WHAT IS SITE INVESTIGATION?
BACKGROUND INFORMATION BEFORE SUBSURFACE
 is the process of collecting information, assessment of the
data, and reporting potential hazards beneath a site
which are unknown.
 is carried out in order to enable a geotechnical and
geoenvironmental assessment of the ground conditions
SITE INVESTIGATION PROCESS
 Table Study - it includes ordinance map, geological data,
previous projects
 Site Visit - it includes layout sketch, existing services,
access to site, nearest town
 Site Report - it includes detail report consisting geological
report, soil data
PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF SITE INVESTIGATION
 To determine the stratigraphy of the site.
 To gather the information needed to carry out
the risk assessment
 To access the general suitability of the site.
 To achieve safe and economical design of
foundations and temporary works.
 To know the nature of each stratum and
engineering properties of the soil and rock
 To foresee and provide against difficulties that
may arise during construction due to ground
and other local conditions.
 To find out the sources of construction material
and selection of sites for disposal of water or
surplus material.
 To investigate the occurrence or causes of all
natural and man made changes in conditions
and the results arising from such changes.
 To ensure the safety of surrounding existing
structures.
 To design for the failed structures or remedial
measures for the structures deemed to be
unsafe.
 To locate the ground water level and possible
corrosive effect of soil and water on
foundation material.
IMPORTANCE OF SITE INVESTIGATION
 A thorough investigation of the site is an essential
preliminary to the construction of any civil
engineering works.
 Site investigations are an essential procedure
when drafting plans for an upcoming
construction project.
 Site investigations are also helpful as it can help
you come up with solutions that will mitigate
the impacts of ground-related
disasters like earthquakes.
INVESTIGATION
Before actual field investigation is started, the
information should, whenever possible, be collected on:
1. The type of structure to be built, its intended use;
2. Characteristics of the structure;
3. Starting date;
4. Intended construction method;
5. The estimated period of construction;
6. The probable soil condition at the site, by
geological, geotechnical or aerial analysis;
7. The behavior of existing structures adjacent to
the site, as well as other facts available
through local experience.
THE EXTENT OF SOIL INVESTIGATION
Subsurface condition at a site may be relatively uniform
or extremely variable and will largely determine the complexity
of the problems to be faced in both design and construction of
the foundations. The subsurface investigation must, therefore,
be of sufficient extent to provide enough information for a
thorough understanding of the interaction of proposed
foundations and supporting soil or rock on which to base a safe
and economical design.
DEPTH OF SITE INVESTIGATION
The site investigation should be carried to such a depth
that the entire zone of soil or rock affected by the changes
caused by the building or the construction will be adequately
explored. This may be taken as depth at which vertical stress
induced by the new construction is smaller than 10% of the
existing overburden stress at that level.
Stages of Site Investigation:
The approach adopted for a particular site investigation, its
extent and the techniques used will all depend upon the site-
specific circumstances, and the experience and judgment of
those involved. There is no single way to carry out an
investigation, and inevitably different advisors will adopt
different approaches for any particular project. However, it is
usual for the site investigation to be a phased exercise.
For any project soil investigation is usually performed in several
stages, i.e., during feasibility and planning stage, before
construction and during construction (if required). These are
termed as:
1.) Preliminary investigation
2.) Detailed investigation
3.) Supplementary investigation and construction controls
Preliminary Site Investigation:
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This phase includes gathering information such as the type of 6. Results of chemical and bacteriological analysis of
structure to be constructed and its future use, the contaminated soils, fill materials and emissions to determine
requirements of local building codes, and the column and load health hazard risks.
bearing wall loads.

Considerable savings in the exploration program can Geological methods

sometimes be realized if the geotechnical engineer in charge of
the project thoroughly reviews the existing information Geological methods rely on the identification of rocks
regarding the subsoil conditions at the site under and minerals and an understanding of the environment in
consideration. Useful information can be obtained from the which they formed. These surveys aim to find what rock types
following sources. occur at or close to the surface and how these rock types are
related to each other i.e. their boundaries, ages, and structure.
1. Geologic survey maps.
Surface Investigations
2. County soil survey maps prepared by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture and the soil conservation service. Aerial surveys
3. Soil manuals published by the state highway department.
4. Existing soil exploration reports prepared for the The entire area involving an engineering study is
construction of nearby structures. photographed using sophisticated cameras and controls from
5. The engineer should visually inspect the site and the low flying aeroplanes. These maps are then interpreted to
surrounding area. In many cases, the information gathered provide sufficiently accurate geological details of the area
from such a trip is invaluable for future planning. The type of surveyed.
vegetation at a site may in some instances the type of subsoil Photogeology
that will be encountered.
Its scope is enlarged by mapping of vast areas of the
Detailed Site Investigation: globe through satellites. Imageries obtained from satellite
surveys and aerial surveys, when interpreted properly, provide
This phase consists of making several test borings at the site useful details regarding rock outcrops on the surface with
and collecting disturbed and undisturbed soil samples from possibilities of estimating their subsurface configuration.
various depths for visual observation and for laboratory tests.
Hydrogeological surveys
No hard and first rule exists for determining the number of
borings or the depth to which the test boring is to be advanced. It is the science of measurement and description of
For most buildings, at least one boring at each corner and one features which affect maritime navigation, marine
at the center should provide a start. Depending on the construction, dredging, offshore oil exploration/offshore oil
uniformity of the subsoil, additional test borings may be made. drilling and related activities.
The test borings should extend through unsuitable foundation
materials to firm soil layers. I. Hydrogeological surveys to obtain hydrogeological
details of the area are also conducted partly on the
Supplementary Investigation and Construction Control: surface with a view of recording following details that
are of immense help in the later studies:
1. Any special features such as the possibility of each quake or Drainage pattern of the area and discharge;
climatic factors such as flooding, seasonal swelling, and II. Location and discharge details of springs and other
shrinkage, permafrost, or soil erosion. leakage points;
2. The availability and quality of local constructional materials III. Location of wells and measurements of water levels
such as concrete aggregates, building and road stone, and after intervals to note aberrations in behaviour with
water for constructional purposes. time;
3.For maritime or river structures information on normal spring IV. Precipitation and evaporation details.
and neap tide ranges, extreme high and low tidal ranges and Subsurface investigation
river levels, seasonal river levels and discharges, the velocity of
the tidal and river currents and other hydrographic and Direct subsurface exploration
meteorological data.
Involves examination of rocks or materials of the
4. Results of laboratory tests on soil and rock samples
underground by digging of drill holes, trial pits, shafts, galleries
appropriate to the particular foundation design or construction
and exploratory tunnels. In such explorations, both the
problems.
underground areas are reached for direct examination and
5. Results of chemical analysis of soil, fill materials, and
testing or samples are obtained which are examined and tested
groundwater to determine possible deleterious effects on
in the laboratory.
foundation structures.

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Indirect subsurface Explorations When selecting a geophysical method, the following should be
completed:
The indirect methods of subsurface explorations are
used extensively and involve application of geophysical  Define the objective of the investigation.
techniques for obtaining fairly accurate idea of subsurface  Review site-specific geology.
geology.  Determine if cultural features are present that may
interfere with the instrument(s).
Exploration Techniques
 Determine site access.
Diamond Drilling  Consult with a person with expertise in geophysical
data reduction and interpretation.
Enables the mapping of the bedrock at depth, its geology and  Determine cost.
possible mineralization. Core drilling can take place to depths
as great as 2000 meters. Kinds of Geophysical Method

This method has some impact on the environment as bore hole 1. Gravimetric Method
entails an intervention in the bedrock. 2. Magnetic Method
3. Electrical Method
Geochemical Sampling 4. Seismic Method
5. Geothermal Method
Analyses till and drill cuttings to trace mineralization. Limited
impact on the environment in the form of minor ground GRAVIMETRIC METHOD
damage may occur.
 a method which make use of the natural gravity field
Bedrock Mapping of the earth
 the nature of distribution of gravity “g” on the surface
Documents the geological properties of outcrops,
is analyzed
including metallic minerals, and gathers the information in
 gravity investigations are useful in exploration of ore
databases for interpretation and analysis.
deposits, solving regional geological problem,
The method has limited or no environmental impact. exploration of oil and natural gas deposits and solving
some engineering problems
Boulder Hunting
EXAMPLE:
Physically searching on site for geologically interesting
boulders that have separated from the bedrock in connection  GRAVIMETER
with inland ice sheet movements and are now a part of till - also known as “gravity meter”
layer. The discovery of copper or zinc indicates the possibility - an instrument for measuring the
od deposits in nearby bedrock. difference in the force of gravity from
one place to another
The method has limited or no environmental impact.
the purpose of this instrument is to map the gravity field in
Geophysical Surveys space and time
Investigates the bedrock’s physical properties. MAGNETIC METHOD
Surveys can be performed from the air, manually on the ground
or using probes lowered into bore holes.  Like gravity methods, these investigations also take
advantage of natural magnetic field associated with
The method has limited or no environmental impact.
the earth and its relation to subsurface geology.
 The magnetic methods are based on the fact that the
magnetic bodies present in the earth’s surface
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS contribute to the magnetic field of the earth.
are investigative techniques that directly or indirectly  Gradiometer – the material used for measuring the
measure the presence of resources or material gradient of an energy field, especially the horizontal
behavior concealed within the earth’s subsurface as a gradient of the earth’s gravitational or magnetic field.
result of geologic processes or human disturbances ELECTRICAL METHOD
can provide valuable information for placing
monitoring wells and borings  Uses electrical resistance (poor conductivity)
can be used in the investigation to confirm and properties to identify buried cultural resources.
improve site characterization  Widely used than those other methods because of its
capability in identifying the presence of nearly all

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 forms of constructed features, such as foundations,
paths, roads, compacted soils, indicative of a former
pathway, and disturbed soils, such as those found at
burial sites and cultivated fields.
 Terameter – the material used for identifying buried
cultural resources underneath.
SEISMIC METHOD
 Measures the response of seismic (sound) waves that
are input into the earth and then refract along or
reflect off subsurface soil and rock boundaries.
 Seismic source is usually a sledgehammer blow to a
metal plate on the ground.
 Geophones – the material use to record seismic waves
generated by an explosion (the sledgehammer blow)
for the purpose of recording reflection ang refraction
of these waves.
GEOTHERMAL METHOD
 It is using of natural heat produced inside the earth.
 It finds application in deep structural studies, ore
deposits, groundwater studies, for delineation of salt-
water fresh water interfaces.
 The most expensive method of them all.
 temperature distribution on the surface of the earth
is due to three different sources:
(i) heat received from the sun,
(ii) heat conveyed from the hot interior of the earth
due to conduction and convection processes,
(iii) heat due to decay of radioactive minerals in the
crust of the earth.
Geothermal Power Plants – the material used in this method
Seismic and Electrical resistivity methods of soil exploration:
These are the indirect methods of soil exploration.
Seismic methods:
In impact or explosion that generate sound waves are usually
of three types, namely:
 Surface waves ( Rayleigh waves)
 Compression waves
 Shear waves
-it is based on the principle that subsurface rock formations
bear different elastic properties. Propagation of seismic waves
through the subsurface layers of earth are detected by
geophones. Through this, it is possible to determine the depth
of various elastic boundaries.
Two types
 Seismic refraction-the signal returns to the surface by
refraction at subsurface interfaces, and is recorded at
distances much greater than depth of investigation.
 Seismic reflection- the seismic signal is reflected back
to the surface at layer interfaces, and is recorded at
distances less than depth of investigation.
Electrical resistivity methods:
Electrical methods are numerous and more versatile. They are
more popular because they are successful in dealing with a
variety of problems like groundwater studies, subsurface
structures and many others.
Electric methods are based on the fact that the subsurface
formation, structures, ore deposits, etc. possess different
electrical properties. These differences are investigated
suitably and exploited to draw the necessary conclusion.
These are also the indirect methods of soil exploration. The
difference of electrical resistivity between the various strata is
the base of this method. Rocks or dense soil can be
differentiated on the basis of electrical resistivity from the
loose soil, as the value of electrical resistivity in rocks is higher
than the value of electrical resistivity in loose soil.
The changes in the spacing between the inner electrodes
depends upon the condition of the site and the requirement of
the data (i.e. the intensity of investigation). The spacing
between the electrodes should be constant.
Geo-technical tests -to understand the characteristics such as
the physical properties that exist underneath a work site. Geo-
technical testing will include a walk around of the surface
conditions as well as one or more of a variety of tests.
Test Pits
Test pits are much like you would expect, a pit is dug either
manually or with an excavator in order to reveal the sub-
surface conditions to the depth desired.
Trenching
Trenching is similar to Test pits except that in this case, the pit
is elongated over some distance in order to establish how the
sub-surface conditions change over various parts of the work
site. A range of soil samplers can be used to extract test
samples including shovels, hand-driven augers, split-spoon
samplers, modified California samplers and Shelby tube
samplers.
Boring
Borings, usually small-diameter borings, provide the
opportunity to physically remove soil or rock samples for
testing. Borings provide the advantage of letting you ‘see’ the
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actual materials, but for certain types of soils, the very act of
boring can disturb the soil conditions and the samples
extracted may not represent what the conditions will actually
be for building and supporting structures since it is unscientific
and void of actionable data.
Generally, soil samples from the above tests are taken to a lab
where they are evaluated.
In-Situ Testing
In-situ (in the situation, or at site) testing methods include
penetration tests such as Standard Penetration Tests (SPT),
which penetrate via drilling, and various Cone Penetration
Tests, which penetrate via direct push . These tests measure
the physical properties of the subsurface soil directly, without
removal. This provides the advantages of generating a more
accurate reflection of conditions underground as well as
avoiding the necessity of sending samples out for lab testing.
The right test should be specified for the right situation. By
understanding the different types of tests available and the
advantages of each, you can help your clients to understand
the advantages of CPT and expand your business while helping
your clients to generate better results, faster and less
expensively.
In-situ (in the situation, or at site) testing methods include
penetration tests such as Standard Penetration Tests (SPT),
which penetrate via drilling, and various Cone Penetration
Tests, which penetrate via direct push. These tests measure the
physical properties of the subsurface soil directly, without
removal.
This provides the advantages of generating a more accurate
reflection of conditions underground as well as avoiding the
necessity of sending samples out for lab testing.
Types of Penetration Test
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT) or Dynamic Cone
Penetration (DCP)
 Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
Standard/Dynamic Penetration Test
- Used to measure the strength of in-situ soil and the
thickness and location of subsurface soil layers,
namely the relative density and shear strength of the
soil. It is also economical in nature.
- The SPT consists of driving a 2-inch (5-cm) outside
diameter (OD) “split barrel” sampler at the bottom of
an open borehole with a 140-pound (63.6-kg)
hammer dropped 30 inches (75 cm). The “N” value is
the number of blows to drive the sampler the last 1
foot (30 cm), expressed in blows per foot.
- The number of hammer strikes it takes for the tube to
penetrate the second and third 6 inch depth is called
the 'standard penetration resistance', or otherwise
called the 'N-value'. The standard penetration
resistance offers a gauge of the soil density of soils
which are hard to pull up with simply a borehole
sampling approach.
- After the penetration test is completed, the sampler
is retrieved from the hole. The split barrel is opened,
the soil is classified, and a moisture specimen is
obtained. After the test, the borehole is extended to
the next test depth and the process is repeated.
- A widely used soil testing procedure.
- Useful in areas that are difficult to access with any
vehicles for very preliminary testing of near surface
conditions.
- But it’s not as accurate as the Static Cone Penetration
Test.
Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
- Cone Penetration Testing allows the tester to identify
the nature and sequence of subsurface soil types and
to learn the physical and mechanical characteristics of
the soil – without necessarily taking a soil sample.
- During a CPT test, a hardened cone is driven vertically
into the ground at a fixed rate, while electrical sensors
on the cone measure the forces exerted on it. The
zone behavior type of the subsurface layers can be
extrapolated from two basic readings: cone or tip
resistance and sleeve friction.
- Depending on your testing needs, CPT systems can be
fitted with a variety of additional sensors to measure
quantities including:
- soil moisture
- pH
- temperature
- electrical resistivity (to detect groundwater
contamination)
- fluorescence (indicates hydrocarbon contamination
- CPT systems can also be used to take soil samples -
and liquid and gas samples, as well.
Factors that Affects the Accuracy
- Overburden Stress: the pressure exerted on a
substrate by the weight of the overlying material.
- Pore Water Pressure: the pressure of the
groundwater in the gaps between soil or rock
particles.
Difference between CPT and DCP/SPT
- DCP is similar to CPT in that a metal cone is advanced
into the ground to continuously characterize soil
behaviour. However, unlike in CPT, where the cone is
driven into the ground at a constant rate by varying
amounts of force, in DCP, the cone is driven by a
standard amount of force from a hammer, and how
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 far the cone moves with each blow is used to
determine the soil density and properties at that level.
In DCP testing, the pushing force is applied by manually
dropping a single or dual mass weight (called the hammer)
from a fixed height onto the push cone unit. The resulting
downward movement is then measured. Unlike CPT systems,
basic DCP equipment is hand-portable and may be limited to
test depths of 3-4 feet: this makes it a good choice for shallow
testing applications such as road bed construction and
maintenance. Since DCP is essentially hand-powered, it is
cheaper and more portable than CPT equipment, but the
possibility of human error makes it trickier to obtain consistent
and accurate data.
CORE LOGGING
CORE- A cylindrical section of rock, or fragment
thereof, taken as a sample of the interval penetrated by a core
barrel and brought to the surface for the examination and for
analysis.
All drill hole data gathering is called LOGGING.
CORE BOX
After the core has been recovered from the core hole
and the core barrel has been opened, the core should be placed
in core box.
Core boxes should be stored in well ventilated,
weatherproof rooms with concrete floors and should
preferably place in racks rather than in stacks. Provision must
be made for space around the racks in order to reach individual
boxes for re-examination.
Format & required data for final geologic log
Organization of the log- log forms divided into five basic
sections.
• A heading block
• A left-hand column for notes
• Center column for indexes
• Additional notes
• Water tests and graphics
Heading-Identifying information, feature, hole number,
location, coordinates, elevation, bearing and plunge of holes,
dates started and completed, and the names of the persons
responsible for logging and review.
Data required for “Drilling Notes” Column-These data are field
observations and information provided by the driller on the
Daily Drill Reports.
General information-This includes headers and data for the
hole purpose, the set-up or site conditions, drillers, and
drilling/testing equipment used.
Drilling procedures and conditions-Data should include
methods, conditions, driller’s comments, and records for water
losses, caving, or casing.
Hole completion and monitoring data-Include hole completion,
surveys, water levels, drilling rates or time, and reason for hole
termination.
Center columns of the drill log-The center column may be
modified to portray additional data such as hole completion,
various indexes, alphanumeric descriptors, or laboratory test
data.
DESCRIPTION OF ROCKS
1. Rock name – (rock type) may include geologic age and
stratigraphic unit name.
2. Lithology (composition/grain size/texture/color) –
mineralogical description. It is important to maintain
a simple but accurate rock classification. The rock type
and lithology characteristics are essentially used to
differentiate the rock units encountered.
3. Bedding/foliation/flow texture – description of
thickness of bedding, banding, or foliation including
the dip or inclination of these features.
4. Weathering/alteration – the degree and depth of
weathering is very important and should be accurately
detailed in the general description and clearly indicate
on the drill log.
5. Hardness
 Very soft or plastic – can be deformed by hand.
 Soft – can be scratch with fingernail.
 Moderately hard – can be scratch easily with a
knife.
 Hard – difficult to scratch with knife.
 Very hard – cannot be scratch with a knife.
6. Discontinuities – These include shears, joints,
fractures, and contacts. Discontinuities control or
significantly influence the behavior of rock masses and
must be described in detail.
GEOLOGICAL CONDITION NECESSARY ON CONSTRUCTING
DAM
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DEFINITION:
Dam - defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable
location across a river valley with a view of impounding water
flowing through that river.
Purposes of Dam
 For hydroelectric power generation
 For irrigation
 To obtain water for domestic and industrial
purposes
 For fighting droughts
 For controlling floods
SELECTION OF SITES:
1. Topographically
a. It would be a narrow gorge or a
small valley with enough
catchments area available behind
b. This should be possible without
involving significant uprooting of
population, loss of cultivable land
due to submergence or loss of
existing construction.
2. Technically
a. The site should be as sound as
possible: strong, impermeable and
stable.
b. Strong rocks at the site make the
job of the designer much easy.
c. Stability with reference to seismic
shocks and slope failures around
the dam, especially upstream, are a
great relief to the public in general
and the engineer in particular.
3. Constructionally
a. The site should not be far off from
deposits of materials which would
be required for its construction.
b. All types of major dams require
millions of cubic meters of natural
materials — earth, sand, gravel and
rock —for their construction.
4. Economically
a. The benefits arising out of a dam
placed at a particular site should be
realistic and justified in terms of
land irrigated or power generated
or floods averted or water stored.
5. Environmentally
a. The site should not involve
ecological disorder, especially in the
life cycles of animals and vegetation
and man.
b. The fish culture in the stream is the
first sector to suffer a major shock
due to construction of a dam. Its
destruction may cause indirect
effects on the population.
STAGES OF INVESTIGATION IN SELECTION OF DAM SITE:
1. Preliminary Investigation
a. Lithology: provides details of rock
type present, their nature and
extent of weathering.
b. Structure: provides information on
strike, dip of beds and also details of
folds, faults, joints and
unconformities.
c. Topography: provides information
on surface features
d. Ground Water Conditions: provide
information on scope for leakage
and present of any cavities
2. Detailed Investigation
a. Surface Investigation: preparation
of geological map of the area,
important engineering properties
of rocks such as tensile and
compressive strength, porosity,
permeability and durability.
Sub-Surface Investigation: drilling of bore holes will give
detailed information on cavities and fractures present and also
helps in verifying geo-physical investigations.
TUNNEL - an artificial underground passage, opened at both
ends, constructed for different purposes.
Uses:
 Mining Ores
 Transportation (road vehicles, trains,
subways, and canals)
 Conducting Water and Sewage
Tunnel Design
Rocks may be broadly divided into two categories in relation to
tunneling:
 Consolidated
 Unconsolidated
UNCONSOLIDATED ROCKS
 Also known as Soft Rocks
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  Those rock formations that are not firm and coherent, and phyllites with high degree of cleavage
solidified or cemented, such as sand rock, sand, clay, and also decomposed varieties of igneous
shell, saprolite or decaying rock. rocks.

CONSOLIDATED ROCKS FISSURED ROCKS

 Also known as Bedrocks
 Form a category in themselves and include
 Consist of rock and mineral particles of different sizes any type of hard and soft rock that has been
and shapes that have been welded together by heat deformed extensively due to secondary
and pressure or chemical reaction into a rock mass. fracturing as a result of folding, faulting and
metamorphic changes of shearing type.
 Consolidated rocks consist of :

 Igneous rocks - formed through the cooling 2. GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

and solidification of magma and lava.
Following main structural features of rocks have to be
 Sedimentary rocks - formed by the deposition
fully determined along the proposed tunnel route:
of materials at the Earth’s Surface and
 Dip and strike
within bodies of water.
 Folding
 Metamorphic rocks - arise from the  Faulting and shear zones
transformation of existing rock types, in a  Joint systems
process of
metamorphic. DIP AND STRIKE

 attitude of the rocks (disposition in space)

GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS:

 Lithology Three general cases may be considered:

 Horizontal Strata
 Geological structures
 suitable for short distance
 Groundwater conditions
tunnel

1. LITHOLOGY
 The study of the general physical
characteristics of rocks.

 Moderately Inclined Strata

Type of Rock:

 Hard and Crystalline Rocks

 Soft Rocks
 Fissured Rocks

HARD AND CRYSTALLINE ROCKS

 These are excavated by using conventional

rock blasting methods (RBM) and also by  Steeply Inclined Strata
tunnel boring method (TBM).

SOFT ROCKS

 This group includes shales, friable and poorly

compacted sandstones, chalk and porous
varieties of limestones and dolomities, slates FOLDING

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  Folds signify bends and curvatures and a
lot of strain energy stored in the rocks
 Folding of rocks introduces considerable
variation and uncertainty in a sequence
of rocks so that entirely unexpected
rocks might be encountered along any
given direction.
 Folding of rocks introduces peculiar rock
pressures.
 Folded rocks are often best storehouses
for artesian water and also ideal as
aquifers.
 Folded rocks are unsuitable for
tunneling purpose because the
excavated area/s may be group of
affected rocks under great strain.
FAULTING
 Are surfaces along which rock
movement has occurred in the past;
these are also potential surfaces for
future movements of the rocks
 Tunnel alignment should not come in
the way of faults, particularly active
once because:
 Fault zones will be
incompetent to provide
safety tunnels
 Severe ground water
problems
 Rick displacement of the
ground
JOINT SYSTEMS
 Joints are cracks or fractures developed
in rocks due to a variety of causes
 If the joints are too many, they may
severely hamper the competence of
even inherently strong rocks and render
them unsuitable for tunneling
3. GROUND WATER CONDITIONS
Groundwater conditions affect the tunnel
rocks in two ways:
 Physico-chemical action (erodes
and corrodes)
It effects the rock strength parameters by its static and dynamic
water heads
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF
BUILDINGS
The main objects of geological investigations for most
engineering projects are to determine:
1. The geological structure of the area;
- which also includes topography and geomorphology.
2. The lithology of the area;
- include the type of rocks that make up different parts of the
area, on the surface as also up to and even beyond a desired
depth, their textures, major structures and physical and
engineering properties.
3. The ground water conditions in the region;
- The relative position of water table with respect to the project
must be thoroughly established and all variations in it during
different periods in a year should be fully ascertained.
4. The seismicity of the region;
For any type of civil engineering construction in a region its
seismicity has also to be studied critically.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATION INVOLVED IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS:
 Basic requirements of a building foundation,
 Basic foundation on soils,
 Building foundation carried to the deep hard rocks,
 Building founded on surface bed rocks,
 Types of settlements in building.
Basic requirements of a building foundation
1. STRENGTH AND STABILITY
Building should be capable of transferring the expected loads
in its life period safely to the ground. Design of various
structural components like slabs, beams, walls, columns and
footing should ensure safety.
2. DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
All structural components, should be so designed that
deflections do not exceed the permissible values specified in
the codes.
3. RESISTANCE TO DAMPNESS
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Dampness in a building is a great nuisance and it may reduce BASIC FOUNDATION ON SOILS
the life of the building. Great care should be taken in planning
and in the construction of the building to avoid dampness. Sand

4. RESISTANCE TO FIRE Sandy soil has a gritty texture because it is formed from small
particles of weathered rock. It is a good soil for building
Regarding achieving resistance to fire, the basic requirements structures because it allows water to drain away from a
laid down in the codes are: building site but will not shift or move.

Bedrock

(a) the structure should not ignite easily. is an ideal foundation for a home because it is impermeable to
water runoff and will not change shape and size in the presence
(b) building orientation should be such that spread of fire is of water.
slow.
Loam
(c) In case of fire, there should be means of easy access to
vacate building quickly. Loamy soils are an intermediate soil halfway between sand and
clay.
5. HEAT INSULATION
Chalk
A building should be so oriented and designed that it insulates
interior from heat. Unlike most clay, chalky soil is ideal for building because the soil
will not retain moisture and will not swell and shrink seasonally
6. SOUND INSULATION due to the presence or absence of water.
Buildings should be planned against outdoor and indoor noises. SOILS TYPES FOR CONSTRUCTION
7. PROTECTION FROM TERMITE Cohesive Soils
Buildings should be protected from termites. Comprised of silt and clay, this soil type, without proper
8. DURABILITY assessment and alteration may prove a real problem as a
foundation due to its tendency to shrink and swell.
Each and every component of the building should be durable.
Ex. Silt, clay, peat, loam, laterite
9. SECURITY AGAINST BURGLARY
Granular Soils
This is the basic need the owner of the building expects.
Including soils with high sand and/or gravel content, granular
10. LIGHTING AND VENTILATION soils are generally suitable for building, considering that they
are still penetrable by water upon compaction.
For healthy and happy living natural light and ventilations are
required. Diffused light and good cross ventilation should be Ex. Sand, gravel, coarse grained soil (with little or no clay
available inside the building. content)
11. COMFORTS AND CONVENIENCES Organic Soils
Various units in the building should be properly grouped and Including marshy soils and soils high in peat content and
integrated keeping in mind the comfort and convenience of the decaying vegetable matter, organic soils are generally not
user. recommended for building a foundation on. Organic soils tend
to absorb and hold excessive moisture and exhibit sponge-like
12. ECONOMY consistency. For this reason, geological surveys will generally
Economy without sacrificing comfort, convenience and steer you clear of building on such a site.
durability is another basic requirement of the building. TYPES OF SETTLEMENT
TYPES OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION What is settlement?
• CONVENTIONAL BUILDING TYPES: Settlement is the downward movement of the ground (soil)
– FIRE RESISTIVE when a load is applied to it. The load increases the vertical
effective stress exerted onto the soil. This stress in turn
– NON-COMBUSTIBLE increases the vertical strain in the soil. This increase in vertical
strain causes the ground to move downward.
– ORDINARY
There are two types of building settlement, uniform and
– HEAVY TIMBER
differential.
– WOOD FRAME/COMBUSTIBLE

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During uniform settlement the entire foundation settles at a
constant rate. Usually there is no, or very minor, cracking
during uniform settlement. Differential settlement commonly
occurs as the result of non-uniform movement of the
underlying soils (soil settlement at different rates). This type of
settlement can result in cracking to foundation, exterior
cladding, and interior finishes.
Typical causes of settlement :
• Weak bearing soils
• Addition to an existing house
• Improperly backfilled soils / poor compaction
• Irregular rainfall or drought
• Poor drainage around the house
• Changes in the groundwater table
• Mature trees growing close to the house
Types of Cut
 A SIDEHILL CUT can be formed by means of sidecasting
cutting on the high side balanced by moving the
material to build up the low side to achieve a flat
surface for the route.
 THROUGH CUT is where the adjacent grade is higher
on both sides of the route, require removal of material
from the area since it cannot be dumped alongside
the route.[
 A LEDGE is a cut in the side of a cliff well above the
bottom of a gorge
A LOCK CUT is a section of a river or other inland waterway
immediately upstream and downstream of a lock which has
been modified to provide locations for boats to moor while
waiting for the lock gates to open or to allow people to board
or alight vessels.

• Seepage from plumbing leak or swimming pool

• Pumping of oil or water out of the nearby ground

Road Cutting
 In civil engineering, a cut or cutting is where soil or
rock from a relative rise along a route is removed. The
term is also used in river management to speed a
waterway's flow by short-cutting a meander.

 Cuts are typically used in road, rail, and canal

construction to reduce the length and grade of a
route. Cut and fill construction uses the spoils from
cuts to fill in defiles to cost-effectively create relatively
straight routes at steady grades.

Grade

 The Grade also called Slope, Incline, Gradient,

Mainfall, Pitch or Rise of a physical feature, landform
or constructed line refers to the tangent of the angle
of that surface to the horizontal. It is a special case of
the slope, where zero indicates horizontality. A larger
number indicates higher or steeper degree of "tilt".
Often slope is calculated as a ratio of "rise" to "run",
or as a fraction ("rise over run") in which run is the
horizontal distance (not the distance along the slope)
and rise is the vertical distance.

Cut and fill

 It is the process of constructing a railway, road or

canal whereby the amount of material from cuts
roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make
nearby embankments, so minimizing the amount of
construction labor
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