Edt 21803

The Leeds College Dahranwala
EDT:12803
Curriculum Development

Kashaf Colony Near Bismiallah Petrol Pump Chishtian Road
Dahranwala
Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

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Unit no 1 : Introduction To Curriculum

Concept of curriculum:
Definition of Curriculum
The curriculum is defined as the guideline of the chapters and academic content covered by an
educational system while undergoing a particular course or program.
In a theoretical sense, curriculum refers to what is offered by the school or college. However,
practically it has a wider scope which covers the knowledge, attitude, behavior, manner,
performance and skills that are imparted or inculcated in a student. It contains the teaching
methods, lessons, assignments, physical and mental exercises, activities, projects, study material,
tutorials, presentations, assessments, test series, learning objectives, and so on.
The curriculum is well planned, guided and designed by the government or the educational
institution. It is aimed at both physical and mental development of a student. It is the overall
learning experience that a student goes through during the particular course of study.
Definition of Syllabus
The syllabus is defined as the documents that consist of topics or portion covered in a particular
subject. It is determined by the examination board and created by the professors. The professors
are responsible for the quality of the course. It is made available to the students by the teachers,
either in hard copy or electronic form to bring their attention towards the subject and take their
study seriously.
A syllabus is considered as a guide to the in charge as well as to the students. It helps the students
to know about the subject in detail, why it is a part of their course of study, what are the
expectations from students, consequences of failure, etc. It contains general rules, policies,
instructions, topics covered, assignments, projects, test dates, and so on.
Definition of textbooks:
Textbooks can also take various categories as course books , training manuals , supplementary or
revision books . A course book is textbook specifically measured on a specific syllabus for a
particular subject area within a given curriculum. It is normally used for classroom learning.
Some times they bear a teacher's guide alongside.
Key Differences Between Syllabus and Curriculum
The basic differences between syllabus and curriculum are explained in the point given below:
1. The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or units to be taught in the
particular subject. Curriculum refers to the overall content, taught in an educational system or a
course.
2. Syllabus varies from teacher to teacher while the curriculum is same for all teachers.
3. The term syllabus is a Greek origin, whereas the term curriculum is a Latin origin.

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4. The curriculum has a wider scope than the syllabus.

5. The syllabus is provided to the students by the teachers so that they can take an interest in the
subject. On the other hand, normally the curriculum is not made available to the students unless
specifically asked for.
6. Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is prescriptive.
7. Syllabus is set for a particular subject. Unlike curriculum, which covers a particular course of
study or a program.
8. Syllabus is prepared by teachers. Conversely, a curriculum is decided by the government or the
school or college administration.
9. The duration of a syllabus is for a year only, but curriculum lasts till the completion of the course.
Definition of Curriculum Development

Curriculum development is defined as planned, a purposeful, progressive, and systematic process to create
positive improvements in the educational system. Every time there are changes or developments
happening around the world, the school curricula are affected. There is a need to update them to address
the society‟s needs.
Its need and importance may be summed up as follows:
1. Achievement of Educational Aims
Merely defining the aims of education is futile. There should be well planned efforts to achieve the aims
of education. We must think of knowledge, activities, experiences and other influences which help in the
achievement of aims of education.
Curriculum need and Importance
1. Achievement of educational aims;

2. Criteria of suitable teachers;
3. Selection of suitable methods;
4. Reflects trends in education;
5. Providing suitable knowledge;
6. Providing suitable activities and experiences;
7. Providing wholesome influences.
There are three main factors of educational process
(a) The aims of education

(b) The curriculum
(c) The instructional methods.
2. Criteria of Suitable Teachers

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It is curriculum which can show what types of teachers are required in the schools. We should know what
type of work they are required to do and this is according to the requirements of curriculum.
3. Selection of Suitable Methods
Curriculum enables the teacher to select suitable methods of teaching. 'How to teach' will be determined
by 'what to teach'.
4. Reflects Trends in Education
Curriculum is a means to achieve the aims of education which are dynamic and go on changing with the
changing social requirements. Naturally, the curriculum will reflect the trends in education. For example,
modern education places following demands on the curriculum:
(a) Providing Suitable Knowledge. Curriculum should include suitable knowledge which will help in the
achievement of aims of education.
(b) Providing Suitable Activities and Experiences. Curriculum includes well selected activities and
experiences needed for the development of pupils according to social requirements.
(c) Providing Wholesome Influences. Curriculum should provide wholesome school programme to
develop the desirable behaviour patterns in the pupils.
Thus we see that curriculum is an important instrument or means to achieve the ends of education.
Principles of curriculum development:

The principles will be used in curriculum development activities are essentially the rules or laws that
would animate a curriculum. In curriculum development, can use the principles that have developed in
daily life or even creating their own new principles. Therefore, in implementing a curriculum in
educational institutions is very possible the use of different principles with curriculum that is used in
other educational institutions, so it will find a lot of the principles that were used in a curriculum
development.
In this case, Nana Syaodih Sukmadinata (1997) explores the principles of curriculum development is
divided into two groups: (1) principles - General principles: relevance, flexibility, continuity, practical,
and effectiveness, (2) specific principles: principles with respect to educational objectives, content
selection principles with respect to education, the principle regarding the selection of teaching and
learning process, the principle regarding the selection of media and learning tools, and principles
regarding the selection of assessment activities. While Hernawan Asep Herry et al (2002) put forward five
principles in curriculum development, namely:
1. The principle of relevance; internally that have relevance in the curriculum between the components
of the curriculum (goals, materials, strategies, organization and evaluation). While externally that the
components relevance to the demands of science and technology demand and potential learners
(psychological relevance) and the demands and needs of the community development (relevance
sosilogis).
2. The principle of flexibility; in curriculum development effort that produced by nature flexible,

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supple and flexible in its implementation, allow for adjustments based on the situation and condition of
the place and time is always growing, and the ability and background bekang learners.
3. The principle of continuity, namely the existence of kesinambungandalam curriculum, both
vertically or horizontally. Learning experiences provided the curriculum should pay attention to
sustainability, both inside the classroom level, between levels of education, as well as between levels of
education with the type of work.
4. The principle of efficiency, ie see to it that can utilize in curriculum development time, cost, and
other sources that there is an optimal, carefully and precisely so that the results adequately.
5. The principle of effectiveness; ie curriculum development activities seek to achieve goals without
the wasteful activities, both in quality and quantity.
Major components of curriculum:
A curriculum has five major components:

(1) A framework of assumptions about the learner and the society such as learners‟ capacity and ability,
aptitudes and potential for learning, motivation, needs, interests and values as well as society‟s orientation
to nurturing or using the individual gainfully.
(2) Aims and objectives (i.e., why education should be provided and towards what direction).
(3) Content or subject-matter with selection of what is to be taught and learnt, scope of the subject-
matter and its sequence.
(4) Modes of transaction which deals with the process of teaching-learning and includes methodology of
teaching, learning experiences both within the institution and outside, learning environments, teachers‟
material as well as students‟ material.
(5) Evaluation methods and techniques for students.
Several factors affecting curriculum development:
Several factors affect all curriculum development in meeting the needs of 21st century learners in both organized
academic settings and corporation learning centers. Factors affecting curriculum development include
government rules, which in turn brings other factors into the process. Valid curriculum development
requires awareness of the diversity of the target community socially, financially and psychologically.
1. Political factor
Politics affect curriculum development in numerous ways.

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How politics influences curriculum design and development starts with funding. Both private and public
educational institutions rely on funding for hiring personnel, building and maintaining facilities and
equipment. All aspects of curriculum depend on local, state and national political standards.
2. Social factor
Society has its own expectations about the aims and objectives that should be considered when designing
the curriculum. It also has a perception of what the product of the school system should look like. It is
therefore necessary for curriculum designers to take in to account these societal considerations.
3. Economic factor
Economics influences curriculum development.
Curriculum developed for in house training in corporations focuses on educating employees for
promotions that bring better returns in profits. Nations financing education expect an economic return
from educated students contributing to the country's economy with global competition abilities in
technical fields
4. Technological
Technology driven curriculum development is the norm of the 21st century.
The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every level of
learning. Learning centers and classrooms increasingly provide computers as requisite interaction for
studies among students. Technological multimedia use influences educational goals and learning
experiences among students.
5. Environment
Environment issues affect curriculum development.
World awareness and action toward reversing and ending pollution continues affecting curriculum
development. Typical elementary classrooms teach recycling and healthy environmental practices.
6. Child psychology
Many students with a masters or PhD degree in developmental psychology work in educational settings as
school psychologists, which makes sense when considering the emphasis placed on the formative years.
However, there are several developmental psychology concentrations available on which students can
focus:
o Developmental Studies for Educators
o Aging
o Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence
o Lifespan Development
o Biological Bases of Development

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Unit no 2:
Foundations of Curriculum
Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers.
In this way they affect the content and structure of the curriculum.
The curriculum reflects the society and culture of a country and this is the desire of a society that their
children should learn the habits, ideas, attitudes and skills of the adult society and culture and educational
institutional are the proper way to impart these skill. This duty of teacher and school to discipline the
young of the society and provide them the set of experiences in the form of curriculum. The needs,
knowledge and information of the society provide foundation in the formation of curriculum.
Philosophical/ ideological foundation
It is concerned with beliefs.

What is real --- ONTOLOGY
What is true --- EPISTEMOLOGY
What is good – AXIOLOGY
Philosophy means the love of wisdom, it search for truth, not simple truth, It search for eternal truth,
reality and general principles of life. Curriculum help in the practical use of knowledge in real life
situations and understanding realities and ideas of life and this world that why curriculum is called the
dynamic side of
philosophy.
Curriculum is used for the modification of the behavior of the students and philosophy help in the process
of finding new ways and basis for teachers and curriculum planner to modify their behavior. Philosophy
also helps in the exploring new methods of teaching and how to apply in the classroom situation for better
achievement of the teaching learning process. It also provides new ways and methods for the evaluation
of student‟s achievement and evaluation of curriculum.
Philosophical/ ideological Implications on Curriculum
Philosophy and ideology has direct effect in curriculum planning because it guides the curriculum planner
in the selection of the objectives and. As it provides guidelines in the selection of objectives, Learning
experiences and content of the curriculum, and how to evaluate the curriculum, learning experiences and
achievements of the students. Some justification provided for the implications of curriculum given by
different researcher are as under (Rud Yard K. Bent and Urruh, n.d.);
 Various customs values, traditions and knowledge need to be preserved by transfer them to the
next generation.
 The students also needed the knowledge of past and present in which they live, it help them in the
process of adaptation and adjusting their self to new changes and new situation in life.
Psychological foundations:

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 Psychological foundation is based on the individual differences, every student has its own unique
personality and they have differences in their leering and skills. They are different in nature so
they can‟t be treated alike in teaching learning process, some may be fast learner while other
slow. Therefore the curriculum should be based on the above facts, and it should be design to
support the capacity and potentialities of all the students.
 Psychology play a vital role in the teaching learning process it is the foundation for all type of
educational related programmed. The methods of teaching, the selection of content of subject and
the methods and theories of learning, the overall development of the students and to inculcate the
norms of the society in the students. Psychology helps in all the processes above in the
development process of the curriculum.
 Today psychology is the core and foundation element of all the learning processes; curriculum
development, Child mental development, teaching methods, learning theories, administration of
education system and planning, character building of the students, attitude of students and
teacher, the society, the use of different technologies.
 Today the researchers and Scholars using experimental approach to find new ways of teaching
learning process, how students learn under different conditions. They are finding new ways and
materials from the analysis of teaching learning problem and formulating new approaches for
teaching and learning process.
 Socio Cultural Foundation
 According to Murray print (1993). The society and culture exercise massive powers on the
formation curriculum and the reason behind that it was society who created schooling to
safeguard the survival of their cultural heritage, and survival of their species.
 The purpose of curriculum planner and developers to translate traditional norms, philosophies,
ethics, knowledge and attitudes in the objectives of curriculum, the content, learning processes
and the evaluation of elements of the curriculum. Sociological factors have highest impact on the
content of curriculum and that is the reason that curriculum developers and planner both reflect
and transfer their own culture in curriculum. Therefore a curriculum without the reflection of
culture is not possible for that reason one should consider what characteristic of the culture
should be the part of curriculum and what not.
 The social and cultural inspirations that affect curriculum designers consciously and
unconsciously are apparent from the curriculum and their influence is deep. For example in
Pakistan the curriculum is more reflective of the society and curriculum is design in a way that
leads society to change. The society manifest through the curriculum and education, and the
outcomes of the curriculum developers display the role of both of the above in curriculum
development.
Historical Foundations
It includes
1. Role of curriculum in achievements of nations.
2. Guides future plans
3. Factors that influence development of nation e.g. unity
4. Eliminates the useless traditions.
Role of the History of curriculum in the development of curriculum

History of the curriculum plays a very important role in the development of the nation. It takes long and
tedious time to formulate a good curriculum which represents the need of the society and the experiences
of the past. The history of the curriculum tell the curriculum planner how to develop and modify the
curriculum, what to teach and what should be the core material of the subjects, what objectives they want

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to achieve through the curriculum. History also tell them how the teacher should teach, what are the best
practices they need to incorporate in curriculum teaching and what kind of teaching need to be avoid.
Unit no 3 : CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Curriculum development is defined as planned, a purposeful, progressive, and systematic process
to create positive improvements in the educational system. Every time there are changes or developments
happening around the world, the school curricula are affected. There is a need to update them to address
the society‟s needs.
This refers to all those processes and activates systematically undertaken by either an individual or an
institution to come up with an educational programme. It is the planning of learning opportunities
intended to bring about changes in the pupil‟s behaviors and assessment of the extent to which these
changes have taken place (Ondiek; 1986).
On the other hand, Marsh and Willis (1999) define curriculum development as
“A collective and intentional process or activity directed at beneficial curriculum changes”.
This definition captures curriculum innovation, which is an important aspect of the curriculum
development process. It also points at the dynamism of the curriculum. However, it should also be borne
in mind that curriculum development also involves production of new programme of study especially
when there s a total absence of curriculum to address issues that have emerged and current problems
(Shiundu and Omulando, 1992).
Despite the different perspectives on curriculum development there is a consensus about the fact that
curriculum development is a dynamic, systematic and an unending process and it involves several stages
some of which are universally adopted by curriculum developers in different parts of the world and others
are more particular to national contexts (Gay, 1991).
There are a number of processes involved in curriculum development, major are given below:
1. Situational analysis
2. Selection of aims, goals and objectives
3. Selection of content
4. Selection of teaching practices
5. Evaluation
Situational analysis:
Needs Assessment:
Understanding the concept of needs assessment as used in curriculum development, it is important to first
define the term need. A need in curriculum field is a situation where there is a discrepancy between what
is and what ought to be that is there is a gap between an ideal situation which is acceptable and a current
situation or observed state of the learner.

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Consequently, systematic investigation should be carried out to collect data and establish learners needs
in a given area of human affairs such as health. In Kenya for example HIV/AIDS is a health and even
survival issues as this epidemic affects people of all ages. Results of the needs assessment should be
combined with situational analysis (i.e. study of the contexts of the curriculum) to develop an appropriate
curriculum for the learners and delineate the expected competencies of the learners.
It is after needs assessment and intensive situation analysis that objectives are outlined.
Selection of aims , goals and Objectives;

Objectives are very important in the curriculum development process because they define the educational
destination (end) and therefore in their formulation, curricularists have to respond to two important
questions thus:
1. What should be achieved through the school curriculum?

2. What should the learners achieve?
Objectives are essential because they:

1. Assist curriculum planners in developing purposeful instructional programmes.
2. Justify the need for providing education and therefore, solicit support for it.
3. Guide the educational process i.e. selection of content, learning experiences, teaching methods
and evaluation approaches.
4. Provide a basis for evaluation, determine the extent to which an education or instructional
programme is useful (Shiundu and Omulando 1992).
According to Bloom (1964), the objectives derived should be in three main domains; the
cognitive or intellectual, the psychomotor and the affective. The objectives formulated for the
curriculum should be specific measurable, achievable, result oriented and time bound (SMART).
Formulation of Curriculum Desig:

In this stage, subject panels (specialists) meet to generate content guided by and considering the
competencies to be acquired by the learners (Ndire, 2007). The design will contain information about the
objectives for the new curriculum content (subject matter), methodology to be employed in the
implementation, assessment procedures and time required to cover the content of each subject. Subject
syllabuses are then developed after the design has been agreed upon.
Development of Syllabuses or content:

During this stage, the subject specialists develop the syllabuses for the various subjects in the curriculum.
The subject specialists will outline the objectives of the subject, the actual content to be covered, the
sequence to be followed, the support materials required, the recommended instructional methods to be
used and the evaluation / assessment suggestions.

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Development and Selection of Teaching and Learning Materials:

After the curriculum has been developed and the syllabuses has been prepared, accompanying learning
and teaching support materials and resources are developed, examined, validated and approved for use in
the schools by respective subject panels in order to facilitate curriculum piloting and implementation.
These materials include textbooks (both pupils books and teachers guides) maps, charts and models.
Curriculum Implementation
Implementation is the act of putting the prescribed curriculum into practice in the school. It is the ultimate
objective of curriculum development process because only after this has been done will learners have the
opportunity to experience the curriculum and benefit from it. Needless to say teachers are the
implementers of curriculum and this is usually facilitated by Education Officers, Quality Assurance and
Standards Officers (Q.A.S.O) and the school system steered by the principals / headteachers, deputy
headteachers / principals, fellow teachers, teachers advisory centers (T.A.Cs) among others. Several
essential steps should be taken to ensure effective implementation of the developed curriculum.
However implementation of curriculum is complex and does not proceed in a linear fashion and the
people involved can even have conflicting ideas about how to go about it. Because of this, there is need to
put these and other issues into consideration.
Successful implementation of the curriculum therefore, requires a lot of planning and effort so that proper
mechanisms are put in place. These include distribution of new syllabuses to all schools; physical
facilities such as classrooms, laboratories and workshops are erected, in-servicing and orienting teachers;
provision of curriculum support materials and continuous supervision and monitoring in schools.
Curriculum Monitoring and Evaluation:
Implementation of the curriculum needs to be monitored closely to ensure it is being used in the schools
faithfully by the teachers as planned. The monitoring should focus on the objectives, content, methods of
instruction and assessment procedures. Evaluation of the curriculum should be carried out after complete
implementation. It is the process of assessing the extent to which curriculum objectives have been
achieved or are being achieved. Evaluation is the fourth question that Tyler (1949) raised in his rationale,
“how can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?"
Both formative and summative types of evaluation are carried out. Formative evaluation is an ongoing
process and should be part of the curriculum development process. It provides the curriculum developers
with data which can be used to review fine-tune or refine the curriculum as the curriculum development
process proceeds.
Summative evaluation is usually undertaken at the end of the implementation cycle to establish or
otherwise of the completed curriculum project (Ndire, 2007). Data should be gathered and the feedback
obtained should be used to improve and revise the curriculum. The findings of the monitoring and
evaluation team may reveal that some aspects require revision or complete overhaul (Ndire, 2007). The
findings will therefore be useful for other processes of curriculum development such as needs assessment

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policy formulation, development and design of new syllabuses. For example, there may be new
educational gaps that need to be addressed or there may be need for new policy formulation because of an
issue that has arisen such as the post-election violence that affected many parts of Kenya in early 2008.
As a result, a peace education component may be incorporated into the school curriculum to address such
an issue.
Unit o 4: Curriculum design
What is curriculum design?

Curriculum design is a term used to describe the purposeful, deliberate and systematic organization of
curriculum (instructional blocks) within a class or course. In other words, it is a way for teachers to plan
instruction. When teachers design curriculum, they identify what will be done, who will do it, and when.
Purpose of Curriculum Design
Teachers design a curriculum with a specific purpose in mind.
The ultimate goal is to improve student learning, but there are other reasons to employ curriculum design
as well. For example, designing curriculum for middle school students with both elementary and high
school curriculum in mind helps to make sure that learning goals are aligned and complement each other
from one stage to the next. If a middle school curriculum is designed without taking prior knowledge
from elementary school of future learning in high school into account it can create real problems for the
students.
Types of Curriculum Design
There are three basic types of curriculum design:
 Subject-centered design
 Learner-centered design
 Problem-centered design
Subject-Centered Curriculum Design
Subject-centered curriculum design revolves around a particular subject matter or discipline. For example,
a subject-centered curriculum may focus on math or biology. This type of curriculum design tends to
focus on the subject rather than the individual.
It is the most common type of curriculum used in K-12 public schools in states and local districts in the
United States.

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Subject-centered curriculum design often revolves around what needs to be studied and how it should be
studied. Core curriculum is an example of a subject-centered design. This type of curriculum is
standardized.
Teachers are given a set list of things that need to be studied along with specific examples of how these
things should be studied. You can also find subject-centered design in large college classes where
teachers have a tendency to focus on a particular subject or discipline with little regard for individual
learning styles.
The primary drawback of subject-centered curriculum design is that it is not student-centered. This form
of curriculum design is less concerned with individual student needs and learning styles compared to
other forms of curriculum design, such as learner-centered design. This can cause problems with student
engagement and motivation and may even cause students to fall behind in class.
Learner-Centered Curriculum Design
Learner-centered curriculum design revolves around the learner. It takes each individual's needs, interests
and goals into consideration. In other words, it acknowledges that students are not uniform and should not
be subjected to a standardized curriculum. This type of curriculum design is meant to empower learners
and allow them to shape their education through choices.
Instructional plans in a learner-centered curriculum are not as rigid as they are in a subject-centered
curriculum design.
A learner-centered curriculum is differentiated and often gives students the opportunity to choose
assignments, learning experiences or activities. This can motivate students and help them stay engaged in
the material that they are learning.
The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it puts a lot of pressure on the teacher to create
instruction and find materials that are conducive to each student's learning needs. This can be very
difficult for teachers due to time constraints, or even lack of experience or skills. It can also be difficult
for teachers to balance student wants and interests with student needs and required outcomes.
Problem-Centered Curriculum Design
Like learner-centered curriculum design, problem-centered curriculum design is also a form of student-
centered design.
It focuses on teaching students how to look at a problem and come up with a solution to the problem. This
is considered an authentic form of learning because students are exposed to real-life issues, which helps
them develop skills that are transferable to the real world.
Problem-centered curriculum design increases the relevance of the curriculum and allows students to get
creative and innovate while learning. The drawback to this form of curriculum design is that it does not
always take learning styles into consideration.
Curriculum Design Tips

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The following curriculum design tips can help educators manage each stage of the curriculum design
process.
 Be sure to identify the needs of stakeholders (i.e., students) early on in the curriculum design
process. This can be done through a needs analysis, which involves the collection and analysis of
data related to the learner. This data might include what learners already know and what they
need to know to be proficient in a particular area or skill. It may also include information about
learner perceptions, strengths, and weaknesses.
 Create a clear list of learning goals and outcomes. This will help you to focus on the intended
purpose of the curriculum and allow you to plan instruction that can achieve the desired
results. Learning goals are the things teachers want students to achieve in the course. Learning
outcomes are the measurable knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students should have achieved
in the course.
 Identify constraints that will impact your curriculum design. For example, time is a common
constraint that must be considered. There are only so many hours, days, weeks or months. If there
isn't enough time to deliver all of the instruction that has been planned, it will impact learning
outcomes.
 Consider creating a curriculum map (also known as a curriculum matrix) so that you can properly
evaluate the sequence and coherence of instruction. Curriculum mapping provides visual
diagrams or indexes of a curriculum. Analyzing a visual representation of the curriculum is a
good way to quickly and easily identify potential gaps, redundancies or alignment issues in the
sequencing of instruction. Curriculum maps can be created on paper or with software programs or
online services designed specifically for this purpose.
 Identify the instructional methods that will be used throughout the course and consider how they
will work with student learning styles. If the instructional methods are not conducive to the
curriculum, the instructional design or the curriculum design will need to be altered accordingly.
 Establish evaluation methods that will be used to assess learners, instructors, and the curriculum.
Evaluation will help you determine if the curriculum design is working or if it is failing.
Examples of things that should be evaluated include the strengths and weaknesses of the
curriculum and achievement rates related to learning outcomes. The most effective evaluation
is ongoing and summative.
 Remember that curriculum design is not a one-step process; continuous improvement is a
necessity. The design of the curriculum should be assessed periodically and refined based on
assessment data. This may involve making alterations to the design partway through the course to
ensure that learning outcomes or a certain level of proficiency will be achieved at the end of the
course.

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Unit no 5 : Models of Curriculum Development

Models of curriculum objective:
Tyler model :
Step one is determining the objectives of the school or class. In other words, what do the students need to
do in order to be successful? Each subject has natural objectives that are indicators of mastery. All
objectives need to be consistent with the philosophy of the school and this is often neglected in
curriculum development.
Step two is developing learning experiences that help the students to achieve step one. For example, if
students need to meet the objective of writing an essay.
Step three is organizing the experiences. Should the teacher demonstrate first or should the students learn
by writing immediately? Either way could work and preference is determined by the philosophy of the
teacher and the needs of the students.
Lastly, step four is evaluation of the objectives. Now the teacher assesses the students‟ ability to write an
essay. There are many ways to do this. For example, the teacher could have the students write an essay
without assistance. If they can do this, it is evidence that the students have achieved the objective of the
lesson.

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Hilda model :
Steps in model:
1. Diagnosis of learners needs:
 Diagnose of achievement.  Diagnosis of students as learner.  Diagnosis of curriculum problems.

Systematic diagnosis process:
1. Problem identification 2. Problem analysis 3. Formulating hypothesis and gathering data. 4.
Experimenting with action.
2. Formulation of learning objectives:
Main objectives of education are:
To add to knowledge they posses To enable them to perform skills which otherwise they would not
perform To develop certain understanding, insights and appreciations. Development of healthy
personality. Analysis of particular culture and society which educational program serves.
Function of educational objectives:
 Transmit culture  Reconstruct society  Fullest development of individual To guide on curriculum

decision on  What to cover?  What to emphasize?  What content to select?  Which learning
experiences to stress?
Principle of formulation of objectives:
 Objective should useful, cleared and concreteness  Objective should describe both kind of behavior i.e.
expected and content  Objective should be realistic  Scope of objective should be broad.
3. Selection and organization of content:
 Content should be rational base  Validity and significance of content  Consistency with social
realities  Appropriateness to the need and interest of students  Making proper distinctions between the
various levels of content
4. Organization and Selection of the learning experiences:
 This involves more then applying principles of learning.  Have you used a variety of teaching
methods?  When using lecture will you make that active with questions and discussion?  Are there
opportunities for students to learn from one another?  Are there opportunities for students to apply what
they are learning through solving real problems or developing projects that could be used in a real work
setting?

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5. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it
 Plans need to be made for evaluation.  How should the quality of learning be evaluated to assure that
the ends of education are being achieved?  How does one make sure that there is consistency between
the aims and objectives and what is actually achieved by students?  Does the curriculum organization
provide experiences which offer optimum oppertunities for all varieties of learners to attain independent
goals?
The Oliva Model

The Oliva Curriculum Development model is comprehensive and systematic, composed of twelve
components each described as follows:
Component I: Curriculum developers specify and formulate philosophical and psychological principles,
target, mission and vision of the institution based on the needs of students and society in general.
Component II: Here they analyse and specify the needs of the particular community, school and subject
matter that will be taught in the given school.
Component III and IV: Specification of curriculum goals and objectives based on the principles,
mission and vision formulated in previous component takes place.
Component V: Organize the curriculum design and starts implementing.
Component VI, VII and VIII: In these phases, they describe the curriculum in the form of the
formulation of general objectives and specific learning by defining and specifying instructional goals,
objectives and learning strategies.
Component IXA and X: Preliminary studies on possible strategies or assessment techniques to be used
are carried in this stage and in the later stage starts implementing those learning strategies.
Components IXB, XI and XII: Finally curriculum developers do final selection of assessment
techniques, evaluation and modification of instruction, instructional components and curricular
components.
The Saylor, Alexander and Lewis Model

Saylor, Alexander and Lewis classified sets of broad goals into four domains: personal development,
social fitness, sustained learning skills, and specialization. Because they believed that every curriculum
development must begin by setting educational goals, domains and specific objectives that they wish to
achieve, and then move into the process of planning the curriculum.
Firstly, here, the curriculum developers decide on the appropriate learning opportunities for each domain
and when these opportunities will be made available.
After the designs have been created, curriculum implementation begins. Teachers select the methods
through which the curriculum will be related to the learners. Teachers identify the specific instructional
objectives before selecting the strategies to implement.

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Finally Teachers and curriculum planners evaluate the curriculum. They evaluate the total educational
programme. This process allows educators to determine whether or not the goals and learning objectives
have been met.
The Wheeler model (1967):

The Wheeler model of curriculum development (1967), or cyclic model, asserts that curriculum should be
a continuous cycle which is responsive to changes in the education sector and makes appropriate
adjustments to account for these changes. It focuses on situational analysis: the context in which the
curriculum decisions are taken is considered important, as this is believed to help make the most effective
decisions. This model is comprised of five interconnected stages:
1. Aims, goals and objectives
2. Selection of learning experiences
3. Selection of content
4. Organisation and integration of learning experiences and content
5. Evaluation
Once the cycle has been followed once, it begins again at step one and continues onward to continuously
improve the curriculum in the face of any changes that may have been imposed or come about naturally.
It is different from other models in that „selection of learning experiences‟ comes before „selection of
content‟: it specifically gears the content in the curriculum to learners, where most models follow the
opposite structure. Wheeler viewed evaluation as particularly important, stating that „[e]valuation enables
us to compare the actual outcomes with the expected outcomes […] [without it] it is impossible to know
whether objectives have been realized, and if they have, to what extent‟ (Wheeler, 1976, cited in Carl,
2009). While Wheeler‟s approach, like other cyclical models, has been popular in teaching practice for its
flexibility and relevance to learners in particular situations, it is not always practical to use because of
time constraints. Undertaking a detailed situational analysis that Wheeler advocates is a time-consuming
process that can be difficult to put into practice in the hectic conditions in modern educational practice.
Dynamic model:
- The needs of learners are more important in determining curriculum planning than some
predetermined set of information to be acquired.
- This model is primarily descriptive model to curriculum where researchers have observed the
behavior of teachers and developers as they devise curricula, whereas the classical model is
prescriptive.
- Can commence with any curriculum element and proceed in any order.
Strengths:
- More realistic, feasible ways of handling curriculum development.
- Developers are free to be more creative.

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- Offer considerable flexibility: developers may commence at any point in the curriculum process
that is appropriate to their needs.
- Developers may retrace their steps and proceed in whatever way they prefer.
- Reflects the teaching situation: this model could be a more suitable, less dysfunctional
approach.
 Weaknesses
- Appears confusing and seems to lack direction. (Developer are left perplexed as to what to do)
- Confusion rather than clarity.
- Lack of emphasis on the construction and use of objectives. (Objectives must be stated in order
to be effective)
- Developers waste significant amounts of time by not following a logical sequence.
Skil beck model :
Malcolm Skilbeck Model of Curriculum

skilbeck model locates curriculum design and development firmly within a cultural framework. It views
such design as a means whereby teachers modify and transform pupil experience through providing
insights into cultural values, interpretative frameworks and symbolic systems.
• It is a more comprehensive framework, which can encompass either the process model or the objective
model depending on which aspects of the curriculum are being designed. It is flexible, adaptable and open
to interpretation in the light of changing circumstances.

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• It does not presuppose a linear progression through its components. Teachers can begin at any stage and
activities can develop concurrently. .
The model outlined does not presuppose a means-end analysis at all; it simple encourages teams or groups
of curriculum developers to take into account different elements and aspects of the curriculum-
development process, to see the process as an organic whole, and to work in a moderately systematic way.
• Very importantly, it forces those involved in curriculum development to consider systematically their
particular context, and it links their decisions to wider cultural and social considerations
Unit no 6:
Process and Problems of Curriculum Development in Pakistan
Process of curriculum development in Pakistan:

Introduction
Education plays a vital role in nation building.
Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for the national cohesion, integration and preservation of the
ideological foundation of the states.
Responsibilities
Federal Ministry of Education is responsible in making of:
1.Curriculum
2.Syllabus
3.Planning
4.Policy
5.Education standards
National Bureau of Curriculum and Textbooks (NBTC)
Also known as curriculum wing.
Supervise curriculum and textbooks.
Approves and maintain curriculum standards from the primary to the higher secondary levels

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Provincial curriculum Centre
Every province has a provincial curriculum centre
To ensure provincial collaboration.
Involve in all activities falling within the purview of the federation.
Each Province has its own Provincial Textbook Board (PTTB)
PTTBs are responsible for:

Preparing
Publishing
Stocking
Distributing
Marketing school textbooks
Curriculum Design and Development Process
Curriculum Design and Development consists of :
Evolution of curriculum objectives.

Development of scheme of studies.
Development of syllabus of each subject.
Development of textbook, instructional material.
Approval of textual material.
Teacher training.
Developing Objectives
Objectives are derived from
1.Recommendation of the National Education Policy

2.National Level Seminars
3.Forums of research studies
4.Inter Board Committee of Chairmen
NBCT prepares the draft of objectives.
Circulated in provincial institutions responsible for curriculum development.
Objectives are finalized.

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Translated to the specific teaching objectives
Factors considered in finalizing the objectives
Be precise
Assist in the selection of teaching strategy
Produce a designated behavior pattern
Enables teachers to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of learning.
The studies scheme
It is based on three key factors:
The national education policy

Market demand
Global issues
Task work in this area is undertaken with the participation of:
1.Provincial government
2.Research organizations and experts
3.Feedback of the IBCC
Development of syllabi
It is based on objectives and scheme of study.
Subject specific syllabi is prepared in consultation with:

1.Subject expert
2.Psychologist
3.Serving teacher
Syllabi must satisfy the following conditions:
Based on the needs of learner.
Take into account the existing knowledge and the environmental experience of the learner.
The development level of the learner is considered in the cognitive, effectiveness and psycho-motor
domain.
Content should be focused on attaining the objectives.
Textbook Development

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Provincial Text Book Boards (PTBB) are responsible for the development of the text-books according to
the approved syllabi.
How textbook is developed?
Establish a list of text book writers.
Invitation are sent to the writers to submit the material within the syllabus parameter.
Selection is made on the basis of relevance of material.
The selected material is transformed into a textbook.
Review the Approval
National review committee comprises on five or six members:
At least one expert form the syllabus Formulation Committee.

Two subject experts.
Two school teachers
Textbooks review parameter
The books truly reflects the curriculum.
It meets the objectives stated in the curriculum.
Book does not contain any material repugnant to Islamic and Pakistani ideology.
In case of approval, textbook is sent for publishing and distribution.
In case of objection, complaints are relayed with revision recommendations.
Teacher Training
Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the responsibility of the provincial government.
It is now stressed that each textbook must have a teacher's guide.
In some cases assistance in the training of the masters trainers is provided to provincial government.

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Curriculum Development Pitfalls
There are several obstacles affecting the quality and effectiveness of curriculum development process in
Pakistan.
Lack of subject area expert.
Textbook often do not reflect the curriculum
Lack of follow-up of actual curriculum implementation in classroom practice.
Curriculum often different from the official curriculum documentation
Curriculum Development at Higher Education Level
Introduction
In 1973‟s constitution, Government placed education on the concurrent list.
Federal Government took the responsibility to determine the curriculum text boards, policy, planning and
standards of education
Higher Education Commission
In December, 1976 Federal Government appointed University Grant commission (now HEC ) as the
competent authority to look after the curriculum revision work at bachelor level and onwards
It also look after the degrees, certificates and diplomas awarded by degree colleges, universities and other
institutions of HEC.
Procedure to Review/ Revise Curriculum
In 45th meeting of Vice-Chancellor‟s Committee it‟s recommended that the UGC should review the
curriculum of a particular discipline after every three years.
HEC adopted a procedure to review/ revise curriculum
In ensure the quality of the updated curricula.
Steps Involved In Curriculum Review/Revision Process

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PHASE-I Curricula under consideration.
PHASE – II Circulation of the draft curriculum
PHASE-I
Step – I
Constitution of National Curriculum Revision Committee (NCRC) in the subject.
The Vice-Chancellors of all public and private sector universities, R&D organizations, Directorate of
colleges and industries in relation to the subject under consideration, are requested to nominate their
representatives, for appointment of National Curriculum Review Committee (NCRC).
Step –II
Assessment/Analysis of the existing Curriculum
The existing curricula is circulated amongst the members of NCRC to discuss it with their colleagues and
bring collective proposals for review and revision of existing curricula in relation to
objectives (of teaching the subject).
Scheme of studies
Course-content
Weight age
Reading materials
Teaching strategies
Methods of evaluation.
In this way participation of maximum number of subject experts is ensured
Step – III
NCRC meeting-I:
Draft preparation.
The first meeting of the NCRC is organized at the HEC Headquarter Islamabad or one of its Regional
Centers at Peshawar, Lahore and Karachi.
Other universities at different places may also be chosen to serve the purpose.
The meeting draft of the revised curricula, after detail discussion and deliberation on the proposals
prepared by the NCRC members.
PHASE – II
Circulation Of The Draft Curriculum

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Step – IV
Appraisal of the first draft.
The first draft prepared is circulated among the universities, institutions and organization and is viewed
for its further improvement.
The view/recommendations collected on the draft curriculum were deliberated upon to design and finalize
the curriculum of specific subject of study in a final meeting.
Step – V
NCRC meeting-II:
Finalization of draft
The second meeting of the NCRC is held to finalize the draft of the revised curriculum in the light of
comments/suggestions/recommendations received from the college and university teachers and
institutions all over the country.
The meeting would again take 3 days to finalize a curriculum.
The draft so finalized support expertise of all faculty members of the subject under consideration, who are
directly or indirectly involved in this process.
Step VI
Approval of the revised curricula by the Vice-Chancellors‟ Committee:
The final draft curriculum is submitted to the Vice-Chancellors‟ Committee for approval.
Implementation
The curricula designed is printed and sent to universities/institutions for its adoption/implementation after
the approval of the Competent Authority.
2. Introduction • Education plays a vital role in nation building. • Federal Ministry of Education is
responsible for the national cohesion, integration and preservation of the ideological foundation of the
states.
3. Responsibilities Federal Ministry of Education is responsible in making of: 1. Curriculum 2. Syllabus
3. Planning 4. Policy 5. Education standards.
4. Objectives Objectives are derived from • Recommendation of the National Education Policy • National
Level Seminars • Forums of research studies • Inter Board Committee of Chairmen

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Role of teacher in curriculum development:

Teachers know the needs of all stakeholders of teacher education. Teachers can understand the
psychology of the learner. Teachers are aware about the teaching methods and teaching strategies.
Teachers also play the role as evaluator for the assessment of learning outcomes. So teachers must
possess some qualities such as planner, designer, manager, evaluator, researcher, decision maker and
administrator. Teachers play the respective role for the each step of curriculum development process.
Curriculum planning involves analysis of philosophy, social forces, needs, goals and Objectives,
treatment of knowledge, human development, learning process & instruction, and decision.
Curriculum preparation involves systematic data, content, selection, collection, assessment, organization.
Design factors includes school (levels, types, Structures), educational technology, systemic vocational,
social reconstruction, Curriculum design, analysis of social needs, translating the needs into
Course/general/learning/terminal objectives, splitting the objectives into specific objectives, grouping the
specific objectives into subjects, deriving the subjects from the above classification, specifying enabling
objectives, unitizing each subject matter, specification of required time, and syllabus formulation.
Curriculum development phases consist of Instructional development, Materials & media development,
Methods of teaching & testing.
Implementation of the Curriculum involves Instructional scheme of each subject to be completed in the
semester, Planning the lessons as per the timetable, Using the transactional strategies, Using the
appropriate media, Providing the learning resources, Promoting classroom learning experiences,
Progressive testing
Curriculum evaluation involves, Intra-curricular evaluation, Teacher evaluation of students, Student
evaluation of teachers, Materials evaluation, Verification of methods,
Evaluation of tests and examinations, checking the learning outcomes while on the field, Curriculum
review/ improvement/ change/ modification, System revision.
After evaluating the prepared curriculum it is observed that the curriculum is not satisfactory then
developer turns for revising and improving phase.
Importance of Teachers Involvement in Curriculum Development:
Importance of Teachers Involvement in Curriculum Development Without doubt, the most important
person in the curriculum implementation process is the teacher. With their knowledge, experiences and
competencies, teachers are central to any curriculum development effort. Better teachers support better
learning because they are most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for
introducing the curriculum in the classroom. If another party has already developed the curriculum, the
teachers have to make an effort to know and understand it. So, teachers should be involved in curriculum
development. For example, teacher‟s opinions and ideas should be incorporated into the curriculum for
development. On the other hand, the curriculum development team has to consider the teacher as part of
the environment that affects curriculum (Carl, 2009). Hence, teacher involvement is important for

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successful and meaningful curriculum development. Teachers being the implementers are part of the last
stage of the curriculum development process.
Problems and issues of curriculum development in Pakistan:

Issues in curriculum development
1. Curriculum is outdated
 Firstly, the curriculum is outdated, which does not meet the local needs of Pakistani society.As
students from different parts of the world get difficult mathematical and scientific knowledge by
activity-based learning, our students are forced to know scientific concepts through cramming.
 For example, in school textbooks of Mathematics at primary level, the concepts of shapes in
geometry lessons are not written correctly. One example is of sphere and circle. Most of the
teachers do not know that a sphere is a solid shape and a circle is a flat shape. Many teachers
teach students that the shape of sun is a circle and not a sphere.
 It is sad situation that experts designing school textbooks of mathematics at primary level do not
pay attention to include the concept of solid and flat shapes together.
2. Involvement of government officials

Secondly, involvement of government officers in the development of Pakistani curriculum is proving
harmful to our education system.
The current process of curriculum development is based on a uniform policy for the whole country that
has its particular aims and goals, but he thinks that it is not possible to apply national educational policy
to different regions of the country with equality.
For example, there are many underdeveloped areas of Pakistan, where parents do not have adequate
resources to send their children to schools. The drop-out rate from schools is high, because parents cannot
afford the expense of education easily.
Hence, a new educational policy has to be made by government officers for poor students, so that their
problems of education can be solved.
One way of doing this is to build schools, where students are allowed to study in evening time, and where
books having basic knowledge about core subjects such as English, Mathematics, Science, Urdu and
Islam are taught by trained teachers.
3. Lack of academic research
Thirdly, the problem that the process of curriculum development faces in Pakistan is improper academic
research for writing school textbooks. Haider points out those experts sitting in the curriculum
development boards use materials of their own choice for instruction in schools.
He says that most of the times the chosen content is not up to the mark. While going through textbooks
approved by several board systems in the country, it becomes clear that no suitable research/evaluation
system is created to revise curriculum.

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For example, in computer books of Class 9th, students still learn serial and parallel ports. However, it is
noted that all electronic devices created in present day are connected with computers by USB port.
4. Absence of school teachers’ involvement
Fourthly, it is seen that the academic experience of teachers from different schools is also not considered
in designing and revising school curriculum. Daniel Tanner and Laurel N. Tanner in their book,
“Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice,” suggest that without intelligent participation of school
teachers, meaningful curriculum development will not be achieved.
Tanner and Tanner say that teachers, who are involved in bringing out educational change, accept and
adopt the new ideas more quickly than those teachers who are not involved in carrying out change.
Useful evidence suggests that in countries where well-educated teachers were not involved in the
curriculum development process, they did not accept new changes in school textbooks.
5. Result of weak academic skills of researchers
With lack of academic skills in researchers responsible for designing curriculum for schools, the most
important feature of curriculum, i.e. content suffers a lot. Students follow rote-learning process, because
the content of their books does not match to their educational skills.
In order to make students problem-solvers, Shabbir argues that our books must contain questions that
relate to problems we face in our daily life. By answering those questions, students will learn to solve
issues in difficult situations.
For example, while studying the concept of speed in science, students must be given questions related to
real-life examples of speed such as speed of a car etc., so that they know the application of the concept.
6. EAST’s contribution to solving curriculum problems
EAST has developed a curriculum that provides activity-based learning to students and gives problem-
solving skills to them.
For instance, our sciences books contain explore and project activities, where students are given a flavor
of using scientific knowledge in their routine life. Science book of Class 1 has a project termed as life
cycle process, where students understand the growth cycle of a hen.
Unit no 7: Pattern of Curriculum

MAJOR CURRICULUM DESIGNS
Introduction:
Today, education plays an important role in the life of the modern society and each individual. At the
same time, the high level of education of the entire nation contributes to the faster economic development
of any country. Education contributes to the rise of the new generation of people who can generate new
knowledge, introduce innovations and keep the economy progressing even in the time of scarce resources.

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And because of this, the government should continuously develop the quality of education and provide all
citizens with equal education opportunities through the implementations of educational reforms and
curriculum development.
Curriculum plays an important role because it contributes to the development of efficient approaches to
the process of learning and allows educators to optimize the learning process to meet needs of students
and current development of the economy and society.The development of an effective approach to
curriculum and effective curriculum design are essential for the achievement of quality learning of the
students. There are so many factors that needs to be considered in curriculum design. First it should focus
on each student, his or her needs, inclinations and abilities.They should choose effective curriculum
design respective to the environment and students they work with. According to Ralph Tyler curriculum
should be viewed as a solid structure, which could function effectively, if all elements of the structure are
clearly defined and properly organized.
He recommended educators to focus primarily on the definition of goals the school should achieve. It
proves beyond a doubt that the definition of goals of the school and curriculum are of the utmost
importance because they laid the foundation to the entire structure of the curriculum.
Learning experiences of educators as well as students is also important. This means that educators should
use their own professional experience in regard to the development of curriculum and delivering
instructions to students in such a way that they could select the most efficient approaches and strategies
that could be applied in a specific environment and at the same time, the learning experience of
students.The administrator also has an essential part in curriculum design. He should create a particular
vision of learning. To make it more acceptable for the school community it is necessary to involve
teachers, the community or even students in the development of this vision of the ideal learning.The
administrator should also be an effective manager that can make the school community work effectively
and cooperatively to achieve defined goals and vision of learning. It is essential to consider that the
development of effective management affects the curriculum because poor management can ruin even the
best curriculum, whereas effective management helps educators to develop good curriculum for effective
learning process.
Patterns or designs of curriculum:

1. Conservative Liberal Arts Curriculum
This design is said to be can be rooted in the Hellenistic Greece. It is based on the belief that a
human being‟s unique and distinctive quality is intellect. The quest for knowledge is the natural
fulfillment of an intellect. The purpose of life is to engage in the process of inquiry. To move
from ignorance to truth, from confusion to enlightenment.
Paideia Concept ( Cultured Man) became a perspective in the liberal arts approach to education.
This became the format of the public education system. The curriculum was spelled out in a
formally declared permanent studies that included language, mathematics, sciences, history and
foreign languages.
2. Educational Technology Curriculum

Education in the new century will experience a technological gold rush atmosphere.
Technological instruments has a significant role in the teaching and learning process. It stresses
objectivity, precision and efficiency.B.F. Skinner is one of the major proponent of this. Acc. to
him “ when we know what we are doing, we are training …. Any behavior that can be specified

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can be programmed” Educational Technology through the decade

Technology have greatly affected learning process through the years:1950-Televisions1960-
Transistors and calculators1970- Video cam, Compact Disc, VCDFacsimile, CD ROMS,
Softwares1990- Personal computers, World Wide Web, Internet2000- Laptop, Netbook, IPad,
DVD, LCD projector.
History of Educational Technology
Educational Technology in the New Century

In the new century curriculum specialist must do better not only on knowledge of how technology works
but also how technology can be used to improve communication and transmission of knowledge in the
teaching and learning process.
Educational Technology in the New Century

They should focus on the ff. questions:
 What are the implications of technology?
 How can schools receive technology in a meaningful way?
 What technology is most effective for learning in a school?
 How can we prevent technology from creating an intellectual elite in school?
 How can we confront the trend toward home schooling from socially DE schooling the learning
process?
Social Media in Education - Teaching Digital Natives in 2011

The e-Learning Advantage Social Media in Education - Teaching Digital Natives in 2011
3.Humanistic Curriculum
Curriculum design in the US during the 20th century. Its main theme is humanizing of learning It feature
student-centered curriculum and instructional patterns. Decentralization of authority and organization.
Atmosphere of understanding, compassion, encouragement, and trust. Physical setting usually encourage
freedom in the form of students mobility, increased choice of curricular activities and a learning by doing
format.
Outward Bound Contemporary version of Humanistic design.

Instruction is humane, personalized and individualized Teachers serve as guides to learning rather than
authority figure of knowledge. Facilitator of learning process.
4. Vocational Curriculum
Also known as vocational education or career education. It consisted of crafts and labor
skills. This program is good in areas with industrial or agricultural community
 Areas of study Trade and Industrial Education Business Education

Agriculture
 Home Economics

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 Marketing Education
 Technical Education Technology Education
 Health Education
5. Social Reconstruction Curriculum

The concept of school is that it serve as a vehicle for social improvement. Harold Rugg-
proponent of Social Reconstruction. He encourage schools to influence social change
Characteristic of Curriculum
A curriculum which is not only inform but will have as its ideals the development of an attitude of
sympathetic tolerance and critical open-mindedness. Constructed on a problem solving organization
providing constant practice in choosing between alternatives, in making decisions and drawing
generalization. Children will be influenced to put their ideas in sanely action
Social Reconstruction ideas

Teaching of thinking skills. Teaching students how to use information. Use schooling to encourage social
trends. It combine classroom learning with the application in the outer world. Teachers and students are
partners in inquiry Instruction is usually carried on in a problem solving or inquiry format
The major assumption in social reconstruction is that future is not fixed it is amenable to modification and
improvement. The school as an institution cannot remain neutral in a changing world and can influence
and direct social change.
6. DE schooling Curriculum
Getting out of the formal way of schooling From a structured and authoritative way of
learning to unconventional, un structured autonomous way of learning. Alternative learning
mode
Alternative schools Travel-learn programs

Work and apprenticeship program Volunteer service Informal study in the community Affective
experiences Home schooling Basically this curriculum seeks to define education as a personal act.
Unit no 8: Instructional Process:

What is teaching and teaching process?
Teaching:
Teaching is the process of attending to people‟s needs, experiences and feelings, and
intervening so that they learn to go beyond the given and know possibility.
Modern definition:
 Impart knowledge to or instruct (someone) as to how to do something; or

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 Cause (someone) to learn or understand something by example or experience.
Teaching as a Process
Teaching is fundamentally a process, including planning, implementation, evaluation and
revision. Planning and teaching a class are familiar ideas to most instructors. More overlooked
are the steps of evaluation and revision. Without classroom assessments or some other means of
receiving feedback on a regular basis, it is surprisingly easy to misunderstand whether a
particular teaching method or strategy has been effective. A teacher can create an environment of
mutual trust and respect by relying on students for feedback -- students can be a valuable
resource for verifying whether the class pedagogy is (or isn't) working. Self-examination with
feedback from your students and the instructor are key to improving your teaching.
PLANNING
There are many different levels of setting goals for teaching, from the scale of an entire semester
(syllabus) to a single class (lesson plan). You have the overall task of helping your students learn
how to think critically and to understand the basic concepts and tools of your discipline. You
should also have more specific day-to-day goals, such as examining the social context of
Victorian women writers or demonstrating how to integrate partial differential equations. As a
graduate TA you probably will not be responsible for designing an entire course, but you should
think about how your day-to-day teaching fits into the larger goals of the course.
REVISION
Revising your pedagogy will help your students learn... and keep you interested. If you keep
your focus on student learning, you will find a richer meaning to the typical
lecture/discussion/test/grade process. Instead of an adversarial relationship, the teaching process
encourages a relationship of cooperation and mutual discovery. Ernest Boyer helped redefine the
notion of scholarship, in fact, by including the scholarship of teaching as a culminating activity
of the research process of discovery, integration, and application of knowledge (Boyer 1990).
ASSESSMENT
Regular assessment of your students and yourself is critical to your success as a teacher. To
really understand whether you are teaching effectively and your students are learning effectively,
it is crucial that you actively and regularly assess what your students have learned. If you are
able to solicit meaningful feedback from your students and the professor on a regular basis (not
just at the end of the semester), you can modify and improve your teaching strategies.
Assessments do not need to be overly complex or involved. In fact, the more focused you are in
the assessment, the more impact your changes will have.
IMPLEMENTATION
The best plans are meaningless if you don't try them. Although most of the work in teaching
comes in planning and preparation, many great ideas are never implemented because it was

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easier to just keep doing the same thing. Don't be afraid if you have and idea you want to try. If
something hasn't been working right, why not change what you are doing and try something
new? Unless you are willing to change and experiment, you will find it difficult to improve your
teaching skills.
Characteristics of a good teacher :

"The aim of teaching is simple: it is to make student learning possible...To teach is to make an
assumption about what and how the student learns; therefore, to teach well implies learning about
students' learning" (Ramsden, 1992).
1. Friendliness and Congeniality

I think the most important characteristic of a good teacher can have is to be friendly and congenial with his
students. It is a plus if his students can share their problems with him, without being afraid or hesitant. I think
students have always thoughts of their teachers as their enemies (in a funny sense though :p). With this
mentality, they can never be close to each other, and besides that how many teachers did you like who were
NOT friendly, and were rather arrogant and rude?
2. A Good Personality
A good teacher has a very good personality; there is no second thought about it. Students always get attracted
to teachers with good personality which leads to better communication, understanding, and ultimately good
results. Everyone can have a good, decent, likable, and presentable personality. Just dress sensibly well, smell
good, and be a little gentle and kind. That's all.
3. Deep Knowledge and a Great Education

Another important characteristic of a good teacher is his knowledge and own education. There is a saying
that 'a teacher is only as good as his knowledge is.'After all, he is doing a teacher's job, which is to teach. If
he himself lacks in the knowledge of a certain subject that he teaches, he is never going to make a name for
himself. So, sign up with only that subjects which you have really good expertise; and it is a moral duty too.
Otherwise, it is not worth it.
4. A Good Communicator
One of the very important characteristics of a good teacher is his communication skills. He should be a very
good speaker. This characteristic will provide benefits in several ways. For example:
1. If his communication skills are good, he can convey his lectures with better skill and results.
2. If he is a good speaker, his class strength increases automatically. People love to hear a person who he
can speak well enough. There is always a shortage of good speakers in the world ;)
5. A Good Listener
Apart from being a good communicator, a good teacher should also have the characteristic of being an even
better listener. As there is Turkish proverb:
"If speaking is silver; then listening is gold."

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Remember, a good listener will always have many friends and fans. Because people do not want to hear every
time, they need people who can listen to them as well. And when a good teacher develops this patient quality
in himself, he starts to become a great teacher.
6. A Good Sense of Humor

A good teacher should also have the quality and characteristic of having a good sense of humor. It is a logical
fact that a person generally teaches the next generation and as they are younger than the professor, they are
expected to have more fun in the class too. So, a good teacher is the one who can keep up with his sense of
humor, and with his strong communication skills and personality, can also maintain the discipline of the class.
7. Kindness
The last but obviously one of the most important characteristics to have in his box of qualities: he should be a
gentle, kind, chivalrous, and benevolent person. Students should love him, and when they do love him, they
idolize him. Then ultimately, they will respect him, will do the homework, and eventually will bring greater
outputs and results.
What is instructional design?

Instructional design can be defined as the creation of instructional materials, modules or lessons.
The instructional design process consists of determining the needs of the learners, defining the
end goals and objectives of instruction, designing and planning assessment tasks, and designing
teaching and learning activities to ensure the quality of instruction.
here are many instructional design models. For instance, Dick and Carey developed a nine-step
model.
Following an instructional design (e.g., ADDIE) model can help instructors to create meaningful
and effective instruction.

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Instructional Design
Instructional design is a technology for the development of learning experiences and
environments which promote the acquisition of specific knowledge and skill by students.
And instructional design theory is theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help
people learn and develop. The kinds of learning and development may include cognitive,
emotional, social, physical and spiritual…There are two major aspects of any instructional
situation: the conditions under which the instruction will take place and the desired outcomes of
the instructions.
Instructional Design is the art and science of creating an instructional environment and materials that will
bring the learner from the state of not being able to accomplish certain tasks to the state of being able to
accomplish those tasks. Instructional Design is based on theoretical and practical research in the areas of
cognition, educational psychology, and problem solving.
Unit no 9: Approaches to Teaching/ Methods and

Techniques
TEACHER –LED APPROACHES:
Lecture method of teaching:

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Definition of Lecture Method of Teaching

Lecture method of teaching is the oldest teaching method applied in educational institution. This teaching
method is one way channel of communication of information. Students‟ involvement in this teaching
method is just to listen and sometimes pen down some notes if necessary during the lecture, combine the
information and organized it.
One of the problems in this method is to grab the attention of students in class room. Another big problem
is that many students in the class cannot follow the theme. Learning has a strong influence on method of
teaching.
What is the Lecture Method?
The word lecture comes from the Latin word lectus, from the 14th century, which translates roughly
into “to read.” The term lecture, then, in Latin, means “that which is read.” It wasn‟t until the 16th
century that the word was used to describe oral instruction given by a teacher in front of an audience of
learners.
Today, lecturing is a teaching method that involves, primarily, an oral presentation given by an
instructor to a body of students. Many lectures are accompanied by some sort of visual aid, such as a
slideshow, a word document, an image, or a film. Some teachers may even use a whiteboard or a
chalkboard to emphasize important points in their lecture, but a lecture doesn‟t require any of these
things in order to qualify as a lecture. As long as there is an authoritative figure (in any given context)
at the front of a room, delivering a speech to a crowd of listeners, this is a lecture.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Lecture Method
Advantages of Lecture Method of Teaching

1. In this teaching method a large amount the topics can be covered in a single class period.
2. Using of this method exclude the using of any equipment or Lab.
3. Learning material is not required.
4. Student listening skills developed.
5. Logical arrangement of the material in order to present it orally
6. Help to learn languages
Disadvantages of Lecture Method of Teaching
1. Psychologically this method is acceptable because individuals are not alike. Teacher delivers the
same lecture to both students without recognizing the individual differences.
2. Learning is an active process thus study should encourage to actively participate in the class room
instead of just listening the teacher.
3. Language using in the lecture is above the standard of the students. They are not able get full
advantage of the lecture.
4. Lecture are often forgotten by the students soon after while learning is retained if activities are
experienced.
5. Attention level is not the same while student listening the lecture.
Learning is not a simple process. The pouring process is educationally not perfect or recommended for
secondary level students. At this level it is difficult for student to pick new concepts using lecture method
of teaching. They actually are meaningful, active and interesting experiences or activity in the class.

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Demonstration method of teaching:
The word demonstration means to give demos or to perform the particular activity or concept. In
demonstration method, the teaching-learning process is carried in a systematic way. Demonstration often
occurs when students have a hard time connecting theories to actual practice or when students are unable
to understand applications of theories. In order to make a success of demonstration method, three things
are necessary.
(a) The object being displayed during demonstration should not be so small.
(b) During the demonstration, the clear language should be used so that pupils may understand concept
easily.
(c) The pupils should be able to question teachers in order to remove their difficulties.
Characteristic of demonstration method
(1) The demonstration should be done in a simple way.
(2) In this strategy, attention is paid to all students.
(3) Goals and objections of demonstration are very clear.
(4) It is a well-planned strategy.
(5) Time is given for rehearsal before the demonstration.
Steps of Demonstration method
There are six steps of demonstration process.
(1) Planning and preparation
(2) Introducing the lesson
(3) Presentation of subject matter
(4) Demonstration
(5) Teaching Aids
(6) Evaluation
Merits of demonstration method

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(1) It helps a student in having a deeper understanding of the topic.
(2) It helps students remain active in teaching -learning process.
(3) It leads to permanent learning.
Demerits
(1) Students can not benefit with direct and personal experiences as teacher carry out the demonstration.
(2) It can be costly as it requires costly materials.
(3) It can be a time-consuming method.
LECTURE-CUM-DEMONSTRATION METHOD
Lecture-cum-demonstration includes the merits of the lecture as well as demonstration method. It

attempts to filter out the disadvantages of both. Demonstration means „to show‟. In Lecture method
teacher just tells but in demonstration method teacher shows and illustrates certain fundamental
phenomena.
Characteristics of good demonstration
1. Visibility
2. One major idea at a time
3. Clear cut
4. Convincing
5. Rehearsal
6. Supplemented with other teaching aids
7. Asking relevant questions
8. Neat, clean and tidiness
9. Simple and speedy
10. To write observation
11. Teacher to act as performer

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12. Sufficient time
Steps in Lecture-cum-demonstration
1) Planning and Presentation: While planning a demonstration the following points should be kept in
mind.
§ Subject matter
§ Lesson planning
§ Rehearsal of experiment
§ Collection and arrangement of apparatus
2) Introduction of lesson: The lesson may be introduced on the following basis
§ Student‟s personal experience
§ Student‟s environment
§ Telling story
§ A simple and interesting experiment
3) Presentation of the subject matter
§ The teacher must study the subject matter on broad basis taking into consideration the interest and
experience of students
§ While demonstration is going on, question should also be asked which help the students to understand the
principles
§ The teacher should try to illustrate the facts and principles
§ Language used by teacher should be simple and clear.
4) Experimentation
§ Demonstration should be properly spaced and striking, clear and convincing

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§ The demonstration table should have only apparatus
§ The experiment should be simple and speedy
§ All the apparatus should not be displayed at once
5) Blackboard work
A big blackboard behind the demonstration table is necessary in order to summarize the principles
and other matters of demonstration and also to draw necessary diagrams and sketches.
Advantages of Lecture-cum-Demonstration Method
 Economical: This method is economical as it helps in economizing resources
 Psychological Method: Demonstration method psychological as the students are shown concrete
things.
This method is especially useful where

 The apparatus is expensive
 The experiment involves some danger
 The apparatus is sensitive to break.
 The experiment involves some difficult and complex operation Student participation
 Save time and effort
 Helpful to promote useful discussion
 More efficient method
 Activity method
 Useful for all types of students
 Helpful for teacher
Disadvantages of Lecture-cum-demonstration Method
 Ignore maxim of education: The maxim of education, „Learning by Doing‟ and the principles of
psychology of learning has no place in this method.
 Visibility: Visibility is main problem for a teacher because all the students may not be able to see
the details and results of a demonstration

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 Speed of experiment: Either too fast or too slow speed of demonstration sometimes may create
trouble
 Ignore individual difference: This method totally ignores the main principle of psychology.
 Hinder progress: This method somehow hinder the development of laboratory skills among the
students
 Not useful for developing scientific attitude.
Child centered approaches:

Group work/discussion approach:
Group work can be an effective method to motivate students, encourage active learning, and develop key
critical-thinking, communication, and decision-making skills. But without careful planning and
facilitation, group work can frustrate students and instructors and feel like a waste of time. Use these
suggestions to help implement group work successfully in your classroom.
Preparing for group work
 Think carefully about how students will be physically arranged in groups.

 Insist on professional, civil conduct .
 Talk to students about their past experiences with group work and allow them to establish
some ground rules for successful collaboration. Designing the group activity
 Identify the instructional objectives.

 Make the task challenging.
 Assign group tasks that encourage involvement, interdependence, and a fair division of
labor.
 Decide on group size.
 Decide how you will divide students into groups.

 Allow sufficient time for group work.
 Design collaborative work in multiple forms
Teaching problem-solving skills

Many instructors in engineering, math and science have students solve “problems”. But are their students
solving true problems or mere exercises? The former stresses critical thinking and decisionCmaking skills
whereas the latter requires only the application of previously learned procedures. True problem solving is
the process of applying a method – not known in advance – to a problem that is subject to a specific set of
conditions and that the problem solver has not seen before, in order to obtain a satisfactory solution.

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Below you will find some basic principles for teaching problem solving and one model to implement in
your classroom teaching.
Principles for teaching problem solving
 Model a useful problem-solving method.

 Teach within a specific context.
 Help students understand the problem.
 Take enough time.
 Ask questions and make suggestions.
 Link errors to misconceptions
 Advantage
There are advantages of PBL.
 It is student-focused, which allows for active learning and better understanding and retention of
knowledge.
 It also helps to develop life skills that are applicable to many domains
 It can be used to enhance content knowledge while simultaneously fostering the development of
communication, problem-solving, critical thinking, collaboration, and self-directed learning skills.
 PBL may position students to optimally function using real-world experiences.
 By harnessing collective group intellect, differing perspectives may offer different perceptions and
solutions to a problem.
Disadvantages:
 According to Wood (2003), the major disadvantage to this process involves the utilization of
resources and tutor facilitation.
 It requires more staff to take an active role in facilitation and group-led discussion and some
educators find PBL facilitation difficult and frustrating.
 It is resource-intensive because it requires more physical space and more accessible computer
resources to accommodate simultaneous smaller group-learning.
 Students also report uncertainty with information overload and are unable to determine how
much study is required and the relevance of information available. Students may not have access
to teachers who serve as the inspirational role models that traditional curriculum offers.

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Use of ICT :
As previously pointed out in our review of the literature, one of the main concerns of studies on
educational technology has been to identify what uses of ICT are being applied in schools and how
teaching and learning processes can be better developed through them. Keeping in mind this perspective,
we considered it of interest to inquire into teachers‟ opinions about the teaching and learning processes
we could be encouraged to use when incorporating ICT in teaching and learning.
The teaching and learning processes we have highlighted are based on Bloom‟s taxonomy
(Bloom 1956Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals: Handbook I,
cognitive domain Bloom B.S.Longmans Green New York 1956 [Google Scholar]). Despite the
constructivist ideas that have been disseminated and accepted in the Spanish educational area, Bloom‟s
taxonomy is still respected and used, particularly as a referent in educational planning processes and to fix
identifiable aims in educational settings. This is so perhaps because many teachers have been trained on
this basis, and also because the taxonomy is useful when describing the students‟ learning levels and
domains.
Knowing teachers‟ opinion on the contribution of ICT in each of the domains established by Bloom
moves us closer to their vision on how technology might be used to reach the educational aims related to
each of the categories of Bloom‟s taxonomy. When asking about these categories, we are investigating
the learning aims that the teachers consider might be reached through the use of technology and the kind
of strategies that can be developed in the technology-mediated classrooms.
Bloom (1956Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals: Handbook I,

cognitive domain Bloom B.S.Longmans Green New York 1956 [Google Scholar]) classifies educational
objectives into three main domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor. In the cognitive domain are
those processes related to knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. In
the affective domain we find processes related to attention, elaboration of responding patterns, valuing
skills and development of organisational schemes. Finally, from the psychomotor domain we selected
perception, expression and communication skills.
The average scores from the questionnaires were quite high and were spread evenly across the three
domains . Therefore, we can affirm that teachers have a high expectation level with respect to ICT and a
positive estimation of its impact on learning: most of the teachers that took part contended that the use of
ICT in classrooms benefits some teaching and learning processes.
The use of ICT also stimulates the creation of responding mechanisms, needed to face learning
experiences and the resulting new demands. One of these mechanisms relates to applying what you have
learned, and in this respect ICT is also perceived as a help. ICT offers numerous possibilities to
manipulate and simulate situations, phenomena, actions, and so on, representing extraordinary
educational potential for the application of learning.

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Unit 10: Planning and Managing Teaching

Various Approaches of Lesson Planning
1. Pre-operational stage:
At the stage a child begins to construct sentenced. He learns to respond to the external world by means of
symbols. He does not view his worlds as composed of Constants, Properties of objects; do not remain
invariant for him.
He does not have concept of conservation and is prepared by perception. Preoperational children cannot
understand Science and mathematics concepts unless they do activities with concrete objects several
times by their own hands.
2. Formal operational stage:
At this stage a child exhibits the ability to form hypotheses and deduce possible results from these
hypotheses. He can think in terms of all possible combinations for a given problem and he can function at
an abstract level without. The necessity of perceiving the objects.
Formal operation children can understand Science concepts even without doing activities with concrete
objects by their own hands. It implies from Piaget's work that at primary school level most of the children
will be either at pre-operational stage and very few will be a formal operational stag.
Therefore majority of primary school children will be unable to understand Science concepts and skills
without working with concrete objects. Therefore, manipulating the objects, observing and performing
experiments are very essential for primary school children in order to learn science.
3. Concrete operational stage:
At this stage a child begins to structure basic ideas of conservation in the sense that certain properties of
objects remain invariant. At this stage a child must have real objects upon which to operate both
physically and mentally. The child can organise data from objects which are present in his immediate
environment but he cannot formulate generalizing hypotheses or concrete operational children cannot
understand Science and Mathematics concepts unless they do activities with concrete objects at least once
by their own hands.
4. Sensory- Motor Periods:
Mostly activities and no thought highly dependent on parents for satisfying its physical needs- not self
conscious limited linguistic ability and so mainly performs overt activities. The gains of this stage may be
stated as follows-
i. Variety is available patterns of action, the growing recognition of symbols, rudimentary projecting of
time, as well as increased accommodation stress the internal aspects of the child's prospective behaviour.
ii. The recognition of a particular stimulus as a part of an entire action sequence introduces the use of
symbols as a kind of shorthand to comprehension, and leads eventually to communication. This early
awareness of stimuli as symbols also serves as an introduction to a sense of future.

46
iii. Awareness of time very vague before and after and in each action sequence.
iv. This co-ordination of separate experiences into one scheme makes the child realise that he also is part
of the action.
v. Various response pattern are finally fused into a single.
vi. Qualitative evaluation finds their roots in this simple experience.
vii. Reacts to distant objects- beginning of the differentiation between cause and effect takes place.
5. Piagetian Approach:
Jean Piaget was a biologist and naturalist interested more in Psychology. He was a specialist in the area of
cognitive development. He choose problems for investigation from the area of cognition without
considering at the same time, any other outside variables like intelligence, socio-economic status,
personality treats and even motivation.
He acknowledged his debt to Gestalt psychology in his thinking. He did not use standardised procedures
and did not explain many of his concepts. His approach is elastic and flexible. He was interested in
successive cognitive structures in the whole process of autogenetic development among normal children.
Through the use of symbolic logic, Piaget is able to discuss the properties of thinking at various age levels
in terms of what operations children within the age group are capable or incapable of performing.
Types of Lesson Plans

Lesson plans are an essential component of a successful teaching experience. These plans
help ensure that all standards and materials are covered, providing a teacher and students
with structure for each class day. Many schools require that teachers submit lesson plans in a
specific format on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. For teachers who do not have a required
format, a variety of formats are available to meet individual needs.
What is the Instruction Plan?
The basics of early childhood education are to respect the life of a child and to promote his/her voluntary
activities. However, respecting children‟s voluntariness does not mean to leave them to play as they like.
Teachers should care for children within the objectives and perspectives of early childhood education. As
explained in the previous section, the curriculum is a holistic educational plan which is formulated with
the intention of achieving specific aims throughout a child‟s life at kindergarten. On the other hand, as is
stated below, instruction plans are formulated more concretely in order to achieve the aims stipulated in
the curriculum. They show „when‟ and „what kind of activities‟ children do with the aim of promoting
their development and active life. Try hard to understand about children, and especially recognize their
interests, attitudes toward their life or play, and relationships with teachers and other children. And so
instruction plans should be formulated so that children can have experiences appropriate for their age or
development stage.
Teachers formulate instruction plans by setting objectives and curriculum content so that the curriculum is
put into practice, creating an environment that enables children to achieve the objectives and curriculum

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content and making sure that teachers‟ support leads the activities in a favorable direction. １ Instruction
Plans:
There are two types of instruction plans:
 Long-Term Plans
 Short-Term Plans
- long-term instruction plans:
 yearly and monthly plans

short-term instruction plans:
 weekly and daily plans.

Teachers think about and write down the following three aspects, in the form appropriate for the
characteristics of each plan:
1. Contents of activities: what you hope children will experience.
2. Objectives of curriculum content: aspects expected to be developed through the activities.
3. Creation of the environment: how to provide an appropriate environment to achieve the objectives of
curriculum content.
3.Formulation of an instruction plan (Daily/ Weekly/Monthly /Yearly):
Early Childhood Education Handbook Research Center for Child and Adolescent Development and
Education Ochanomizu University
○Yearly Plan: Instruction plan that covers a school year (from April to March in Japan)
○Monthly Plan: Instruction plan that covers a month in order to put the yearly plan into practice
○Weekly Plan: Instruction plan that covers a week and is formulated concretely in order to put the
monthly plan into practice, paying attention to the continuity of life
○Daily Plan: Instruction plan that covers a day and shows the life of children at kindergarten in detail .
It should be remembered that instruction plans are merely „plans‟. If teachers stick to those plans but the
education has little to do with the realities of the children‟s lives, they cannot promote proper
development. It is important for teachers to be sensitive to - the changes in children‟s interests, attitudes
towards their life or play, relationships with teachers or other children, or changes of weather/temperature
- and then flexibly modify or change plans.
Points for Consideration:
Formulation of Long-Term/Short-Term Instruction Plans:
(1) Understanding of the Child and Child Development: It is firstly crucial to understand the child –
who must be the focus of early childhood education. Try to understand each child by knowing about
such aspects as family background, the present development level, his/her interests, the attitude

48
towards life or play and relationship with teachers or other children and so on. One way to achieve
this understanding is to learn about the „average child‟ during early childhood, from the perspective
of developmental/children‟s psychology. In other words, you understand the nature of the „future
child‟, based on the academic knowledge. The other aspect is more practical - to recognize child
development by closely looking at the state of each child. Even in the same class with children at the
same age, each has his/her own pace of development, which should be fully respected. In short, try to
see and understand the real state of each child.
(2) Aims and Curriculum content:
The „aims‟ of kindergarten education are to nurture the emotions, will and attitudes that are expected
to be developed by the time children leave kindergarten. The „curriculum content‟ is developed with
the intention of achieving the aims. It should be remembered that not only activities themselves but
also psychological aspects such as a sense of achievement, satisfaction or fulfillment that children
can feel through the activities are included in the „curriculum content‟.
(3) Creation of an Appropriate Environment:
After making „aims‟ and „curriculum content‟ clear, think about how to create an appropriate
environment to achieve those aims. Children live and develop through their interaction with the
surrounding environment.
Key factors of an appropriate environment for early childhood education are „free from danger‟,
„appropriate for their development level‟, „meeting the interests and curiosity of children‟ and
„stimulating children to try tasks that teachers want them achieve‟. Teachers try to create an
environment that encourages children to voluntarily get involved in their surroundings by combining
the factors mentioned above.

Formulation of Long-Term Instruction Plans
(1) Yearly Plan
The yearly plan is formulated thinking about a year of a child‟s life in relation to the curriculum of a
kindergarten. When formulating the plan, you firstly have to know about the children. Thinking
about the number of children, the ratio of boys and girls, and age difference in your class helps you
grasp their interests and curiosity. Secondly, you have to think deeply how to place annual events
that mark the stages of their lives at kindergarten. It is important to formulate a yearly plan which
ensures that the children do not to feel overwhelmed. In addition, the changes of the seasons should
be taken into consideration. A plan should encourage children to notice the changes of the seasons,
and to develop their emotions through close contact with nature and the seasons.
(2) Monthly Plan :
The school year starts in April and ends in March in Japan. We make a detailed monthly plan based
on the yearly instruction plan. The monthly plan is formulated giving consideration to the season,
events in the month, children‟s developmental stage and so on.
Formulation of Short-Term Instruction Plans
(1) Weekly Plan :

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The weekly instruction plan is formulated in order to put the monthly plan into practice. In
formulating it, consideration should be given to the continuity of life of the children, because we
generally spend our daily life on a weekly basis. And so the weekly plan is very concrete and
practical.
(2) Daily Plan
The basic unit of a child‟s life is a day. Teachers formulate a daily plan thinking about children‟s
activities, the creation of a good environment and how to support them, hoping that they can spend a
full and enjoyable life at kindergarten. This is the most practical and concrete instruction plan, which
shows a day of children at kindergarten in detail. There is no standardized format for the instruction
plan. Although some kindergartens use a standardized format among teachers, it is basically a teacher
who is responsible for working out and formulating it. Some experienced teachers who can easily
think about various important aspects formulate a „weekly and daily plan‟ that literally combines a
„weekly plan‟ with a „daily plan‟.
TIME MANAGEMENT:
Working as a teacher requires excellent time management skills. Teachers need to balance the long-term
goals of the classroom, the immediate educational needs of the students and the large volume of
paperwork that comes with every assignment. Between writing lesson plans, grading exams and actually
teaching, teachers often feel that it is impossible to fit everything into the allotted time frame.
Although the career path seems to have too much work for the number of hours in a day, it is possible to
manage the situation and clear extra time in the classroom and outside of class. With effective time
management skills, teachers can increase their productivity and provide a better education for their
students.
Here are five effective time management tips teachers can use every day.
TIPS:
 Organize the day by priorities
 Strategically plan homework assignments
 Avoid “loaded” procrastination
 Plan for potential crises
 Set aside personal time

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Unit 11: Teaching Aids and Instructional Technology

What is Instructional Technology?
The term instructional technology came in to being in the late 1960s and James D. Finn Professor at the
University of California is considered to be proponent of this term. During those years the term in use was
audio-visual media, which included radio and television films. But over a period of time new technologies
came into being and found its place in education; and this trend is continuing. If you notice whenever a
new technology arrives, people try to find its potential to deal with problems in education and teaching.
Most of the technologies were imported to education. There is a view that no technology was developed
to deal issues in education. Probably this is debatable issue.

51
We live in a dynamic world surrounded by almost endless amounts of information. Riding the coattails of
information is all of the technology we have at our fingertips. For as prevalent as technology is now, is it
replacing real lasting education? Does technology have a place in our classrooms?
The kids seem to really enjoy it and are excited about using it. Those interested in embracing technology
need to educate themselves on what's out there. Here is a small sliver of the advantages we gain from
using technology to educate people.
Equality: School districts across the country are not created equal. There is so much disparity in
educational resources depending on the wealth, or lack thereof, depending on certain areas. Students
using technology in low-income districts gain significant skills and advantages in the learning process.
Using the same technology is an equalizer for disadvantaged students.
Future: The world is moving towards technology at a breakneck pace. Educators have a responsibility to
introduce, encourage, and help students master technology, as well as subjects, as it applies to school and
the future. Technology will be used in every aspect of the professional lives of current students. So upon
graduation, whether the next step is college or career, technology will be used daily. Why not use it daily
in school?
Mobile: Using technology the classroom can be taken anywhere. With all the knowledge and resources
contained and deliverable on demand on a mobile device, students can learn at home or in the “field”.
Mobile technology allows for greater collaboration between students promoting strong foundations in
group work.
Motivation: Technology tracks and reports student's progress instantly. What fun is running a marathon if
you don't know how long it takes. Runners can get instant feedback from hundreds of data points as to
their condition. This feedback provides instant motivation to improve performance.
Similarly, students who use technology are motivated to improve performance. Just like they do at home
on their gaming consoles. Trying to beat high scores at home and trying to beat high scores in math use
the same psychology.
Social: This runs along the same lines as motivation. Creating a social element to educational technology
can allow for healthy competition amongst peers both in the same classroom or across the country.
Performing well and earning badges to gain virtual social status is at the heart of many social applications
today. Personal identities do not have to be used, instead, students could use avatars to hide possible
confidentiality breaches. Using technology to make education have social elements can make learning
very addictive.
Savings: The savings which result from using technology can come in many facets. On a basic level
technology can replace infrastructure. Desks, books, lab equipment and other items are a heavy cost
burden on schools everywhere. Technology and devices can help save on these costs. In addition,
geographically isolated or economically disadvantaged children can benefit from access to online
software or resources which would be cost prohibitive without technology.
Updates: I recently read an article that reported students using 10-year-old textbook in school. Updating
textbooks can cost lots of money and do significant damage to budgets. On the other hand, updating
software and educational content are not as expensive or cumbersome. With the help of technology,

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course curriculum can reflect real world data. In some applications, students can be exposed to real-time
information.
Assessments: Assessing students performance can be done instantly with technology. It's more than just
test scores, simply understanding students grasp of the subject in real time can be done on tablets in
classrooms. A classroom could be questioned with a multiple-choice problem. Students could then input
their answer and the feedback score is instantly given to the student and teacher. Corrections can be made
long before examinations.
Global: Students and classrooms or even schools can be connected to anyone in the world instantly.
Devices coupled to the Internet can allow for a free way to communicate globally. The chance to
understand international or different cultural perspectives on the same topic is incredible.
Convenience: Having children carry heavy backpacks, textbooks, and binders isn't very efficient. A new
lightweight laptop weighs less than 5 pounds and can have an internal storage capability of more than 2
million illustrated pages. In addition to an internal hard drive, access to the Internet can provide an almost
unlimited source of information. Ergonomic issues and back pain are a real problem in children. These
conditions can lead to chronic problems throughout adulthood.
Education coupled with technology is overall a very positive thing. It's still in relative infancy and
progress will continue to move forward making better systems. Teachers will still retain control over
learning.
The school of 10 years ago looks very different from schools today. Also, students are being inundated
with technology at a very young age. The transition has already begun. Education of the future will be
delivered with current information delivered through traditional teaching methods and fantastic
technological tools.
Selection and use of teaching aids:
Meaning of Teaching Aids
As we all know that today's age is the age of science and technology. The teaching learning programmes
have also been affected by it. The process of teaching - learning depends upon the different type of
equipment available in the classroom.
Need of Teaching Aids
1) Every individual has the tendency to forget. Proper use of teaching aids helps to retain more concept
permanently.
2) Students can learn better when they are motivated properly through different teaching aids.
3) Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear taste and smell properly.

53
4) Teaching aids provide complete example for conceptual thinking.
5) The teaching aids create the environment of interest for the students.
6) Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students.
7) Teaching aids helps the teacher to get sometime and make learning permanent.
8) Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students.
Types of Teaching Aids
There are many aids available these days. We may classify these aids as follows-
. Visual Aids
. Audio Aids
. Audio - Visual Aids
1) Visual Aids
The aids which use sense of vision are called Visual aids. For example :- actual objects, models, pictures,
charts, maps, flash cards, flannel board, bulletin board, chalkboard, overhead projector, slides etc. Out of
these black board and chalk are the commonest ones.
2) Audio Aids
The aids that involve the sense of hearing are called Audio aids. For example :- radio, tape recorder,
gramophone etc.
3) Audio - Visual Aids

The aids which involve the sense of vision as well as hearing are called Audio- Visual aids. For example
:- television, film projector, film strips etc.
Importance of Teaching aids
Teaching aids play an very important role in Teaching- Learning process. Importance of Teaching aids
are as follows :-
1) Motivation
Teaching aids motivate the students so that they can learn better.

54
2) Clarification
Through teaching aids , the teacher clarify the subject matter more easily.
3) Discouragement of Cramming
Teaching aids can facilitate the proper understanding to the students which discourage the act of
cramming.
4) Increase the Vocabulary

Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the students more effectively.
5) Saves Time and Money
6) Classroom Live and active

Teaching aids make the classroom live and active.
7) Avoids Dullness
8) Direct Experience
Teaching aids provide direct experience to the students
Teaching Aids Influencing Factors & Importance Of Teaching Aids In Teaching Learning Process
Factors Influencing the Selection of Teaching Aids:

Teaching Aids :- As we all know that today‟s age is the age of science and technology. The teaching
learning programmes have also been affected by it. The process of teaching – learning depends upon the
different type of equipment available in the classroom.
No single rule-of-thumb can be given for the selection and use of various audio-visual aids to ensure
effectiveness in all situations. In order to get the most effective Results, the following aspects are
important.
1. Selection of appropriate aids.

2. Suitable combination of the selected aids.
3. There use in proper sequence.
Audio-visual aids are used singly or in combination, there by taking into consideration the following
factors:
1. Nature of Audience: Printed media are meant for literate people, whereas exhibits, pictures, and
symbols are for less literate people.
2. Size of Audience. A video show or whiteboard cannot be used effectively when the number of
participants exceeds 30; internet can be used for large audience.
3. Teaching objective or Expected nature of change: selected the audio-visual aids based on the
objective of extension teaching, that is, to bring about a change in Thinking or knowledge, Attitude
or filling, And Actions or skills.If you merely want to inform or to influence a large number of
people slightly, use mass media such as radio or television.

55
4. Nature of subject Matter: I case new practice is simple and familiar, a news article, a radio
message, or a circular letter will be effective whereas complex or unfamiliar practices will require
audio-visual aids.
5. Availability of Aids: Despite the availability of the internet two decades back, it was not being
used on a large scale. With availability of speed, due to better technology, and cost effectiveness,
more people are now using internet based technologies as teaching aids.
6. Relative Cost: Effective aids need not be necessary costly. The amount expended on audio-visual
aids, in relation it the extent of effectiveness, is also an important consideration in their selection
and use.
The End

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The Leeds College Dahranwala

The Leeds College Dahranwala

Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

Unit no 1 : Introduction To Curriculum

Key Differences Between Syllabus and Curriculum

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4. The curriculum has a wider scope than the syllabus.

Definition of Curriculum Development

Its need and importance may be summed up as follows:

1. Achievement of Educational Aims

Curriculum need and Importance

1. Achievement of educational aims;

There are three main factors of educational process

(a) The aims of education

Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

3. Selection of Suitable Methods

4. Reflects Trends in Education

Principles of curriculum development:

Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

Major components of curriculum:

A curriculum has five major components:

(5) Evaluation methods and techniques for students.

Several factors affecting curriculum development:

Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

Philosophical/ ideological foundation

It is concerned with beliefs.

Philosophical/ ideological Implications on Curriculum

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Role of the History of curriculum in the development of curriculum

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Unit no 3 : CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

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Selection of aims , goals and Objectives;

1. What should be achieved through the school curriculum?

Objectives are essential because they:

Formulation of Curriculum Desig:

Development of Syllabuses or content:

Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

Development and Selection of Teaching and Learning Materials:

Curriculum Monitoring and Evaluation:

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Unit o 4: Curriculum design

What is curriculum design?

Purpose of Curriculum Design

Teachers design a curriculum with a specific purpose in mind.

Types of Curriculum Design

There are three basic types of curriculum design:

Subject-Centered Curriculum Design

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Learner-Centered Curriculum Design

Problem-Centered Curriculum Design

Curriculum Design Tips

Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

Sarfraz Ahmed … 0303-7187980

Unit no 5 : Models of Curriculum Development

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1. Diagnosis of learners needs:

 Diagnose of achievement.  Diagnosis of students as learner.  Diagnosis of curriculum problems.

 Transmit culture  Reconstruct society  Fullest development of individual To guide on curriculum

3. Selection and organization of content:

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