The CELL

The basic unit of structure and function in living organisms is the cell. Because cells are very minute,
they can only be seen under high magnification with the microscope.

While some organisms are very simple, containing a single cell (unicellular), there are some organisms
that are more complex (multi-cellular). In eukaryotes, cells often combine to make tissue and tissues
combine to form organs. These organs may then combine (work together) to form systems.

There are 2 types of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic cells are much simpler, and hence smaller than eukaryotic cells. They do not have an
organized nucleus or the organelles found in eukaryotic cells. Examples of prokaryotes are bacteria.

Since eukaryotic cells are more complex, it means that they have an organized nucleus as well as several
organelles that are not found in prokaryotic cells. Examples of eukaryotes are plants, animals, fungi and
protists.

The diagram below shows the differences between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.
Cell Structures and Organelles

Cell Surface Membrane (plasma membrane)

All cells possess a cell membrane (both prokaryotic and eukaryotic). This is the outermost structure of
the cell which separates the cell from its environment. The cell membrane is a thin partially permeable
bilayer structure (2 layers) which has protein embedded within the layers. The layers are made of
lipids, especially phospholipids and function not only to separate the cell from its outer environment
but also filters the entrance and exit of molecules.

Cytoplasm

This is a semi-liquid material enclosed within the cell membrane. The cell cytoplasm, often described as
jelly-like, essentially acts as a form of support for the cell structures located within the semi-liquid
medium. About 70% of the cytoplasm is water. The entire content of the cell is called protoplasm.

Nucleus

This is the largest cell organelle that is present in both the plant and animal cell however it is absent in
prokaryotic cells. The nucleus is composed mostly of protein and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). This
DNA is the genetic material of the cell and controls its structure and function. DNA is organized into
linear units called chromosomes. The functional parts of each chromosome are called genes. It is
through these genes that genetic material is passed during reproduction.

The nucleus is enclosed by an envelope of two membranes called nuclear membrane (similar to the
cell membrane). Though prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, they do have DNA. This DNA is found
freely in the cytoplasm of the cell, most times wrapped in a tight coil.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is a very important organelle in the cell and is found in both animal and
plants cells. It is responsible for protein and lipid synthesis. There are 2 types of endoplasmic reticulum:
rough and smooth. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes present and is responsible for the
synthesis of proteins. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes present and is
responsible for the synthesis of lipids. In addition to protein synthesis the endoplasmic reticulum is also
used to modify proteins.

The Mitochondrion (plural mitochondria)

The mitochondrion appears as dark spots when viewed under the microscope. The mitochondrion is
elongated and shaped like a sausage. It is referred to as the “power house of the cell” because it
provides energy in the form of ATP through the process of respiration. Cells release energy from foods
during respiration by way of the mitochondrion. This organelle is present in all eukaryotic cells.

Chloroplast

These are large plastid structures containing chlorophyll. They have large internal surface areas and
conduct photosynthesis on their thylakoid membranes. The large surface area increases the amount of
photosynthesis taking place within a given area thus increasing efficiency. Starch grains may be found
within the chloroplast, which have been made as a result of photosynthesis.
Vacuoles

These are small sacs bounded by a single membrane called the vacuolar membrane. Vacuoles contain
cell sap, which is made up of variable amounts of water, mineral salts, sugars, pigments and enzymes
depending on the cell. Vacuoles are present in both the plant and animal cell, but they are much smaller
in the animal cell and are not permanent. The presence of a large vacuole increases the osmotic pressure
of the cell. It is the presence of a large vacuole in a plant cell that causes it to become turgid
(swollen). Plants need turgid cells to aid in support as it does not have a bone structure.

Cell wall

This structure is only found in plant cells. This rigid cell structure gives the cell a regular shape and
prevents it from bursting when the plant cells become swollen. The cell wall is made of cellulose,
which is a polysaccharide. The cell wall encloses/ covers the cell membrane and its contents
(protoplasm). Due to its structural make up its primary function is to provide protection and support to
the cell.

SUMMARY

Name of part Description Where found Function

(supplement
cytoplasm jelly-like, with particles and enclosed by the contains
only) the cell organelles, e.g. mitochondria,
organelles in cell membrane nucleus site of chemical reactions
Animal and

cell membrane a partially permeable layer that around the cytoplasm prevents cell contents from escaping
plant
cells

forms a boundary around the controls what substances enter and leave the cell
nucleus acytoplasm
circular or oval structure inside the cytoplasm controls cell division
containing DNA in the form of controls cell
chromosomes development controls
Plant cells only

cell wall a tough, non-living layer made of around the outside prevents plant cells from bursting
cell activities
cellulose surrounding the cell of plant cells allows water and salts to pass through (freely
vacuole amembrane
fluid-filled space surrounded permeable)
inside the cytoplasm contains salts and sugars
by a membrane of plant cells helps to keep plant cells
chloroplast an organelle containing chlorophyll inside the cytoplasm traps
firm light energy for photosynthesis
of some plant cells

There are many other organelles present in both the animal and plant cells which we have not discussed.
However, at this stage in your studies only these will really be asked for. It would not hurt however to
familiarize yourself with other organelles.

These include:

-Golgi body/apparatus

-Ribosomes

-Lysosome
 Difference between Plant and Animal Cells

Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells. However, there are distinct differences between the
cells found in plants and those found in animals.

The differences between the two types of cells can be seen with a light microscope. Below is a list of
the major differences:

ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS

Does not have a cell Has a cell wall, regular
wall, irregular in in shape
shape
No chloroplast Chloroplast present
present
Small temporary Large vacuoles located
vacuoles or no in the centre of the cell
vacuole
Starch grains not Starch grains present
present
The nucleus is Due to the central
usually located location of the vacuole, TYPICAL ANIMAL CELL
centrally the nucleus of the cell
may be located at the
edge of the cell

TYPICAL PLANT CELL

Similarities between plant and animal cells:

-Both have a cell surface membrane that surrounds the cell.

-Both contain endoplasmic reticulum

-Both have cytoplasm

-Both contain ribosomes

-Both contain a nucleus

-Both contain mitochondria

Specialization of Cells

In living organisms there are millions of cells present. If all the cells in a body were the same and
performed the same functions, there would be some functions that an organism would be unable to
perform. As a result, some of these cells are specialized and grouped together to form tissues which may
form organs. Since each of these tissues and organs perform a specific function, there is a division of
labour and increased efficiency.

Cells are able to perform different functions because of their structure, the proteins they produce and the
organelles present. Since different cells perform different functions a nerve cell, for example, cannot
have the same structure as a white blood cell. This specialization is the same for the organelles within
the cells. In the cell, each organelle has its own role involving its own specialized structure and
chemistry. All the cells and organelles within a cell do their own thing but they all come together for one
purpose and that’s to allow proper body function.

Specialized cells differ in size, shape and function. These modifications of the cell enable it to perform
its task properly. Both plant and animal cells may be specialized for different tasks.

Examples of Specialized cells are:

-Nerve cell

-White blood cell

-Red blood cell

-Fat cells

-Root hair cell

-Palisade cell
NERVE CELL

Cells that perform the same specific functions are grouped together in the body to form tissues. Some
of the main tissues in Man are:
-Muscle
-Nerve
-Connective
-Epithelium

The main tissues in plants are:

-Xylem
-Phloem

Tissues are grouped together to form organs.

Examples of organs in animals are: kidney, liver and stomach.

Examples of organs in plants are: stem, root, leaf.

Organs are then grouped together to form systems.

An example of a system is the excretory system which we will be examining shortly.

From the flow chart above, it can be seen that cells group together to form tissues and tissues form
organs. Organs are grouped together to form systems which collectively form an organism.