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Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted By:

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College
LOGO

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
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SUBMITTED TO: …………………………
Contents
Enrollment no:................................................................................ 5
Chapter: 1 Introduction.................................................................. 6
LITERATURE SURVEY .................................................................... 10
Chapter: 2 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING ................................ 11
Working: ....................................................................................... 14
Computerized implementation:- ................................................. 15
Chapter: 3 Design calculation ...................................................... 19
Chapter: 5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............... 40
Chapter: 6 CONCLUSION .............................................................. 42
Chapter:7 REFERENCES ................................................................ 44
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report entitled “Project Name”

submitted is our original work and the report has not formed the basis
for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or any other
similar title.
Signature:
Name:
Enrollment no:
Date:
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “Project Name” is the
bona fide work carried out by students of “College Name” during the
year 2016 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
Degree of B. Tech. The report has not formed the basis for the award
previously of any degree, diploma, associate ship, fellowship or any other
similar title.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude and heart full thanks
to all those who are helping me in complete this project.
I want to thank to “guide name”, who has always encouraged and
help me in making this project. In addition to this, I am grateful to other
faculties too who made me in right direction and gave me their precious
time and expert guidance whenever necessary through which I could
achieve this extent.
At last but not the least I am feeling glad to say about my family
whose wishes are always with me, without which it was not possible for
me to reach this extent.
I hope my work is praised and my efforts render fruitful result.

THANK YOU
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Chapter: 1
Introduction

Agriculture is most important sector of the Indian economy. It is most

important source of employment for the majority of the work force in the
country. Rice is primary and major crop cultivated in India. As the large
workforce is engaged in this sector, Traditional method is costly, time
consuming and labor intensive work. To make the transplanter system
several attempt has been made to design and fabricate this machine. This
study is focused on design analysis and fabrication of a manually
operated rice transplanter for small scale Indian rice cultivators. By
achieving the goals like simplifying the mechanism, reduce cost and
reduced weight of present rice transplanter. The availability and use of
manual rice transplanter in Western Maharashtra is very rare, so design
of this project is useful to farmers.
A rice transplanter is a specialized machine fitted with a transplanter
mechanism (usually having some form of reciprocating motion) driven by
the power from the live axle, in order to the transplant rice seedlings
onto paddy field. Rice is a major food grain crop of world. Unlike upland
row crops, cultivation of low land rice crop is a labour intensive process.
In spite of the common belief of availability of surplus agricultural labour
in India, there actually exists a scarcity of skilled agricultural workers
during the peak transplanting seasons. If this operation is not done in
time the yield goes down. In view of this, there is an urgent need to
mechanize this operation. The rice translation process is generally
manual which involves number of labour. The process of manual rice
transplantation is not so efficient as compared to the mechanical rice
transplantation. Machine transplanting using rice transplanter requires
considerably less time and labour than manual transplanting. It increases
the approximate area that a person can plant. The distribution of food
grain production which shows the rice production is major in India

Mechanism is needed to raise productivity in rain fed upland and rain fed
lowland and to increase cropping intensity in irrigated farms. Seed drills
give better plant population, reduce cost and give higher yields of rice.
Use of pre-germinated paddy seeders in puddled wetland condition give
similar yield like manual transplanting but reduce labour requirement by
75-80%. The manual and self-propelled transplanter reduces cost of
transplanting by 45-50%.
Chapter 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

For initializing this project, we searched different types of information

regarding of transplanting field with literature review of different
research paper. Our literature review is divided into different field of
analysis like Ergo-Economical analysis of different paddy transplanting
operation, performance of self-propelled rice transplanter and its effect
on crop yield, theoretical development of rice transplanting machine.
This studies were conducted which gives the parameters, specification,
problems arising in already exists transplanter and development & design
methodology of transplanter. The unavailability of the rice transplanter in
western Maharashtra zone gave the reason to find proper research in this
zone and designing transplanter. The unawareness of use of this
transplanter in the farmers which leads
Chapter: 3
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

1) Ground Wheel: - It is wheel which is contact on ground. It mounted

on driver shaft. Its motion gives to the Four Bar Linkage through the
chain drive. On the periphery of this wheel, blade is mounted to achieve
proper grip in mud.

2)Sprockets: - The main function of sprockets is to transmit torque

through chain. There are two sprocket-one drivers and other driven
mounted on respective shafts.

3) Chain: - The function of chain is to transmit torque from driver to

driven sprockets. The chain is simplex type

4) Four Bar Linkage: - In this four bar linkage one link is fixed and other
three linkages are in motion. The links are connecting rod, lever, crank
and planting finger or fork. It is mounted on the driven shaft.

5) Tray: - This is used to store the rice plant from where the planting
finger pick the plant and saw in the ground. This tray has two vertical
guide slots.

6) Planting Finger: - The planting finger is the main element which is

responsible for the plantation of the nursery seed. It has the specific
shape which picks the nursery seed and plant in mud. It oscillates at
certain angle and it is called as fixed fork mechanism.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

fig (a) initial position, fig (b) picking the plant, fig (c) start to lower
down,fig (d) process of lower down, fig (e) start to digging plant, fig (f)
finishing of digging of plant.
Working:

As the process is manual the worker has to provide the initial motion.
When the rice transplanter will move forward the ground wheels will get
rotate. The wheels are provided with the fins so that they can travel
easily in the mud. The ground wheels are used to maintain constant
distance between the two successive plants. Then we have larger
sprocket is provided on the same shaft with the ground wheels and
hence at the same time sprocket will also rotate. The larger sprocket is in
engagement with the smaller sprocket by using the chain drive. As the
power will get transmitted to the smaller sprocket, it will rotate. The
speed is increased from driver to driven shaft as we used 3:1 speed ratio.
On the same shaft planting finger will be fixed through the four bar
linkage so that it will oscillate for certain angle. As the drive is provided
by the worker it will not have high speed and hence through this sprocket
arrangement we have increase the planting finger speed. As the planting
finger will oscillate, it will pick the rice plant from the tray and plant in
mud. The planting finger is designed in such a way that rice plant should
be easy to pick during the motion and also it should pick during the
downward motion only.
Computerized implementation:-

Fig 7 CAD Model of Rice Transplanter mechanism

 Fig 8 Isometric View of CAD Model

Fig 9 Drafting View of Model

Parameters value Unit

Angular velocity of driving sprocket 2.778 Rad/s
Speed of driving sprocket 27 Rpm
Speed of driven sprocket 126 Rpm
Circumference of wheel 942.4 mm
Sprocket velocity ratio 4.7 -
No. of teeth on driving
sprocket 44 -
No. of teeth on driven sprocket 10 -
Distance between two sapling 200 mm
Length of chain 88 Links
Power transmitted by chain (approx.) 0.1 Kw
Linear velocity of chain 0.04238 m/s
Driving shaft diameter 20 mm
Driven shaft diameter 20 mm
No. of sapling plants 2 -

Trial run of transplanter is conducted and from this it is seen the time
taken for transplanting per square meter of paddy field is 56 seconds.

No. of sapling is transplanter per square meter is 135.

Sno Description Size/qty cost
1 Iron chain 2meter 250
2 Iron sprocket 4pcs 400
3 Iron shaft 2feet length/10mm dia 100
4 Rice holder SS string 1meter 300
5 Base plate iron made 2X3 feet 450
6 Handel 4inch two pcs 300
7 Middle holder plate 2X3 feet 450
8 Steel ball bearing 2.5inch dia two pcs 500
9
Chapter: 4
Design calculation
Aluminum
Aluminum or aluminum (in North American English) is a chemical
element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a
silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal. Aluminum is the third
most abundant element in the Earth's crust (after oxygen and silicon) and
its most abundant metal. Aluminum makes up about 8% of the crust by
mass, though it is less common in the mantle below. Aluminum metal is
so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to
extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270
different minerals. The chief ore of aluminum is bauxite.
Aluminum is remarkable for the metal's low density and its ability to resist
corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminum and its
alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and important in transportation
and structures, such as building facades and window frames. The oxides
and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminum.
Despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses
aluminum salts metabolically, but aluminum is well tolerated by plants
and animals.[8] Because of their abundance, the potential for a biological
role is of continuing interest and studies continue
Physical
Aluminum is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile, and malleable
metal with appearance ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending on the
surface roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite. A fresh
film of aluminum serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of
visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and
far infrared radiation. The yield strength of pure aluminum is 7–11 MPa,
while aluminum alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600
MPa.[9] Aluminum has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It
is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded.
Aluminum atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure.
Aluminum has a stacking-fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2.[10]
Aluminum is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the
conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only
30% of copper's density. Aluminum is capable of superconductivity, with
a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic
field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).

Chemical
Corrosion resistance can be excellent because a thin surface layer of
aluminum oxide forms when the bare metal is exposed to air, effectively
preventing further oxidation,[12] in a process termed passivation. The
strongest aluminum alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic
reactions with alloyed copper.[9] This corrosion resistance is greatly
reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.
In highly acidic solutions, aluminum reacts with water to form hydrogen,
and in highly alkaline ones to form aluminates— protective passivation
under these conditions is negligible. Primarily because it is corroded by
dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household
plumbing is never made from aluminum.[13]
However, because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminum is one
of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form,
making it an important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminum
mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm
(UV) and the 3,000–10,000 nm (far IR) regions; in the 400–700 nm visible
range it is slightly outperformed by tin and silver and in the 700–3000 nm
(near IR) by silver, gold, and copper.[14]
Aluminum is oxidized by water at temperatures below 280 °C to produce
hydrogen, aluminum hydroxide and heat:
2 Al + 6 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2
This conversion is of interest for the production of hydrogen. However,
commercial application of this fact has challenges in circumventing the
passivating oxide layer, which inhibits the reaction, and in storing the
energy required to regenerate the aluminum metal.

Cast iron

Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquifies,
and is then poured into a mould to solidify. It is usually made from pig
iron. The alloy constituents affect its colour when fractured: white cast
iron has carbide impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through.
Grey cast iron has graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack and
initiate countless new cracks as the material breaks.

Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the
amount ranging from 2.1–4 wt% and 1–3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys
with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes
these base alloys ternary Fe–C–Si alloys, the principle of cast iron
solidification is understood from the binary iron–carbon phase diagram.
Since the compositions of most cast irons are around the eutectic point of
the iron–carbon system, the melting temperatures closely correlate, usually
ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 °C (2,100 to 2,190 °F), which is about 300 °C
(572 °F) lower than the melting point of pure iron.

Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its
relatively low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent
machinability, resistance to deformation and wear resistance, cast irons
have become an engineering material with a wide range of applications
and are used in pipes, machines and automotive industry parts, such as
cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder blocks and gearbox cases
(declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation
(rust).

The earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were
discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron
was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture. [1]
During the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in
Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation.[2] The first cast
iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, and is
known as The Iron Bridge. Cast iron is also used in the construction of
buildings.

Production

Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial
quantities of scrap iron, scrap steel, lime stone, carbon (coke) and taking
various steps to remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur
may be burnt out of the molten iron, but this also burns out the carbon,
which must be replaced. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon
content are adjusted to the desired levels, which may be anywhere from 2–
3.5% and 1–3%, respectively. Other elements are then added to the melt
before the final form is produced by casting.

Iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a

cupola, but more often melted in electric induction furnaces or electric arc
furnaces.[citation needed] After melting is complete, the molten iron is poured
into a holding furnace or ladle.

Types

Alloying elements

Iron-cementite meta-stable diagram.

Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or

alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it
forces carbon out of solution. Instead the carbon forms graphite which
results in a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength, and decreases
density. Sulfur, when present, forms iron sulfide, which prevents the
formation of graphite and increases hardness. The problem with sulfur is
that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes short run defects. To
counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form
into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is
lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag.
The amount of manganese required to neutralize sulfur is 1.7 × sulfur
content + 0.3%. If more than this amount of manganese is added, then
manganese carbide forms, which increases hardness and chilling, except in
grey iron, where up to 1% of manganese increases strength and density. [3]

Nickel is one of the most common alloying elements because it refines the
pearlite and graphite structure, improves toughness, and evens out
hardness differences between section thicknesses. Chromium is added in
small amounts to the ladle to reduce free graphite, produce chill, and
because it is a powerful carbide stabilizer; nickel is often added in
conjunction. A small amount of tin can be added as a substitute for 0.5%
chromium. Copper is added in the ladle or in the furnace, on the order of
0.5–2.5%, to decrease chill, refine graphite, and increase fluidity.
Molybdenum is added on the order of 0.3–1% to increase chill and refine
the graphite and pearlite structure; it is often added in conjunction with
nickel, copper, and chromium to form high strength irons. Titanium is
added as a degasser and deoxidizer, but it also increases fluidity. 0.15–
0.5% vanadium is added to cast iron to stabilize cementite, increase
hardness, and increase resistance to wear and heat. 0.1–0.3% zirconium
helps to form graphite, deoxidize, and increase fluidity. [3]
In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added, on the scale of 0.002–0.01%, to
increase how much silicon can be added. In white iron, boron is added to
aid in the production of malleable iron; it also reduces the coarsening
effect of bismuth.[3]

Grey cast iron

Main article: Grey iron

Grey cast iron is characterised by its graphitic microstructure, which

causes fractures of the material to have a grey appearance. It is the most
commonly used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on
weight. Most cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.5–4.0% carbon,
1–3% silicon, and the remainder iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile
strength and shock resistance than steel, but its compressive strength is
comparable to low- and medium-carbon steel.

White cast iron

White cast iron displays white fractured surface due to the presence of
cementite. With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and faster
cooling rate, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as
the metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, rather than graphite. The cementite
which precipitates from the melt forms as relatively large particles, usually
in a eutectic mixture, where the other phase is austenite (which on cooling
might transform to martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large
to provide precipitation hardening (as in some steels, where cementite
precipitates might inhibit plastic deformation by impeding the movement
of dislocations through the ferrite matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk
hardness of the cast iron simply by virtue of their own very high hardness
and their substantial volume fraction, such that the bulk hardness can be
approximated by a rule of mixtures. In any case, they offer hardness at the
expense of toughness. Since carbide makes up a large fraction of the
material, white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a cermet. White
iron is too brittle for use in many structural components, but with good
hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it finds use in
such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry
pumps, shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding
mills, balls and rings in coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a backhoe's
digging bucket (although cast medium-carbon martensitic steel is more
common for this application).

It is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify the melt as white
cast iron all the way through. However, rapid cooling can be used to
solidify a shell of white cast iron, after which the remainder cools more
slowly to form a core of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a
chilled casting, has the benefits of a hard surface and a somewhat tougher
interior.

High-chromium white iron alloys allow massive castings (for example, a

10-tonne impeller) to be sand cast, i.e., a high cooling rate is not required,
as well as providing impressive abrasion resistance.[citation needed] These
high-chromium alloys attribute their superior hardness to the presence of
chromium carbides. The main form of these carbides are the eutectic or
primary M7C3 carbides, where "M" represents iron or chromium and can
vary depending on the alloy's composition. The eutectic carbides form as
bundles of hollow hexagonal rods and grow perpendicular to the
hexagonal basal plane. The hardness of these carbides are within the range
of 1500-1800HV[4]

Malleable cast iron

Main article: Malleable iron

Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat treated at
about 900 °C (1,650 °F). Graphite separates out much more slowly in this
case, so that surface tension has time to form it into spheroidal particles
rather than flakes. Due to their lower aspect ratio, spheroids are relatively
short and far from one another, and have a lower cross section vis-a-vis a
propagating crack or phonon. They also have blunt boundaries, as opposed
to flakes, which alleviates the stress concentration problems faced by grey
cast iron. In general, the properties of malleable cast iron are more like
those of mild steel. There is a limit to how large a part can be cast in
malleable iron, since it is made from white cast iron.

Ductile cast iron

Main article: Ductile cast iron

A more recent development is nodular or ductile cast iron. Tiny amounts

of magnesium or cerium added to these alloys slow down the growth of
graphite precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along
with careful control of other elements and timing, this allows the carbon to
separate as spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties
are similar to malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections.
Table of comparative qualities of cast irons

Comparative qualities of cast irons[5]

Yield
Tensil Elongati
Nominal Form streng Hardne
e on [%
compositi and th [ksi ss
Name streng (in Uses
on [% by conditio (0.2% [Brinell
th 2 inches)
weight] n offset) scale]
[ksi] ]
]

Engine
cylinder
Grey
blocks,
cast C 3.4,
flywheels
iron Si 1.8, Cast — 50 0.5 260
, gearbox
(ASTM Mn 0.5
cases,
A48)
machine-
tool bases
White C 3.4,
Cast (as Bearing
cast Si 0.7, — 25 0 450
cast) surfaces
iron Mn 0.6
Axle
Mallea
C 2.5, Cast bearings,
ble iron
Si 1.0, (anneale 33 52 12 130 track
(ASTM
Mn 0.55 d) wheels,
A47)
automoti
 ve
crankshaf
ts

C 3.4, Gears,
Ductile
P 0.1, camshaft
or
Mn 0.4, Cast 53 70 18 170 s,
nodular
Ni 1.0, crankshaf
iron
Mg 0.06 ts
Ductile
or cast
nodular (quench
— 108 135 5 310 —
iron tempere
(ASTM d)
A339)

C 2.7,
High
Si 0.6,
Ni-hard Sand- strength
Mn 0.5, — 55 — 550
type 2 cast applicatio
Ni 4.5,
ns
Cr 2.0
C 3.0,
Resistanc
Ni- Si 2.0,
e to heat
resist Mn 1.0, Cast — 27 2 140
and
type 2 Ni 20.0,
corrosion
Cr 2.5

History
Cast iron artifact dated from 5th century BC found in Jiangsu, China.
Cast iron drain, waste and vent piping
Cast iron plate on grand piano

The earliest cast iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were
discovered by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu
in China. This is based on an analysis of the artifact's microstructures. [1]
Because cast iron is comparatively brittle, it is not suitable for purposes
where a sharp edge or flexibility is required. It is strong under
compression, but not under tension. Cast iron was invented in China in the
5th century BC and poured into moulds to make ploughshares and pots as
well as weapons and pagodas.[6] Although steel was more desirable, cast
iron was cheaper and thus was more commonly used for implements in
ancient China, while wrought iron or steel was used for weapons.[1]

In the west, where it did not become available until the 15th century, its
earliest uses included cannon and shot. Henry VIII initiated the casting of
cannon in England. Soon, English iron workers using blast furnaces
developed the technique of producing cast iron cannons, which, while
heavier than the prevailing bronze cannons, were much cheaper and
enabled England to arm her navy better. The technology of cast iron was
transferred from China. Al-Qazvini in the 13th century and other travellers
subsequently noted an iron industry in the Alburz Mountains to the south
of the Caspian Sea. This is close to the silk route, so that the use of
technology derived from China is conceivable. [7] The ironmasters of the
Weald continued producing cast irons until the 1760s and armament was
one of the main uses of irons after the Restoration.
Cast iron pots were made at many English blast furnaces at the time. In
1707, Abraham Darby patented a method of making pots (and kettles)
thinner and hence cheaper than his rivals could. This meant that his
Coalbrookdale furnaces became dominant as suppliers of pots, an activity
in which they were joined in the 1720s and 1730s by a small number of
other coke-fired blast furnaces.

The development of the steam engine by Thomas Newcomen provided

further market for cast iron, since cast iron was considerably cheaper than
the brass of which the engine cylinders were originally made. John
Wilkinson was a great exponent of cast iron, who, amongst other things,
cast the cylinders for many of James Watt's improved steam engines until
the establishment of the Soho Foundry in 1795.

Cast-iron bridges

See also: The Iron Bridge

The use of cast iron for structural purposes began in the late 1770s, when
Abraham Darby III built the Iron Bridge, although short beams had
already been used, such as in the blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale. Other
inventions followed, including one patented by Thomas Paine. Cast iron
bridges became commonplace as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace.
Thomas Telford adopted the material for his bridge upstream at Buildwas,
and then for a canal trough aqueduct at Longdon-on-Tern on the
Shrewsbury Canal.

It was followed by the Chirk Aqueduct and the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct,

both of which remain in use following the recent restorations. Cast iron
beam bridges were used widely by the early railways, such as the Water
Street Bridge at the Manchester terminus of the Liverpool and Manchester
Railway. Problems arose when a new bridge carrying the Chester and
Holyhead Railway across the River Dee in Chester collapsed in May 1847,
less than a year after it was opened. The Dee bridge disaster was caused by
excessive loading at the centre of the beam by a passing train, and many
similar bridges had to be demolished and rebuilt, often in wrought iron.
The bridge had been erroneously designed, being trussed with wrought
iron straps, which were wrongly thought to reinforce the structure. The
centres of the beams were put into bending, with the lower edge in tension,
where cast iron, like masonry, is very weak.

The best way of using cast iron for bridge construction was by using
arches, so that all the material is in compression. Cast iron, again like
masonry, is very strong in compression. Wrought iron, like most other
kinds of iron and indeed like most metals in general, is strong in tension,
and also tough – resistant to fracturing. The relationship between wrought
iron and cast iron, for structural purposes, may be thought of as analogous
to the relationship between wood and stone.

Nevertheless, cast iron continued to be used in inappropriate structural

ways, until the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879 cast serious doubt on the
use of the material. Crucial lugs for holding tie bars and struts in the Tay
Bridge had been cast integral with the columns and they failed in the early
stages of the accident. In addition, the bolt holes were also cast and not
drilled, so that all the tension from the tie bars was placed on a corner,
rather than being spread over the length of the hole. The replacement
bridge was built in wrought iron and steel.

Further bridge collapses occurred, however, culminating in the Norwood

Junction rail accident of 1891. Thousands of cast iron rail underbridges
were eventually replaced by steel equivalents.

Original Tay Bridge from the north

Fallen Tay Bridge from the north

Iron Bridge over the River Severn at Coalbrookdale, England

The Eglinton Tournament Bridge, North Ayrshire, Scotland, built

from cast iron

Buildings

Main article: Cast-iron architecture

Cast iron columns enabled architects to build tall buildings without the
enormously thick walls required to construct masonry buildings of any
height. Such flexibility allowed tall buildings to have large windows. In
urban centres like SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in New York City,
manufacturing buildings and early department stores were built with cast
iron columns to allow daylight to enter. Slender cast iron columns could
also support the weight that would otherwise require thick masonry
columns or piers, opening up floor spaces in factories, and sight lines in
churches and auditoriums. The historic Iron Building in Watervliet, New
York, is a cast iron building.

Textile mills

Another important use was in textile mills. The air in the mills contained
flammable fibres from the cotton, hemp, or wool being spun. As a result,
textile mills had an alarming propensity to burn down. The solution was to
build them completely of non-combustible materials, and it was found
convenient to provide the building with an iron frame, largely of cast iron,
replacing flammable wood. The first such building was at Ditherington in
Shrewsbury, Shropshire. Many other warehouses were built using cast iron
columns and beams, although faulty designs, flawed beams or overloading
sometimes caused building collapses and structural failures.

During the Industrial Revolution, cast iron was also widely used for frame
and other fixed parts of machinery, including spinning and later weaving
machines in textile mills. Cast iron became widely used, and many towns
had foundries producing industrial and agricultural machinery.
Chapter: 5
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The design of rice trans planter is easy as the basic machine design
knowledge is applied to design the parts like shafts, bearings, wheels,
chain and sprocket assembly and synthesis of four bar mechanism which
uses the standards formulas. The cost of the trans planter is low as
possible because use available and local material which leads to lower
downs the price in case of mass production. The mechanism used is four
bar mechanism in place of cam-follower and rocker-arm mechanism. The
availability and use of trans planter in western Maharashtra makes us to
fabricate the trans planter with minimum cost used by small scale
farmers.
Chapter: 6
CONCLUSION

The rice transplanter which we designed working is found to be

satisfactory. The cost is cheap than motor and hand cranked mechanical
rice transplanter. The four bar mechanism gives the each operating and
maintenance with less parts which reduces the weight. After further
improvement, this two row paddy transplanter can be transplanter 0.2 to
0.3 hectare/day while manual hand operated gives 0.1 to 0.1.5
hectare/day by considering 8 hours per day of working. The total cost
which include material and fabrication cost is Rs. 6000 and easy to
operate. This will reduce to Rs. 5000 with mass production.
Chapter: 7
REFERENCES
[1] Chetan Choudhari, Gov. College of Engineering,
Aurangabad,Theoretical Development of Rice Transplanting Machine”,
ISSN: - 2277-9655, Aug 2016.
[2] Bala Ibrahim & Wan Ishak Wan Ismail, University Putra Malaysia,
“Development of System Rice Intensification (SRI) Paddy
Transplanter”
[3] F.C.Das, Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack, “Status and
Prospects of Mechanization in Rice”
[4] Jawaharlal Nehru Gov. Engineering College, HP, “Paddy Transplanter”,
[5] Uttam Kumar and EV Thomas,“Determination of force acting on the
rice transplanter finger”, CIGR International Commission of
Agriculture and Biosystem Engineering, March 2015
[6] R.N.Pateriya and R.K.Datta,“Design Modifications of Mat type Rice
transplanter”, International Journal of Advanced Technology and
Engineering Research, Nov. 2012.
[7] “Operational Manual for Mechanical Transplanting of Rice” by Cereal
System Initiative for South Asia 2015
[8] V.B.Bhandari, “Design of Machine Elements”, Third Edition, McGraw
Hill Education Private Limited
[9] R.S.Khurmi&J.K.Gupta,A textbook of Machine Design,S.Chand
Publication
[10] R.S.Khurmi&J.K.Gupta,“Theory of Machines”, S.Chand Publication
[11]
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