Lyceum of the Philippines University, Manila

2nd Year, ETHICS

The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle

Book 2: Virtue ethics
(excellence vs. habit)

Group 6

Gabriel, Vinz
Magdaraog, Bien
Nabo, Charithea

Professor Laurio, Jeric Gliponeo

Source: NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS BOOK 2; SECTORS 1-3
by Aristotle, translated by Robert Williams , BA. (1869)

I. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 1 (Excellence vs. Habit)

Two kinds of Virtue:

1. Intellectual Virtue – which Aristotle described it as something that we acquire through

passage of birth, growth, and practice by which we then call the perfection of it as
Excellence.

2. Moral Virtue – on the other hand is acquired by Habit. Aristotle argues that moral
virtue is an act of habit that is hard to change because it is by in our nature that we do
these acts and that the law of nature dictates that nothing can be changed forcibly.

 All habits are formed by acts of like nature to themselves. So, it is our duty to see that our
acts are right.
 We become moral by doing an act of moral. We become brave by doing something brave,
we become good by doing something that is good, etc.
 That is why we must build a good character from youth up. Practicing good values
becomes good habit there for in its peak is the excellence.

II. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 2 (Right Reason, Excess and Defect)

 Aristotle argues that to be virtuous we must mold our acts into doing what is virtuous.
Giving an act a right reason to do such act.
 Acts determine the character of our habits. One must observe their acts and measure them
as Excess, Mean, and Defect.

Excess – too much.

Mean – just enough.
Defect – too little.

 Human actions as Excess and Defect are prejudicial, for too much and too little are alike
bad for our strength and in health. (Example: Exercising too much or too little; Drinking
too much alcohol is bad…)
 Excess and Defect are destroyed by perfecting Moderation (Mean)
III. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 3 (Pleasure and Pain)

 Mentions that as Plato Says, we ought to have been trained from our youth up to feel
pleasure and pain in fitting objects.
 Actions is followed by our emotions, and emotions are concerned with pleasure and pain.
Therefore, saying that pleasure and pain are related to virtues.
Pleasure = Reward; must feel good
Example:
Rewarding a child whenever they ace the tests, will give the child a sense of achievement because
of said reward. Then with continuous act of studying it will engrave in the child’s mind that what
comes after will always be good.
Pain = Punishment which is intended for moral medicine. To correct what is wrong.
Example:
Teaching a child that stealing is wrong, therefore an adult gives a proper punishment befitting that
would engrave in the child’s mind that stealing is wrong. And through growth it becomes a habit
for that child to not steal, because then he/she will remember that punishment will come after.
 Thus, then have we shown that virtue is concerned with pleasure and with pains; and that,
if the acts from which it has its birth continue to be done in like manner, it waxes and
otherwise, it wanes; and further that the field wherein its acts lie is the same as that from
which it had its birth.

Source: NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS BOOK 2; SECTORS 4-6

by Aristotle, translated by F. H. Peters, M.A. 5th Edition

IV. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 4 (Virtuous Character)

 What is the difference between virtuous actions and virtuous character?

i) Aristotle argues that any truly virtuous action requires the actor or "agent" to be in the
right state of mind. The person has to know he or she is doing the right thing, decide to
do the right thing, and act "from a firm and unchanging state." By contrast, when
someone is making something, the product is the only thing that matters.
V. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 5 (Definition of Virtue)

 What exactly is virtue?

i) Since the soul has three conditions—feelings, capacities, and states—virtue is either a feeling,
a capacity, or a state.
ii) Feelings include appetites, emotions, desires, and "whatever implies pleasure or pain."
iii) Capacities are an ability to experience feelings. States are an excess, deficiency, or correct
amount of a feeling.
iv) Virtues and vices are not feelings, since feelings themselves are morally neutral and do not
require any conscious decision.
v) Virtues and vices are not capacities, since we are not born with them. Aristotle concludes
virtues and vices must be states.

VI. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 6 (Virtues of Character)

 How can someone achieve virtues of character?

i) Virtue, specifically, is the state of making a human being good and able to "perform
their functions well." Intermediate states are often determined based on the person or
subject.
ii) Another word for an intermediate state is the "mean" or average.
iii) Virtuous people do not feel too much or too little of an emotion. Their actions are not
excessive or deficient. Instead, they find the right time, the right object, the right
purpose, and the right method for their feelings and actions.
iv) Finding the mean is tricky, since there are many ways to err and only one way to be
correct. Virtue is a state "consisting in ... the mean relative to us." The exceptions are
actions and feelings that are always wrong, like envy, theft, murder, and adultery.

Source: NICHOMACHEAN ETHICS BOOK 2; SECTORS 7 – 9

by Aristotle, translated by F. H. Peters, M.A. 5th Edition

VII. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 7 (Mean)

 Aristotle gives us the definitive silver-lining between generalization and particulars; thus
generalizations must conform with particulars derived from individual capacity of
recognizing/cataloguing virtues.
 Aristotle provides us the Mean and the two extremes of virtues, Excess & Defect:

1. Braveness (mean); Foolhardy (excess); Cowardliness (defect)

2. Temperance (mean); Intemperance (excess); Insensibility/Ascetic (defect)

3. Small matters of money (particular): Liberality (mean); Prodigality (excess);

Illiberality/Stinginess (defect)

4. Large matters of money (particular): Magnificence (mean); Vulgarity

(excess); Pettiness (defect)

5. Small honors (particular): Magnanimity (mean); Vanity (excess); Feebleness

(defect)

6. Large honors (particular): Right amount of honor (mean); Ambitious

(excess); Unambitious (defect)

7. Anger (particular): Calmness/Mildness (mean); Irascibility/Hastiness

(excess); Spirit-less (defect)

8. Truth telling (particular): Truthfulness (mean); Braggartry/Boastfulness

(excess); Self-deprecation (defect)

9. Amusements (particular): Wit (mean); Buffoonery (excess);

Boorishness/Bore (defect)

10. Dignity (particulars): Righteous Indignation (mean); Envious (excess);

Malignity (defect)

11. Daily Interaction (particulars): Friendliness (mean); Flattery (excess);

quarrelsome/bad temper (defect)

VII. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 8

 Aristotle provides a clear analysis of the relationship between three integral division of
moral virtues, (1) the mean, (2) the excess and (3) the deficiency, the two latter formally
called vices. Aristotle further classifies these are the states of mind.
  Aristotle clarifies the contradictory or antagonizing aspects of excess, deficiency, and the
mean as a virtue, contradictory and are formally removed from one another and are thus far
from equal.

EXCESS ----------------X------------------MEAN------------------X--------------------DEFECT

 Aristotle further explains that each individual has, in a natural way, the urges or probable
inclination towards acts of excess or deficiency, rather than the temperament approach to
the virtue’s means or neutral point.

IX. SUMMARY OF BOOK 2 SECTOR 9

 Aristotle proclaims that the path or pursuit of virtue should be one of which an individual
avoids the temptations of vices and defects, examining their natural tendencies primarily
and be conscious of their own choices, i.e., choosing the lesser of two evils.

 Aristotle reminds that everyone is biased (naturally interested) in the pursuit of pleasure
(happiness in a general perspective) whether the choices that leads to it are virtuous or not.