.!'%

I'ROn:~SOII .I
~ . 9o/.

AFFILIATED COLLEGES U'IVERSITY DEPARTMENTS/ COLLEGES

(N=4,09,184) (l\=78,818)

There clearly exists dearth in the number of professors in affiliated colleges.

This indeed underlines the strict requirement for meeting greater educational
achievements on the part of the teachers, so as to raise those figures. It may be
noted that 57% of college professors lack a PhD degree 31 • This might well be
reflected in the standards of education imparted and evidently, the quality of
education deteriorates significantly.
We shall now look into the teacher-student ratio in higher education 32 .

104
Fig 3.2 Teacher- Student Ratio In Higher Education
25
TEACHER-STUDENT RATIO IN HIGHER EDUCATION

20

15

10 - ll.l
16.8 17.5
15.1 15.7
14.1 14.1
11.6
5

.,.0:-1
0
1965-66 1970-71 1975-76 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1993-94 1996-97

.G.r..!!..W..t!l...gf,fi_[y_fl.~!J.!ri.
At the macro-level, estimates of the number of students in higher education tend
to vary with the source of information. To elucidate, the Census of India, 2001,
estimated 160.9 lakh students undergoing degree and equivalent programme;
the National Sample Survey Organization, in 2003-04, 161 lakh; and Selected
Educational Statistics, in 2005, 104 lakh.
The estimates of students among the three sources differ in their methods of
data collection. Thus, while selected education statistic's data is confined to post
higher secondary degrees, the population census and national sample survey are
based on house household survey and include, beside degree, short duration
diplomas and certificate level courses. As per selected Educational Statistics,
136 lakh students were enrolled in institutions of higher education in 2008-09.
We are aware of the fact that India has the third largest system of higher
education in the world after China and the US in terms of enrolment which is
around 11.6 million (2007-08). If we focus our eyes on the MBA sector, it
would be interesting to note that with over 1,500 B-schools and about 100,000
MBA (Master of Business Administration) graduates passing out every year, the
aspirants for MBA admission are growing exponentially. Indian Institute of

105
Management (liM) alone cannot match up with the growing number of MBA
applicants, and hence, many B-schools are coming up in the country to
capitalise the market potential. In fact, in 2008, more than 2,50,000 appeared for
Common Admission Test (CAT) test. The student- seat ratio comes out to
approximately 1:170. It is clearly reflective of the tremendous demand for other
B-schools in the country as is evident from Table (3.5) which gtves an
understanding of the enrolment in higher education all over India 33 .

TABLE 3.5: All India Growth of Students Enrolment in Higher Education

{1984 to 2009}
Increase over the
Year Total Enrolment Percentage
preceding year
1984-1985 34,04,096 96,447 2.9
1985-1986 36,05,029 2,00,933 5.9
1986-1987 37,57,158 1,52,129 4.2
1987-1988 40,20, l59 2,63 ,001 7.0
1988-1989 42,85,489 2,65,330 6.6
1989-1990 46,02,680 3,17,191 7.4
1990-1991 49,24,868 3,22,188 7.0
1991-1992 52,65,886 3,41 ,018 6.9
1992-1993 55,34,966 2,69,080 5.1
1993-1994 58,17,249 2,82,283 5.1
1994-1995 61,13,929 2,96,680 5.1
1995-1996 65,74,005 4,60,076 7.5
1996-1997 68,42,598 2,68,593 4.1
1997-1998 72,60,418 4,17,820 6.1
1998-1999 77,05,520 4,45,102 6.1
1999-2000 80,50,607 3,45 ,087 4.5
2000-2001 83,99,443 3,48,836 4.3
2001-2002 89,64,680 5,65 ,237 6.7

106
4002-2003 95,16,773 5~52,093 6.2
2003-2004 1,00, 11,645 4,94,872 5.2
2004-2005 1,05,42,262 5J0,617 5.3
2005-2006 1,11 ,37,627 5,95,365 5.6
2006-2007 1'18,87 ,095 7,49,468 6.7
2007-2008 1,27 ,27,082 8,39,987 7.0
2008-2009 1,36,41,808 9,14,726 7.2

Now, the following table (Table 3.6) depicts the Stage-wise student's enrolment
in Higher Education for the last three years 2006 to 2009.

TABLE 3.6: Stage-wise Enrolment of Students in Higher Education

Stage 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Graduate 10325839 11033966 11908151

Post-Graduate 1094060 1145940 1489685

Research 74320 82277 95872

Diploma I Certificate 118286 114535 148100

GRAND TOTAL 11612505 12376718 13641808

Table 3.7 indicates the stage-wise Students enrolment m higher education

during the academic year 2008-09.

107
TABLE 3.7: Stage-wise Enrolment of Students in Higher Education
Faculty Total Enrolment Percentage to Total
Arts 5875532 43.07
Science · 2612406 19.15
Commerce/Management 2486901 18.23
Education 286478 2.10
Engineering I
1313706 9.63
Technology
Medicine 446087 3.27
Agriculture 80482 0.59
Veterinary Science 21827 0.16
Law 381971 2.80
Others 136418 1.00
TOTAL 13641808 100.00

Over the previous six decades, India has undoubtedly taken long strides in
promoting higher education. Large-scale expansion has taken place at the
aggregate level: 477 university-level institutions and 20,677 colleges. During
2006-07, the enrolment in higher education was estimated to be over 14 mjllion.
Nonetheless, the demand far exceeds the capacity of the institutions of higher
education. Furthermore, these data positions provide a little different picture
when exarllined in terms of population.
Attention may be drawn towards the status of post-senior secondary enrolment
in the country. As per Selected Education Statistics (SES), gross enrolment rate
(GER) in higher education , in the year 1950-51, was just 0.7 per cent, which has
steadily moved up over the decades. The Selected education statistic shows that
the GER has increased to about 11 per cent in 2006-07. The National Sample
Survey Organisation (NSS O) estimates, come with an estimate of 10.84 per cent
for the age-group of 18-23 years in 2004-05 .These estimates are confined to

108
graduation and above only. These estimates refer to post higher secondary
degree and diploma, (post graduate or three to four duration courses) and if we
include other diplomas and certificate sensational sample survey and also
population census give GER of about 13 to 14 per cent.
In 2005, the UNESCO reported India as having 11.3 per cent GER, as against
23.2 per cent world average. Fig 3.3 brings out that the situation of many
Asian countries like China (19 per cent) and Malaysia (29 per cent) was much
better, what to say of the United Kingdom (60 per cent) or the United States of
America (82 per cent). Although India has accomplished much in higher
education, more remains to be accomplished. This becomes abundantly clear
when we take a look at the spatial distribution of enrolment ratios.
Fig 3.3- Gross Enrolment Ratio In Different Countries

GER IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES IN 2005

80

60

0 -------------------------------

20

0
INDIA CHINA MALAY ASIA UNITED lNITED STATES
KINGDOM

While the growth of higher education in India over the past six decades has
been sizeable, it has hardly been uniform or equitable. This assertion draws
support from several perspectives. For instance, several significant disparities
have been noted between rural and urban areas. and some kind of vertical
divide is observed between rural and urban areas.

109
.G.r..!!..~fh: ..9l.f.l!..P.l!f. g!P..f!.n4it.~~r..~.
In India over the last fifty years there have been major changes in the level of
financing of education and in priorities attached to different sectors within it.
The UGC undertook a study about the financing of higher education and
emphatically suggested to the government that the financial allocation to higher
education in the country, through successive 'plans', was clearly much lower
than what has been recommended by various commissions and committees as
well as by accepted international standards. And if the target of 15 per cent
gross enrolment ratio (GER) is to be achieved, a significant increase in the
allocation to higher education, close to targeted 1 per cent of the GDP on higher
education, is called for. The UGC made estimate of financial requirement of 15
per cent target and suggested an allocation of about Rs. 56,362 cores.
It is worth mentioning that a significant break from the past has been made.
Under the Tenth Plan, the financial allocation for higher education was about
Rs. 3,294 crores; as against this the financial allocation under the Eleventh Plan
34
has gone up to Rs. 46,449 crores .We shall hence, discuss on the sources of
finance related to the funding on higher education in India. There are several
important sources of education finance - the public sector which comprises
expenditure by the central government, the state governments and the local
bodies, foreign aid which is transferred primarily through central government
budgets and the private sector financed largely by individual households and, to
a smaller extent, non-profit and for- profit private sector. We shall essentially
focus on public expenditure on education by the centre and the states.
Initially education was the responsibility of individual states, but in 1976 it was
placed in the Concurrent List (denoting joint responsibility of both central and
state governments). While the States still bear the lion's share of expenses on
education, their share in the total has been declining after 2000-01 (from 87.7
per cent in 2000-01 to 75.7 per cent in 2005-06: Budget estimate), while
Centre's share has shown a jump (from 12.3 per cent to 24 per cent during the
same period). This is illustrated in the following Fig 3.4.

II 0
Fig 3.4: SHARE OF THE CENTRE AND STATES IN EDUCATION
EXPENDITURE

DIAGRAM 3.4: Share of the Centre and States in Education

l.(l
_.-,
j(j
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

_____......--
<: cD
..••
<>
~t
~~

.:c:

..
'f)
_Q
___.•......._...._ . . . .__-4.>------•--+---.
. . . .-- •
'Cf<:· '19:. '9~ ·~ss- ~~ '49/ 1~4,.:~ 13'H· 2'XX- 20C'. 2C•O:- 2C03- 2004- 28~5.-
.:,3 :£
'"
:::,< ("~~ Ctf, 97 9' 'A 20C>C• )' ~2 04 85
·RE EE
-+-Share~~ centres E>pendtUre • Share of Stales ExpenCtture

It is evident that the expenditure patterns of both the central government as well
as the state governments have to be examined to get an idea of the total
expenditure.
Following two constitutionae 5 amendments in 1993, more power has been
invested with rural and urban local bodies making elementary education a
responsibility of these bodies. These local bodies are largely funded by the
respective state governments but they also spend resources raised at their level.
While in rural areas own resources raised by local bodies is a small proportion
of their total revenue (3.6 per cent in 1997-8), it is much higher in urban areas
(nearly two-thirds) (Rao, 2000). However the resources and expenditures of
local bodies vary from state to state (Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra
accounting for a major share) and though it is possible to estimate their
budgeted expenditure on education, it is not possible to estimate the extent to
which this is funded from their own resources. So their expenditure has not been
included in this expenditure analysis.
External aid is an important source of education financing. In relation to the
total magnitude of education finance this had been insignificant before the
introduction of economic reforms in the 1990s. Its role had changed since then.
Earlier focused on technical and vocational education, external resources are
now increasingly directed at elementary education 36 .

1I I
3.8 Concluding Remarks
Considering both the multitude and the magnitude of the snags that Indian
higher education is faced with, it would be easy to be overwhelmed by the
problems and to despair of finding solutions. At the same time, given the
tremendous potential of India's booming industry and technology and the
considerable progress made in higher education and research in recent decades,
it would also be easy to reach a state of exuberance and expect that, somehow,
India will surmount these difficulties. Neither of these two reactions appears
warranted on the basis of a sober assessment of the situation. The problems
India faces in higher education and research are indeed very real and very
serious; they will not go away by themselves, nor are they amenable to easy and
routine solutions. Serious effort has to drive the force ahead and reach the
pinnacles of success.
For them to be overcome seems to demand not only massive rearrangements in
both the provision and the utilization of public as well as private resources, but
also profound and durable changes in institutional cultures inside and outside
higher education. At the same time, the gains to be derived from overcoming
these problems and from forging strongly in the direction of an internationally
competitive system of higher education and research are tremendous.
Dr. Mashelkar' s vision on India becoming "the world's number one knowledge
production centre" is extraordinarily ambitious, but by no means beyond reach;
for this vision to be achieved will require an unprecedented effort on the part of
everybody concerned, especially if it is to be reached by as early as 2020.
Improvements have been noted over the previous decade. The Union Budget,
2011 is a classic illustration to back this statement, where, India plans to raise
its expenditure in the education sector by about a quarter to Rs 520.6 billion
(USD 11.50 billion) in the next financial year, reinforcing the country's push to
create a skilled workforce to keep up with fast-paced growth 37 .
All of the present problems shun aside, India has a number of assets that appear
to bode well for living up to that challenge. Having built up a modern system of

112
higher education and research virtually from scratch since independence has
been a major achievement and should be a solid predictor of future growth.
Furthermore, and especially for an outside observer, one of the most impressive
aspects of the current situation in Indian higher education is the emergence of
an extraordinarily lively and critical discourse on the further direction that the
Indian system of higher education should take. This critical discourse, some of
which has found its way into the present paper, is fully cognizant of the
problems the system faces, but is also a very valuable source of ideas and
proposals for change. It appears that, in many ways, the work of the National
Knowledge Commission is aggregating this discourse into actionable proposals
for India's body politic. The decisions that are going to be taken on these and
similarly bold proposals are likely to hold the key to India's future as a centre of
knowledge production.
Educaltion is the foundation for a vibrant democracy in which all
informed citizens exercise their franchise to support the internal growth of the
nation, its constructive role in the world community. It is the foundation for
growth in productivity, incomes and employment opportunities, and for the
development, application and adaptation of sciences and technology to enhance
the quality of life. Education is thus the foundation for the access to the benefits
of the information revolution that would open up vistas to the whole world.

End References:

1
"Quality Assurance m Higher Education: An Introduction", National
Assessment and Accreditation Council

Bangalore, India and Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver, Canada. By Dr.

Sanjay Mishra. NAAC, Jun 2006.

113
2
"Teacher Empowerment &Quality in Private Institutes of Higher Education",
International Referred Research Journal, April, 2011, ISSN-0975-3486, and
RNI: RAJBIL 2009/30097, VOL-II *ISSUE 19, Pandey Ajay and Bhalla Parul.

3
"Higher Education in India: Reflections on some Critical Issues", Hans N.
Weiler, Stanford University, First Edition (2005)

4
Kothari Commission ( 1966), GOl, 1966, p. 497-8

5
"Learning: The Treasure Within", Report to UNESCO of the International
Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century, UNESCO, 1996.

6
''History of Higher Education in India", Accessed: Jul 13, 2011
<http://www.indianetzone.com/38/history higher education india.htm>

7
National Knowledge Commission (NKC) 2007, 48. For similar assessments
from various angles, see Kapur and Mehta 2004; Tilak 1997 and 2004; Agarwal
2006; Singh 2004.

s Chronicle of Higher Education (CHE), July 6, 2007, A38; on the basis of a

summary of several studies, a recent analysis concludes that "the overall state of
Indian higher education is dismal and therefore poses a severe constraint on the
supply of qualified manpower" (Agarwal 2006, ii). lt should be pointed out,
however, that problems of quality are by no means limited to higher education;
a ILO-sponsored study of India's Industrial Training Institutes (ITis) in three
Indian states (Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra), for example, revealed
serious deficits in both their internal and their external efficiency (ILO 2003 ).

9
OECD, Education at a Glance 2006. Paris: OECD, 2006, Table A.3.1 (some
care is advised in the comparison of these statistics, as they are gathered
differently in different countries). Agarwal (2005, Table AS, p. 158) has
compared, on the basis of UNESCO data, "gross enrolment ratios" (the ratio of
total enrolment in higher education to the population of the appropriate age

114
group ( 17I 18 to 23/24 years); on that measure, in 2002-2003, India has a ratio of
12 per cent, compared to 16 for China, 51 for Germany, and 83 per cent for the
US.

10
National Knowledge Commission 2007, pp. 43-44

11
CHE, June 15, 2007 (Volume 53, Issue 41, Page A40); total government
expenditure on higher education (UGC, central government, state government)
in 2005 has been calculated as amounting to 186,100 Rs. crores or
approximately $45 billion (Agarwal 2006, Table A8, p.159; cf. Kapur and
Mehta 2004,4-5 and Tilak 2004, 2160).

12
NKC 2007, 54; see also Khemani and Narayan 2006, 4; Kapur and Mehta
2004, passim; Agarwal 2006, 76-1 02; Kaul 2006, 31 ff.

13
Critiquing the Regulatory Regime, The Indian Express, July 15, 2005
(http://www. indianexpress.com/res/web/pie/full_story. php ?content_id= 74416):
see also the other two parts of his three-part series on regulation in higher
education: Part I - Regulating Higher Education (June 14, 2005:
http://www .indianexpress.com/res/web/ple/full_story. php?content_id=7 4357 );
Part III How to Build Quality Institutions (June 16, 2005:
bJtp_;f(~ww .ipdi<}nexpress.qJm/res/web/pie/full story.php?c9ntent id= 74486 ).

14
Central Advisory Board of Education, 2005.

15
http://www.isb.edu/.

16
http://ppce.ac.in/Society.htm

17
http://www.symbiosis.ac.in/

18
CHE July 13, 2007. A-26-29.

19
Kapur and Mehta 2004, 33' (Table 5); cf. Sengupta 2006.

115
20
Medical Council of India

21
"How to Save the World's Back Office", by Sramana Mitra of Forbes, Mar
14, 2008.

22
Kapur and Mehta (2004, 13; 18ff.) who characterize this dilemma as
"oscillating between half-baked socialism and half-baked capitalism, with the
benefits of neither" (ibid.); see also Tilak 2004, 2163-2164.

23
Even the prestigious IITs are reported to face a faculty shortage of 20 to 35
per cent (Sinha 2002).

24
"Quality Assurance m Higher Education: An Introduction", National
Assessment and Accreditation Council Bangalore, India and Commonwealth of
Learning, Vancouver, Canada. By Dr. Sanjay Mishra. NAAC, Jun 2006.

25
''Higher Education in India: Issues, Concerns and New Directions",
Recommendations of UGC Golden Jubilee Seminars- 2003 held At Eleven
Universities in India, December 2003.

26
"The Role of Teachers m the 21st Century", Sens Public, Revue
Internationale-International Web Journal <http:/fwww.sens-
public.org/spip.php?article667>

27
ht!Q://wwyd1.igl}ereducationinindia.com/ Accessed on: August 07, 2011

2
x http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/stategies/HEistategies.pdf Accessed on: August 07,
2011

29
http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/stategies/HEistategies.pdf Accessed on: August 07,
2011

:1o h!!p://w\\~~.dreducation.com/20 11 /05/indian-higher-education-statistics.html

Accessed on: August 07, 2011
'--'

116
31
http://www . ugc.ac.in/pub/stategies/HEistategies.pdf Accessed on: August 08,
2011

32
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclucation m India Accessed on: August 08,
2011

33
Source: Higher Education in India: Vision and Action: Country Paper, Indian
National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO, Department of
Education, J\tlHRD, GOI, New Delhi.
34
Industry Insight: Higher Education in India: May 2009. By Cygnus Business
Consulting & Research Pvt. Ltd (Cygnus).

35
http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/stategies/HEistategies.pdf Accessed on: August 09,
2011

6
-' "By the 73rd and 74th Amendments to the Constitution, bodies of local self-
government ~ Panchayati Raj bodies for rural and municipal bodies for urban
areas, respectively ~ were accorded Constitutional status, in 1993. The
Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules of the Constitution provide illustrative lists of
items which may, by law, be devolved on these local bodies. The Eleventh
Schedule lists Education up to the Secondary level, Vocational Education, and
Adult and Non-Formal Education, among others, for devolution to Panchayati
Raj bodies." Source: website of higher education department of Ministry of
Human Development, India (Education.nic.in)

37
RECOUP Working Paper No.l8: Public Expenditure on Education in India:
Recent Trends and Outcomes. By Anuradha De and Tanuka Endow
Collaborative Research and Dissemination (CORD), India. 2008.

38
The Economic Times, lVlon Feb 28, 2011.

I I7