.-q.F"- --- ;""8F;:;- . r+j:-ri:Y!4S;F*;;+-.

::

C{ONTEI!}ISI
CIIAPIER ONI
' SYSTEUS OF LTNEAR EgUArIOIvS

Articles Pagles
1.1 Introduction to systems of linear equations I
Llst of books mltten bY the author 1.2 Degenerate and non-degenerate linear equations 4
Professor Md. Abdur Rahaman' 1.3 SoliUon of a non_homogeneous system of linear equtions204
L.4 Solution of a system of homogeneous linear equations
ETERCISES .I
1. College Linear Algebra
CHAPTER, fiTO
2. College Modern Algebra
DEf,ERMINANTS
3. College Higher Algebra
of Mathematics)
@asiI agJura & Fundamentals 2.1 Introduction 4L
4. b-oU.g" frathematical Methods [Volume one)
2.2 Deflnition of determinant 4l
(Spec."ial Functions & Vector Analysis) 2.3 Sarms diagrams for determinants 42
two)
5. boU"g" Mathematical Methods [Volume 2.3. fSarms diagram for determinant of order 2 42
(Integral Transforms & Boundary Value Problems) 42
2.g.2 Sarms diagram for determinant of order 3
6.
",, +rqq"EEE< aq"rfalg 2.4 Minors and cofactors 43

8-
g*W'm* lffitH
Ideal Solution of Cotlege Linear Algebra
HHH##P*'*") 2.6 Expansion of determinant
determinants
2.5 Fundamental properties of (kplace's
linear
expansion)
equations
43
44
45
2.7' Application of determinant to
; rrrrsi Ers< Aq{Flrc< c"t{ rTfl{rq t
(Crammer's rule)
ib. E-;"F* qilfie e +imi-fiq< qm{'Tflttq 46
2.8 Multiplication of two determinants of finite order
2.8.r Multiplication two determinants of the same order
of 47
2.8.2 Multiplication of two determinants of different orders 48 i
2.8.3 MultiplicationtheQrgm.:' . 49 ,d

(Al
i
EtrEEQIqpp -
2.9 AdJointdeterminant
' 7t '"4
1

2.lO Inverse or reciprocal determinant 79 ..:.1

,til
2.ll Symmetric and skew-symmetrlc determinants 79 't,

2.1 1. I Froperties of symmetric determinant

82
2.11.2 Ortho-symmetric determinant 83 '1

2. 1 1,3 Properties of skew-symmetric determinant

84
85
'i't
2.12 Skew-determinant 85
2.13 Differentiation of a deterlnina$t " . ,' t,

EXERCIIIETT - 2 EI 9l

J
 CIIAPTER THREE
MATRIX AI.GEBRA

Artlcles : : **;; CHAPTER FIVE

3. f Introduction .o VECTORS IN IRN AND CN
r!)
3.2 Definition of matrix Pages
5:5 aJaiiiot "rra-"".l"t multiplication of matrices 95 Artlcles 195
5:; M;irit multiPlication ,
39 5.1 Introduction to vectors
E;iid;r, 195
3.5 TransPose of a matrix (or-conjugate) of a matrix 97
5.2 n-space IRn
andscalar multiplication.in If 1s6
3:6 Compiex con3rrgate of a coriplex matrix 5,3 Vector addition
g'.; c""jig"t" tti.rEfo*i 98
5.4 ;;";;r;;oerties of the vectors in IR' under
'matrices wlth-examples multiplication 196
5,8 Sp.tii types of ,98 ;;;;';deition and scalar ,' 198
3.9 Theorems o" ii"""pose.matrix' 1O3
5.5 ;;;; scatar produet ofIRI lro veetors in IR-
3.10 Theorems o, **pi"" conjugate of a matrix 104
&6 Oi"t^t and horm in - - -*n
198
199
3.I1 Theorems on the 6on3ugat-e tlanspose - of a
5.7 ""
S;src properties of dot product in tR-
106 200
comPlex matrix 5.8 CauctrY- S-ctr*ar1 ineq-UafitY 20t
3.12 Theorems on syrm.ttic and skew-symmetric matrices !O7 5.9. Minkowski' s -inequatilY' 202
3.13 Theorems o"'li"i*iuuo and skew-Hermitian matrices lto 5.10 Curves in q{^ 203
3.I4 Theorems on idempotent matrices 113
ll4 5.11 iit in
"" vectors
IRn --B 203
3.15 Singular urrJ ttott-"ingular matrices 5.L2 Spatial and f, ,f, li' notationt T*'*
204
3.16 Inverse matrix 115
5.13 iro"" Product of two vectors in IR" 2A4
3.17 Adjoint or adjugate matrix 1'6 5.14 Qpmplex numbers 205
of a square matrix ::'- Vectors in C"
5. iA Pr6cess of maiirg the inverse
3.19 Theorems on inverse matrix I'r/ .:jP' 210
I19 EIGRCISES-5"'' :;
3.2O Theorems on orthogonal matrices
l

g.2l Theorems on Unitaiy matrices l2O ':,.

rmcIgR SPACT,S
3.22 Theorems on i,,"ol'iorY matrix matrices
122
122 Binary operau-ffifriforry1ositior)- on a 9et ''
i ,,
213
ilrg sor.:uon or ii.r.* .qr.jtio.r" by applying 6.1
?13
ETE,RCISES - 3 r42 6.2 O"ntiti.i, of group with o<ainplEs' , .
2t+
CHAPTER FOITR 6.3 Definition of ring with examPles'
2t5
RANT OF A MATNtrT: 6.4 Definition of ffeld with examples
215
Necessary definitions applied itt tTF
153 6.5 Field properties 9f real nqmbers. 2r6
4.L
4.2 Trace of i matrx and properties of trace
154 6.6 Definltion of a vector Spaie (or iineat' siiace)
217
r58 6.7 ExamPles of vector sPace
4.3 Deflnitton of rank of a matrix 162 224
4.4 n"J"-"Uo" of a matrix to the normal form 6.8 SubsPaces of a veitor sPace'
law 167 / r-^ 225
4.5 Svlvester's 6.9 ^ of subsPaces
^f ^..I^^*aaac -.1-
t67 - -WarrrPles t 233
C6"aiu"" f"r consistency of a System of linear equations
4.6
4.7 Sweep out method and its applications
r82 -Odd w.", ""*a'"ett"" 't ofr 238
244
urDRcrsDs - 4 184 ,t4s
.--.!l
i6*
 CTIAPTER ONE

SYSTEMS OF LTNEAR EguATroNS

l.llntrodtrctiontosystemsoflirrearoqrratlons
as Ilneer Alglebra
Matrlx theory l{i rnore generally knovm
systems of linear
which is orl$i,atecl i, .he st.udy of
(or variatrles) and in the
equatlons in se'reral rrnhnowns
attempt to find general methocls
for their solutions' An
(or unkno$rns) is llnear if
equation in two or'rnore variables
of s;c'r:ond degree or greater' that
is' if it
it contains no terrns the
<lf the variablcs or roclts of
contalns no protlucts or po-lvers
variables. Ail variables occur oniy
to the ii.sr power- and do
logarithmic' or
not appear as arglrrnents for tri$onometric'
exponent"ial f'unctions'
A straight line in the cartesion ly-plane can be
of the form
represented al$ebratcally by an equation
constants (or nunrbcrs) and
ax+ by = c where a' b and c are real
kind is called a
x and y are variahles' An equation of this y' Sirnilariy'
'the variables x autl
linear equation in in three variables
ax+by +c:t,+d=oisalinear equatlon
x, y and z which represents a plane
in three dimensional
$pace. In general, an equation
is called llnear if lt is of the
inrrna-rx, +a2x2+..' "' *o., lh=b(l)whereavaz"' "' '&''

which are to be determined'

lfi:=o'then{lJiscalleclahornogeneotls'linearequatlon
llnear
and if b * o then {1) is calied a non-homogeneout
equation.
ExarnPles of linear equations'
(i) Y*mx = o which is a homogienefius linear equatiort
through the
representing the sllaight line passing
origin. " :

linear Algebra-l
 COLLEGE LINEAR AT,GEBRA SYSTEMS OF LINEAII EOUATIONS 3
.i
(ll) 2x + 3y = 5 which is a non-homogeneous linear
Ca6€ I No solution if the lines are parallel
eiluation'iepre.denting a strai$ht line not passing
GLee tr l'rccisely one solution if they intcrsect
through,the origin.
(llU ,i,+ 2y + 5z = 2O which is a non-homogeneous linear case m Inlinitely nlanv s;olt'ttions if they coincide'
These cases are illrrstrat.ed bY the following exarnples
:
r eeuation representing a Plane.
(iv) \ - k - ax,-2xu= 3 (Non-homogeneous) Exampl* l. The linctri si:i1eln i I I ; 3) nt" no solution'
(v) xt + k+ ...'.. + r; = I (Non-homogeneous)' are
Examples of non-Ilnear equations since the lit:es representccl by tbese two linear equations
(i) 2fi +3Y=1 parallel.
(ii) x- xy = 2
(iiil * nY'+4x+4=4 v
(M a-# +2hry + bY2 =o (o,2)
M 6l + 13.rY+ 6f -5x-5Y+ I =o
Equatlon
(t) represents a Parabola'
(it) represents a hYPerbola,
(tii) represents a circle,
(iv) represents a pair of straight lines passing through
the orlgin and ;
(v) represents a pair of straight lines not passing
tlrrough the origin.
I.et'IR be the set of real numbers. 'I'hen a sotutlon of the Example 2. The linear system |i'r==tr) has only one
linear equation alxi + a2x2 + ... ... + g',-rh = b is any n-tuple solution, since the lines represented by these two equations
(o.d2, on) of elements of IR such that the equation is intersect aL(2, l).
saUsliea when we substitute x, = ar, h, = 02, ,,. "' ' .rn = s,r' The
set of all such solutions of this linear equation is called the
solution set.
Now we conslder the following two iinear equations :
4r x+-brY = crl /
arx+bry=czl
If we interpret x, y as coordinates in the 'qr-plane, then
cmir of the al:ove two linear equations represents a straight
lgme and {o,g) is a solution of the above two equations if and
orrly if flne point P with coordinates c[,P lies on both lines.
Hence there are three possible cases :

i.
 ';Li.{{
-I
EOUATIONS
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR
i
COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA + dt,''\' =
3r rxr + anh, +* "' "' +'l:..o'..] P'''l o'l
* oi+ "' "'
Exarnple 3.'Ihe linear svstem ;:l;r'=u) n"" infinitely ^r,"i ,r,
rn.rny sloltrtiotrs, sincc the lirres regrresented by these
+ z1-"''r;=b- J
ar,iXI + Ar..,2xz+ "' "'
ecluatiorrs coincide. au' i = l'2' "" tn
#;t; thecoeflicients
j = 1,2, ..., n
are real
of the variables and
the free terms bt' i = l'2' "':m
are all
real nurnbers' If the b1
(o,3) numbers taken f'o* m' the set of
sJrstem' If at
the systenr (1) is called a homogeneous
zero, then a non'
then the system (1) is called
least one bl is not zerc!' crn is
o of numbers crl' 0b' ""
*-*-*4 x homogeneor" "y"tlm' ""ot"""e given by (1) if
(3,o) of the system of linear equations
called solutlon in
-3
Y-\'.. ls a solution of every equation
'x-. x1 = (t1, h=%, ' "' ; = cln
:;. .\
-6 { the system (1)'
I
(1) is a vector x.whose components
E
l A solution vector of
L.2 $egenerate and non-degienerate Hnear eqrrations' l (1)' If (1) is homogeneous' it
has at
'fhe ijeneral linear eqrration arxl + a2x2 + "' "' + q/i = b is
ff
& constitute a solution of
$

also callt:d non-degenerate llnear eguation' ir

leastthetrivial(orzero)solutlonXl=o,.xz=a,...',i'=o.
of the homogeneous
Alirrearequationissaidtclbedegenerateifit}rastlrefr:rrn # lf x =(or, cz""'or,) is a solution or
the \ and at least one s' + o'
then it is called a rron-zero
oxl +oJd2 + ' ' '" +'o'rcr' = b' Tltat is' if every coefficient of system
system'
homogeneous
variable is equal ks zero.'Ihe solution of such a degenerate non-triviat solutlon of tl:e
is called conslstent if it has
linear equation is as "follows : A system of linear equations A
(i) If the constant l: * o, then t'he abol'e equation has no at least one solution and
lnconslstent if it has no soluUon'
determlnate if it has a uniq'ue
solution. consistent system is called
(ii) If the constant Ll = o, then every vect.ttr u = (crt ' %' .'"" c'/J ir it r'""-ilo[ thau one solution"
solution .,a itaJuEli-tf, has an
is a solui-ion of the allove equaUon" of linear equations always
An indeterminate system
1.3 $tolution of a non-hcmogeneous system of linear i"n"n" number of solutions'
eguatiouo: . are called equlvalent if
Two systems of linear equations
A system of linear equations tor a set cf :l sis:riltatreous system is a solution of
the second
every solution of the llrst
I

linear equations) ln n variables [or urlknr:wns) xt'xt' "" "" 4' t

J
and converselY (vice versa)'
is a s.e[ of equations of the form N
I
Il
I
 ':l

SYSTEMS OF LINBAR EgUATIONS

7
COI,LBGE'I,IN EAR ALGEBRA

3t tXt + atzxz + ... ." * atrr 4, bl

I =
System of linear equations a'21r+L tr*r "'+ dz'4' =o''l
+
^''jr\r+ e)
I
d' n.z\z+a'-ir*t \r*t + "' * 2'-r,4. - b'*J
Inconsistent whJre"ar, *b.ri t, denotes the first unknown with
a'2Jz* in an equauon excJpt ttre first' Here D I
and so {2 * xr '
*4
r;l
,l
_ It is to be noted that the system (2) of equations excluding
Unique
solution
I
i!
;\
the first equation, form a subsystem which has fewer
system (1)'
il
. equations and fewer unknowns than the original
subsystern
A slraighllbr',vard method of solution, known as Gausslan Repeating the above process rvith each new smhller
elimlnalion involves a successir,'e "Whitling away" of the we obtain by induction ttrat' the system (1) is either
var.iatlles irr order to isolate their values. This method is inconslstent or is reducible to an equivalent system of the
birsed on l itc following three eiementary operations which following form w'hich is known as echelon forrn
:

alter the Ibrm of the equations' but not the solutions : &rrxr * anh +..' "' + ar, {,=
Pll
(i) Interchange a pair of equations.
u'or\r* u''Jr*' \r*t+ "'+ dt, x,- o''! B)
I
(ii) Multiplying an equationthrough bya non-zero number' '^;

or\, * d r r*r{,.'r' * ... + a'* )i, - J

b',
(iii) Adding a multiple of one equation to another equation are not zero
x where ,. rr,...1, t.d the leading co-e{ficients
er, equivalently, if we consider a system of m llnear
.i!

*O,drrr*O, ..-,4:, *0'

i. e, arr
equattons tn the n unknowns xr.&, ...., .r1 given by (l)' we can
reduce lt to a slmpler system as follows : Deflnltlon : In reduced echelon form the unknowns x'
(i * 1' J2'
Proocsg I which do not appear at the beginning of any equation
(i) Interchan$e equations so that the first unknown x, has ... j.) are known as free variables' We also
note that

a non-zero co-efllcient in the first equation i' e, ar, * 0'
(ii) For each Dl, apply the operation
Ir -+ -a,r L, + ar r\
That is, replacc the linear equation Lr by the equation
,gbtained by multiplying the first equation L, by - air ' and the
ith equaticin L, by a,, ancl then adding' We lhen obtain the
following system which is cquivalent to the system (i)'
(i) if an equation 0x, t 0.rA * "' + O{, = b' b* O occurs' tlren
the system is lnconslstent and has no solution'
(ii) if an equation Ox, + O& * "' + O-r1= O occurs' then the
equation can be cleleted without affecting the solution'
Process 2 : Consider the following system of m linear
equations (or set of m simultaneous linear equations)
in n
unknowns \, x2,...,x"
 t'
il SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EOUATIONS
COLL}] G E LINEAR AI,G EI]RA
i!
*l', times the second equation {iom lhe third equation
dttxt * a:I2)c)'+'..". 'ct,r{, 9;rz
,l
czz
a2txl + azt )Y 'i-"' rr i{2, {, = bZ
(1, cqz
times the second equation form the fourth equation
d-rx, *.\rt-f: -i' ... + ilrr,{.,= brr.,
i I

1
czz

We reduce the s.r'stem (1) to a simpler slrsterl as follows

1
:
times thc second equatlon form the mth cquation'
S!-'2-

Flrst step Dilminations of xl from the second' third' ""

{

ii'. ,rr,n"r steps are now obvious' In the third step we

.J

mth equations. We may assume that the order (rute) of the

I

t eliminate xr, in the fourth step we eliminate xn etc'

equations and tlle order (rule) of the unknowns in each
,l
This process will terminate only when no equations are
equation such that art * O' The variable xl can then be left or when the co-efficients of all the unknowns in the
the form'
eliminated from the seconcl, third,...,mth equatlons by remaining equations are zeto' We have a system of
arrxrl atzk +...+arr,)i' =.b., I
subtracting
"r.r.?
* "'*3o .i'l
9,t*"" the lirst equation from the second equation
8rr c- + +.'. + k*); =b. I B)
the first equation from the third equation
_a
$-t,i*""
8rt o= br+t I
I

the tirst eqrration from the mth equation

o=-1
b,r, )
ott ti*""
1*
where r s m. We see that there are threc possible cases
Thts glves a ncw systenr of equittiotls of thc form i:* is
allxl + anXZ + ..'* flI,,'t'r, =.1).t I (i) No sotution if r < m and one of the nunll;ct:-ifi, ' t ' "
cz*z + '..+('a,-\,=D z not zero.
I {2)
i:- if 1:r'esent
(ii) Precisely one sotrution if r = n nnd b,*t.....
Jr* x2 + ... * crrrxn = b* n,l

Any solutiolr of lhe system (l) is a solution of the system

are zero.
This solution is obtained by solving tlie nth ctiualion of
the system (3) for.r1, then the (n-1) th equation frrr "r;',-t and
(2) and converselY. so
SecondstepEliminationof.rifromthethird,fourth'......' on up to the line.
mth equations in the system (2)' If the co-efficients err'
czs "" (iii) Infinitely rnany solutions if r < n and b, * r. ..., bm if
the system (21are not all zero' we may assume that
the
c*r,, h present, are zero, Then any of these solutions is obtained by
order (rule) of the equations and the unknowns such
that ihoosing values at pleasure for the unknowns xr+l' "" 4r
solving the rth equation for x, then (r-l) th equation for xr-,'
c22* O. Then we nray eliminate x, from the third' fourth' ""
and so on uP to the line.
mttr, equations of the system (2) by subtracting
12 COLLEGE LINEAR AT,GEBRA SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EOUATIONS 13

'l'hus we obtain the equivalent system (with the same

then ad<l with the
We multiply second equation by - A*d
rrolutlous as the sYstem (l).
xr+2xr-xs=2) third equation, Then we obtain'Equivalent system.
-r2 -)ca=l I Ql xr+5.xr+2x"= 6 I
b-xe=l) -l6h-Src" =-20 |
Since the second and the third equations of the new 13 13t
- 16'rt =- 4
systey (2) are i49-tt-tlggLwe can oilggera a-ny_93_9 o[_them.
J

-Hence we can simPlY wrtte. '\.v <'\_/
*'n'Z-i .u
=?)
Thlssystem(3)isinechelonformandhastwoequations
in three unknowns and so it has 3-2 = 1 free variable which is
.q and hence it has an infinite mimber of solutions'
Letx3 = a {where ais arbitraryrealnttmber); then k=|+a
and x, - -a,I'hus the general solutlonis x, = -a,x2 = I +a'
)h = a, whcre a is anY real number, Now a particular solution
can be cll,rli,rinr:tl l.)"'/ .tlj\Iiilg any value for a, Irt a =1, then xt= - 1'
\-2..t:,, '. i t'1. in other worcls, the S-tuple (-1'2' 1) is a
particr.rli-tt' soltttion of the given system.
E)rample 3. solve the following system of linear equations:
This system is in echelon form and has three equations in
three unknowns. So the system has a unique solution. From
the third equation we have \ = 4' Putting xe = 4 in the second
equation, we get xz = O,Again putting xz = O and 4 = 4 tn the
first equaUorl, we $et x, = -2.
Thus x, ='-2, h = O, lt = 4 or, in other r"'ords' the 3-tuple
(-2, O, a) is l44Nque solutlon of the giver] systeln'
Eramff 4.JJProve that the ftrllow'ing system of linear
equations iMnsistent :
?;i3;:?*,;;'I 6y@
3\-xz+2d=z J

3xr-xr+x" --21 Proof : Reduce the system to echelon form by elernentary

x, +1xr+2xr=6 I operations. We multiply tirst equation by 5 and 3 and then
2xr+3x, +)b =O )
subtract from the second and third equations respectively.
Solutlon : Reduce the system to echelon form by the
elemeptary operations. Interchange first and second Then we obtain the equivalent system.
equations. Then we obtain the equivalent system'
xr+2xr-3x" =- 1l
xr+1xr+2x" = 61 n-7xz+ll:;. 7I
3xr-xr+x* --21 / )m + tl.rc, = 1O )
2xr+1xr+h= OJ from the third equation.
V/'6" srbtract seconcl equation
We multiply first equation by 3 and 2 and then subtract t'fien we get the equivalent system.
from the second and third equations respectively. Then we get xr+2xr-3x. --11
the equivalent sYstem. -7xr+ ll.rco = 7 |
xr+1xr+2x, = 61 O+O = Il )
-l6n-5x. =-2O or, equivalentll,, -- 11
"r;?; i& =71
I
-7xr-Sxr=-12) :0 = 3J
l4 COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEtsRA SYSTEMS OF LTNEAR EgUAnONS 16,

't-h"" th: Si"." l'hus we obtain the equivalent system

"y"t.- @chelon x|+2tri+8x"-xn =$ I
O = 3 (which is not -2*r -22x" + 6xn = -26 Lo,
true) Flence th.e stem is incons_is!9n_(. !:_e,t!e system
-x2- llxr+3xn -- 13[ t
-1xr- 55.16 + lS.xn = -56 J
has no solution.,I
Divide the second linear equation of the system (3) by -2.
-
Etample 5. solve the following system of linear equations:
Zxr+3xr+Sxu+xn -S .l Then we have the equivalent system
+4xr+2\+3xn=-21
3x, xr+2xr+8x"-xn =$ l
xr+2xr+8:6-xn -8 f tU x2 + Llx"- Sxn = 13 I

7xr+9xr+.rt+Bxn =g ) -xr-11.r6+3xn =- 13f (4)

Solutlon : Reduce the system to echelon -?tr- 55.t6 + lSxo = - 56 J
form by the
elementary operations. Interchange the first and third linear
kt us respresent the four linear equations of the system
(41 by Y r, U r, U and Un respecUvely.
equations of the system (1). Then we have the equivalent "
Apply the operatlons U. -+ Li + L', +Vn * W,
system "dU:
xr+ 2x, + 8x, g Us: -k - I l.r. + 3x, = -- 13
-xn = I
3x, +4xr+2x"+Sxo=-21 L'z:4,+11.16-3x, - 13
zxi + sxl + s.rl + xn-
7xr+9xr+\+8xo =g
I =s Q) U"+Ur:0+O+O =Q
) i. e. O=O
I.et us represent the four hnear equations of the system (2) Ln : -5xr-5516 + 15xn =-56
by Lr, Ie, k and Lo respecUvely. Reduce the system to echelon \Ur:1xr+55x, -75xn =65
fonn by the elementary operations. Eliminate x, from the .Uq + 51, : 0+O+O =9.
second' thtrd and fourth linear equations by the operations O =9. ,. ., i i.e.
, ,

l, -+Lt - Thus we obtain tJre equivalent system

h -+f: -2L, andLn -+Ln -ZLr.
SLt, :

xrt 2tc, + 8.rc, -xn - 8 I

Iz :Bx,+ 4x, +2xr+Bxn =_) xr+llr,r-3?==lr,
- 3L, : -Jx, - 6x, - 24\ + 3xn = _24 lU,
Iz-SL, : 1\-22xr+ 6xo =-26 Q= 9 )
l*:2xr+Sxr+5\*& Divide the fourth equatiort of the systenr (5) by 9 and
- 2L, : -2x, - 4x, - L6x" + 2xn =- 16
interchange it with the third equation we get the new sygtem.
l**2Lt: -x2-Llx"+Sxn =-15 xr+2xr+8.r6-xn -Bl i
:7x, + 9x, + x" + 8xn
Ln =Q h, + ttx, - 3x*_= 1t | (6)
- 7L, : -7x, - l4x, - S6x, + Zxn = - 56 V_ I I

L4-ZLr, -5h--55.r6 +l5,xn =-56 O='O l

t0 COLLEGE LINBAR AI,GEBRA MS OF LINEAR EgUATIONS 17

cuntafirs an €Ouatiorr of the fo'rn O = 1 which ic ne,t-tnde;-tletTcg It is to be noted that x= | ,"

"
solution. because
" (i) = b is
the given system is inconsist€rrt i:e th€ system has Io true. Mot'eover if x= ct is a solution, i. e' ao = b, then * = 3'
Theorem : Given the following system in echelon form :
Thus the equation has a unique solution as desired'
al rxt + apxz + arslql + ... + ah.r; = bl New let us assume that r > 1 and the tJreorem is true for a
%r 4r+ a4z * 1\2 *t + "' +arr'ri = b, system of (r-1) equations.
a2J2\r* + "' +ar,'r; = b,
. %, *112+r
a4, t. nH. *r {. *r
+"'+ qrr4=b.
arj,x1,, +41, *rt. *l *." +a-x" =br'
where I < jz <....j. ,rd all * O, aar*O,...,\. +O
as a system in the unknowns {r' ..', {,'
Then the solution of the given system is as follows :
There are hvo cases Now the system is in echelon fonn. By induction we can
(i) if r = n, i. e. if there are as many equations as unknowns arbitr.arily assign values to the (n - jz+ 1) - (r-I) free variables
ttren the system has a unique solution. irr the reduced system to obtain a solution
(ii) if r < n i. e . if ttrere are f,ewer equations than unknowns (saY {z= %2,..., r(-, = cr,,)

then we can arbitrarily assign values to n-r free variables and As in case r = l, these values and arbitrary values for the
obtain a solution of the system. additional y- 2free variables (say x2 = d2' ..,, \z-r= Yreld '0:r-r)'
Proof : The proof is done by induction orl the number of a solution of the equation with
equaUons in the system. If r =l then we get the single linear t
xr=;} - arzGz -... -ar,or,)
(br
equatlon alxl + %12 +.., + q,.ri., = b. where a, * 0.
(Note that there are (n-j, + 1)-(r-l) + Uz-21 = n-r free
The free variables are jrz, ..., xr,. I-et the free variables be
variables). Furthermore, these values for x1 , x2, """,'rqnalso
assigned arbltrary values, say x2 = (b ri = q3, ... , 4, = 0!r.
satisfy the other equations, slnce in these equations' the
Putttng these values into t-he above equation and solving co-efficients of x1 , ..., are zero.
\-r
for x, u,e &t Now if r = n then j2 = 2. Thus by induction we obtain a
I
,, =i |E--uror.-ilr,rs " .,.-q,qJ unique solution of the subsystem and then a unique solution
These values give a solution of lJ:e e<1uation. Since putting of the entire system. Hence the theorem ls proved.
these values we get. xample 6. Express the following system of linear

", [+ {b - az {x2 - ... -- ,,,,r,,.)f +'azdz"i- ... * a,.ft, ',, b

or, b = b which is a true statement. (t)

Furthermore, if r - n = l, then we have ax= b where a* O.

v"
18 CoLLEGE LINEARALGDBM
sYs'r'EMS OF LINEAR EOU.{TIONS 19.

Solutlpn :. I*I
qq {Eitresent the four liqear equations of the
Dlvldlng the third equation of the system (3) by 2 we get
;',iven system (I) by Lt,Lz, L3 ,and L4 respectively. Reduce the -.ys +& -2x7,= - l. which is identical with the fourth equation.
systern to echelon form by the elementary operations. So wt ('an clisrcgard one of them.
Eliminate xl from the second, third and fourth linear tlen<'e thc system (3) reduces to
equations by the operations Xt-X2*Xs-xq+4 =l I
xz*g+2xa+24=g I 6)
La- La- 2Lr,Ia + Ia - 3L, and La -+ La- I-1 respectively. -xs*x4-2xs --lJ ','
la:2x1- x2*3x3 Multiplying the third equation of the system (4) by I
-
-ZLtt-2x1 + 2x2-2x3 +2xa-2.x5 ,1=2
-n:-- we get
L2-2L11 X2+ xs42xa+2x5 = Q Xr-xz*xs-&+)6 =1 I
L3:3x1 -2x2+24+xa+xg =I. x2*xs+2xa'r2k=O I tO
*,3{. *q*n-3"s :9_ x.g -xq+2'x5 -l )
:4I;.,,-3",*3? .
t,g-3l,ti xz-xs+ 4xa'2x5 =-l Now t& bystem is in echelon foim and there are on\r
L+-Lt:x2+O+3X1 +O =- l. three equations in the five unknowns: hence the srystem has
.l'hus we obtain ihe following equivalent svstem ((Witli the'same an irrfinite number of solutions and 5 - 3 = 2 free Variables.
solutions rs the system ( I ) ). Since the three equations begin with the three unkno\MrlS x1,
x2 and *3 repectively, the other two unknowns xa and x5 ore
-Yt-Xz *X3-X4 i')6 =l I free variables which may have any real values desired. To
x2 * i3 + 2xa + 2.'--5 =Q L ,.,, ..
* -*s'{
x2 -.tb + 4xa -2.r5 :-2 find the general solution
'let
us say x+ = a, 'and xs = b where a
;
1

=-1J and b are any real ndmbers. Putting these values in the third
kt us represent the four linear equations of the systern (2) equation of the system (5) we get xs = 1 + a - 2b. Puttiqg the
*
'l
values of x3, xaand )6 in the second equation we get
byL{,lat, L3', artd La'respectively. Eliminate x2from the
third ariil the fourth linear equations by the opierations 4+ l'+a-2b+2a,+2b=O
:' x2= - (1 + 3a)
ar,
14' -+Lg'- l-z' ?fftd L'4 '+ L '4- L'z
Again, putting the values ot'x2, xs, x4and x5 in the first
Y't1 L'2:-2xg+2x4 -4xs =-)
ccluation of the systemJS)we get
L'q- L'2, -x3 +xa -2x5 =- I
Ttrus the sy.-stern (2) reriuces to, x1 +l+3a+1+a-2b-a+b=l
:. :,-:i,.:;;^3riJ=il (er
t'r'
or'Xt=-l-3a+b'
*iz"-:,-;::?l l{ence the general solution is xr= - I - 3a * b,
2= - (1 + 3a),
)6= 1 + a - 2b, h = a,4= b where a and b q5e any real n r^Arorr/:
 EgUAfiONS 2I
S}nsflTMS OF LINEAR

(1). Then we get the equivalent

2A COIIECE LINEARN.GEBRA cgllruoni of the glven system
8y.tcm.
1.4 Solution of a systcrn of
hooogleoeors tlaoar cqtilrfoos' xt +h + 2x3 =-O|
,
be homo$gneons if -2xt-+bcz+xs =91 Al
system of linear equations is said to x2 + x3 =QJ
, .$
all the constant terms br'b2""
b- of the non-hornogeneous
equauons of the system
system has tlre form' I.ct us represent ttre three linear
system are zrro; ttrat ls' the the system to an
a11X1 + 412X2 +"'+arn)h =:l (2) ty Lt.Leand L3respectivellr' Reduce
+"'*3rrr4r ='| operations' Eliminate *1
ar21x1 +a22X2
,..(I)
...rry echc)on form by the elementary
I operation' la'-+la + 2L1
*t*, x2 + "'+ a,nrrxn= oJ from thc secrnd equation by the
'r;', lo z - 2x1 +3x2+ xs =O

Every homegeneous system

of linear'equations is conslstent ZLrs2rl+2.x2+4xs =O
the system' This
Sincexl =O, k=O, "' ' ';h =
o is always a solution of la+zl,teS:q + S{3 =O
If the other solutions edst' system
solution is called the trivial, solutlon. Thus we obtain the equivalent
solutloqs' Thus the above xt+ h. +2 xs =-Ol
they are called the noa-trlvlal 5x2+5x^ =O t E
be reduced to an equlvalent xz+xs
io*o*un.ous system can always =OJ
forrr:
homogeneous system in ebhelon Dffilngthesecondequationoft}resysterr(3}B5.weget
+a rn+r
a11x1 + a1f02 + arsxs + "'
tlre equivalent qrstem
;;rir:.':n"'n.:.^+"'+ a..2.,4' -1Ol s xt_ xz+2 x. = o 1
I I *
air\r*rdr* 1x].* l*"':t* )h =O J tii:;3iare ldentical we can
Hencewehavethefollowtr4ltwoposslbilities: Sirlce t]le seeond and third eqrraUons
equatlons ls equal to the have the equivalent system
(i) if r = o I' e' the number of dtsregard one of them' Hence we
number of unknowns then
the system has only ttre zero *'*?o:;:=3 is in echeron rorm'
)rn'"n
solutlon. two equations in three
equaUons ls less than the
number of In this echelon form there are only
(ii) if r <n i' e' the number of an infinite number of non-
unknowns, henee the system has
has non-zero solutlon' 2 I free variable wl:tch is
unknowns, then tfre system zero solutons. The systenr has 3 - =
solution of the following system is x1 = - a' x2= - o" xs-- d
-'Excrrplc 7' find the non-trivial x3. [,et xs= a.Thus the general solution
of homogeneous llnear equations: or (- a. - a, a), where a is any real number'
x1 + x2 +2xs =0..l
i
h, +xs =o I (r)
F'or particular solution' Iet a =
l' then x1 = - l' x2- - 1'
=oJ +3x2 + xs
xl. l, or (- l, - I. l) is a particular solution ofthe
t -2x1 system'
echelon form by the
I Solution: Reduce the system to
second and third
elementary operations' Ipterchange
I
22 COLLEGE LINEARAI,GEBRA SYSTEMS OF I,INEAR QQUATIONS 23

Example 8. Find the solution of the- following system ol ktus replesent the forrr linear equations of the sy5tem (3)
hornogeneous linear equations: lty l,'1,L'z,L'3, and La' respectively' Eliminate x2 from the
- x4
xt- x2 - x3 =O-l
third arrd lburth cquations by the operations L i3 - L '3 * L;'2,
x1+3x2-xs+)Q -Ol
3x1 '7x2-xs-6x4 =Q | (1) 'and L'4 4 I-'q - l,'2
2x1 +2x2-2x3 =Q I
6x1-2x2-4 xs - 5x+ =0 ) L'3 * L'21 2x3- xo =g
L'+ - L'2 :2xs - &=O
Solutlon: Let us represent the five linear equations of the
system (1) by L1 ,L2,L3,La, and L5 respectively. Reduce the system to
Tttus tle systeln (3) r-educes to
xt-xz-xs - & -01
echelon form by the elementary operations. Elimlnate x1 from the 4x2 +24 =0 I .
second,, third; foirrth and fifth equations by the operations - 2lo-i =ol
..1
(4)
L2 -+ L2 - Lr , I+ -+ 14 -3L1 , La -+ La - 2L, and' 2r, -xq =O )
la"- Ls - 6L1 resPectivelY. In the system (4) the third and fourth equations are
la -Iit: 4x2+O +2xa -o identical we can disregard one of thern. Thus we obtain the
Ia: 3x1 - 7x2- xe-6& =Q equivalent systemi
- 3L1 : - 3x1 + 3x2+ 3x3+ 3:q : L xr-xz-xs - &=Ol
I,3-3Lr: -4x2+24*Sxa -O 45 +2\ =0 l (5
la: 2x1+2x2-24 -O 24 -x4 =o ]
-2L,y: -2x1 +2xy+24 +24 =O In this echelon fomt there are only three equations in four
L4-2Lr : 4x2+O +2xa=Q unknowns, hence the system has an infinite nurnber of
solutions anird 4 - $ = I free variable which is x4. L,et xa= 4,
I4 : 6x1- 2x2 - 4xs- 5xa =Q
where a is any real number. Then h=t, x2= -| ana xr = a.
-6L1 : -6x1+6x2+6xs+6& =O
k-6l-r: 4x2+2xs+& =O 'Itrus the general solution is x1 = a, x2 =-|, x3= 3, &= a.
Thus we obtaln the equivalen:;f^fl ( aa \
& or,
4 xz +2& =ol
=01
[a'-;,i,"t
-4x2 +2xg- 3xa
4xz + 2xa =Ol
a)=o> For particular sclution, let a = 2. Then xt= 2, h= - l, xs = 1,
Xq= 2 or, (2 - 1, 1, 2) is a particular solution of the given
4x2 +2xg + x4 =o _,l
system.
In the system (2) the second and fourth equations are Example 9. Find the solution space of tlrc following
identical we can disregard one of them. So, the system (2) homogeneous system of linear equations:
reduces to
xt- x2-x3 - X4 =q x1 +2x2 +3.rq +15 =q
4.u.2 +2 x4 =O I 2x1 +3x2 +3xa +:6 =O i
-4x2+24-3xa =0
(3) \ +x2 +xS+2X+ +.rB =O I El. P. 1982.
I 3x1 +5x2 +6xa +24 =O I
Axz + 2-r3 + xa =O .1 2x1 +3x2 +2x3 +5x+ +24=O
'
 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR E9U'aTIONS 25
24 COLLEGE LINEARAI-GEBRA
Hence the solution space of the
given syst€m is
Solution : Reduce the system to echelon form by the
elementary operations' We rnultiply lst equation by 2'
l' 3 - a,2alla€ IRI'
W = {F a, a, o,
the
and 2 and then subtract from 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th equations Exanple 10 Determine the values of tr so that'
respectively..Then we have the equivalent system x' y and z has (i) a
following linear system in three variables
(iii) no solution:
^ lT-.,7-;*;;l
+ xg -x4 =O
unklue soloution (ii) rnore than one solution
x+Y-z - l'l
-x2 f
:x :*, i:: )
2x +3y +)'z =3 I
x+)'Y +32 =2 ]
tO. U. IL lSA

We subtract 2nd equation from 3rd' 4th and 5th equations'

Solutlon : Reduce the system bo echelon form
by
'Ll:cn we irave the equivalent system
x1 +2X2 +SXa + 15 =\ elementarlr operaUons' We multiply flrst'
eglation by 2 and 1
-xz - x5 =o I
-Sr<c ard tfle ttrird equations
+x5 =O f
xS+Dc4 arrd then substract from the second
O+O+O =o I respectively' Then we obtairn the equivaleet Erst€m'
' 2xg+24 + x5 =o ) x+Y-z =l I
x1 +2x2 + 3.ta + -16, =-q y+()"+28 = 1l
) -x2 - 3x+ -x5 =-Ol ()t-t1Y +42 =rJ
xs+2xa +)6 =t)1
2xs+2xa +x5 =Q ) (X *U sd then substract from
We multiply second equation by
We nrultipfy 3jd equailon by 2 and then subtract
from 4th system'
the thir<t equaUon. Then rve obtain the equirraleot
equauon. then we have the equivatent system x +Y-z =l )
x1 +2x2 + 3x4 +)6 =O1 y+()'+2)z =l i
-x2 - Sxa -)6 =Ot {4-a:lxl +2)V =2-)\")
xt+2xa +x5 =OI x+Y-z =l
-2xa'- xr =0 'l y+Q'+2lz =l l
1

Or,
f'his system is in echelon form ha.Yrng four equations in (6-l -12) =2-),)
five urrknowhs. So the system has 5 - Q = I free
variable
x+Y-z =l I
which is x5 and it has non-zero solution' Clr. y+(r'+2lz =l f
2a 7rr (3 + l.) (2-Nz=2- A )
l-et x5= 2a where a is any real number' Putting x5=
tlre 4tlr equation we get - 2x+- 2a = O' that is' x1= -
a' Puttin$ solution if
This system is in echelon form' It has a unlque
we get xz= 'a and i' e' if
& = - a and x5 = 2a inthe 2ncl & 3rd equations tlre coefficient of z in the thrid equation is llon-zero
is= O. trinally putting xz= d, x4= - a and xs= 2a in the lst )"*2andr! + -3' In case)' =2 third equation is O = Orvhich
is
" eguation. we get
true and the system has more than one solution'
h+ 2a- 3a + ?a=O, i'e X1 = - a'
 SYSTEMS OF LINBAR EOUATIONS 27
26 COLLEGE IINEARALGEBRA
(ii) lf l
and $ = IO,. then the 3rd equation of (*') vanishes
=3
In case i = - 3. the thirri equation is O=5 which is not true'
& the system will be in echelon form having two e{uations in
andrlrence the systenr has no solution. three unknows. so it'has 3 - 2 = I free variable which is z and
nte 11. For what values of .]. arid p the following hence for I = 3 and F = 10, the given systerh will.have more
rt[*r than. one soltltion.
Gfstem of linear'equations has (i) no solution'
(ii) more than one solutiotr (iii) a unique solution :
(iii) For a unique solution the coefficient of z in the Srd
equation must be non-zero i.e )" *3. and p may have any
x+Y+z =6 I value. Thus for l,*3 and p arhitrary the given system have a
x+Zy +32 = lO I lD. U. H 198q D. U. H (Stat) 19821
x+2y+)z =$ ) unique solutlon.
Exanple 12. For what values of l. , the following linear
Solutlon: Reduce the given system to echelon forrn by the equations have a solution and solve them completely iri each
elernentary operatiorrs. We subtract lst equation frorn 2nd case:
x+y+z =l I
and 3rd equations. Then we have the'equivalent system. . x+2Y + 4" =\^l
x+y+z =6 x+4Y+LOz =)'2)
I
Y+ 2z=4 i
Solution: The giiien system of linear equations is
z
*n=l:! II
y+Q,,-llz =P-6 )
x+Y+
+2Y
We subtract 2nd equation from 3rd equation. Then we x+ 4y + \Oz =)'2 )

have the equivalent system Reduce the given system to echelon form by
the
x+Y+z =6 elementary operations. We subtract'lst equation from 2nd &
I
y+ 2z =l I Srd equations respectively. Then we have the equivalent
().-3)z = pt-10 ) system.
(*) x+!.+z = I I
y +'32 =I-I I
Now from the last sYstem (*') we have the following three 3y+92 =)'2 -1,j
eases;
We multiply 2n<i equation by 3 and then strbtract from the
If 1= 3 and
(i) p + l0 then the 3rd equation of (*) is of the 3rd equation. Then we have the equivalent system
formo = a wherea= p- 10 + Owhichimpliesthatoisetlual . x+!*z=l I x+Y+z =L I

to a non-zero real number which is not true. Thus we conclude

y+32 =,t-l f =Y*9, =tr-I I (-)
o+o =L2'37.+21 o = ?&-3X+2)
that for l" =;3 and p + 10, the given system has no solution.
2g coLLtsGE LINEARALGEBRA
EgUATIONS 29
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR
lf - 3)," + 2 * o, the given system will be inconsistent ancl
)\2 E:XERCISEA - 1
'if ),2 - Nt+ 2 = o, the'above systern will be in echel'on form are
l.Which of the followtng systems of linear equations
having two eguatlons in three unknotrrns. So the system has inconsistent :
3 - 2 = I free varlable whtch is z' So the system has non - Trlro xl+)r2=l)
soluflonfcx)'2-3I+2=O (i) ';::ffi 1) (ii) x1+2x2=31
x1- x2 =) )
that ls, (L l) ( X-21=O
x1 +3x2 +Zxs = 7 )
=+I=l or'I=2 xr* xz+ xs=1.| 2x1 + x2+3xs = 8 [
Tfrus the $ven systerr is consistent fur 2' = I and ]" = 2' (iii) Zxr+2toz+2xs=1Y 3x1 + 4x2 +6xs = 16 [
Sxi + 3xz +3x, =21 6x1 + 9xz + llx" =29 1
Cas I
uihrn).= 1
The qrstem ({ will be 'Aaswers:
x+Y+z= lI (i) Inconsistent' (il) Inconsistenl' (iii) Ineonsistent.
y + Zz=OI
(iv) Inconsistent
\rrhH ls in echctron form where z is afree vartable.
2. Which of the following systems of lI:ear equations
are
Iretz = a xrtr€tt a is arbitmry real number. conslstent? Find all sohJtions of the consistent system'
.'.y=-3a.x = l+%
Henc-t(lthegiyensystemoflinearequatlorrshisinfinite
,, ir i'*:W"=. i l @
.
number of solutions for I =1 In particular, }et a =' 1, tlren x = 3'
y = - 3, z = 1. ls a parffcular solution of t]re $iven qlstem'
I - r1l,'S:I ]
@ E Whl'=2 AnswErs : (i) xr = L, x2 =2, xs =4
{it) x, =- 3r -L+. =-2a-92x3 =a
The system ({') wiU be
x+Y+'=ll where a is anY real number'
y+Sz=ll 3. Express the following systems of linear equations ln
echelon form and solve them :
which.is in echelon form where z is a free variable'
x1' xr+2x.+ 4 =-Ol xr+2xr+ xo =-11
LeLz=bwhere b is anyreal number. "' y = 1 - 3b, x=2b' ... -*i + 3.xr +2x4 = 2 6x, + x2+ )ca =-4 I
tr,2xi+ x2 - xo=lf L
(ii)2xr-3*r- *, = O f
Hence the system hers infinite number of solutions for I = 2. 2x., + 2x2 + x" + 3& =L4 ) - xr 7 x2-2xs= 7 t
xrh, = l' )
In particular, let b = - l, then x = 4,Y = - 2, z = - | is a

particular solution of the $iven s5r5[s1n. Aasrrers, (!-*, =1,&=2, 4=-l'*=)t

@ "' =- l' x2=-2' xs:7
 SYS'TEMS OIT LINEAR' EQU/\TIONS 3l
30 COLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA
x1 + 2.x2 + 3xs''+ 44 = q
4. Solve eactr of the following linear systems of equations : 1l.r', +llx, +4xr" =l
2x1-3x2--21 4x1-Bx2=12l (ll) i!x'1 +4x2 +& =21
I

2x1+ x2 = 1l l,Ii) 3x1-6x2- 9f lx, +x3 + 2* =3)

3x1+2x2= Il -2x1 +4x,
=4 1
Anrwers:
3x1+2x2- xs =-15 x+W-32= 6l ll
d,uf,,,,, 5x1 + 3x2 +.P4 = Q
2x- y+42= 2 I
(r) x, = j (2 +b- 3a), ri =i (8 - 2b), 4 = B, )e =b
3x1 + x2*3x-r.= tl
Llx1 +7x2 4x+ 3y -22= 14 ) where a anrl b are arbitraql real numbers.
=-3O
WW p.u.s. 1980, Bl q 11
I xs=-1T,4=-11,
I
[ii) x1 =r1. xz=-ll,
@ atrs#ers:
(i) Inconsistent 7. Which of the following systems of linear equations are
: consistent? Find ail solutions of the consistent s5lstem :
. Cu).xi = 3 + 2a, x2 = 4, where a is any real number. x1 -5x2 +4x3 +4=4 3x1 + 2x2-x3 +4)E =61
fiii) xt * - 4. xz = 2, xs =7. (i) ,T,-.n?,; ix.-;fi . if r,,r -i": ;,:..ru"'..r; :3
. . M x= 2-a,y =2 +2a,2=a X] *x2*x3 *4=l) 5x1 +x2-Sxs-24=l)
I
where a is any real nurnber.
I 5. Solrra the following systems of ]inear equaUons :
.{nsrrrers :
64 28 8
(i) xr =85, xz=-69 x,r =-SEi,rQ =B
EE,
'/r,,n\3:::i?)ix: =31
x1 -3x3 -24=91 \
94 685
(iil x1 =679, h=62g, 4 =-
30 79
V W, 4 =W.
\ - h*xs*x4 = 8. [i) Express the following system of linear equations,in
x1+2x2-XZ-X4 = ?l cchelon form and solve it :
(rr, 24- 2x2 * xs - x4. =
-3x2 + x3 - xa =- 9,J
x+ 1r --3 I
-z =-B I
2.x-2y
Answers .: ti) xr = ?,- x2 = &, xs = - 2 4x *z=-I+l ,,[DU,t&,,rl.FQ
'!. x-3Y-z =-5 )
I where a is. any'real number (ii) Reduce the following systern of linear-equatious to an
o .''1 l I
(ii) x1 =f g + !i. x2 =-ia + 3, xu = - 3a. .rq - a
xt-x2+2x3=51
where a is any.real number. '. 2x1 +x2*xs=2 | tD.U.P.lgqu ';
2x1 - x2 : xs = 4 | U. s. 1981, 198u1
tD.
6.:find the solution sets of the following systems of linear x1'+ 34 +2i" = 1) :

equatfons .: ,, Ahswers : (ij x = !nr"- Le, y =ff_. z= a

x1 i2x2'+ xs+ X4 -61
o[' .i
:

X1- X2*X3- X4 - where a is any real number.

' (1, x1 +8x2+ xs+54 = z5l (ii) xr - 2, &, =- 1. xs = l. ' 1 . *:: ';:1: i .i
'2x1
+7:x2+24s+4xa = 2Ci)
_ ." ..",1,
 33l;
SYSTEMS OF

92 COLLEGE LINEARAI,GEBRA (ttl x;-ff ^,

* '=ff ^',xr. .= awhere- a !s anY real number'
systems
. 9. (il Reduce the system of linear equations Vd.T'ina the non-zero solutions of the following
of l-inear homogeneous equatlons
:
5x1+2x2-7x3=11
7xt - *, * i* '- 9l P' u' s' 1s2l x1 +3x2+2x3 =ql xr -Sxz-2x3 =91
2xi+1xr- xs=5J (i) ri_:__{;"i".i":[
into echelor-r form and hence solve it' x1 + l7t ],,,, *,:**rr, : BI
of
(ii) Use echelon method to solve the following system tD.u.&,lgeffI''
linear equations : 2x1+x2*xs-5x4=9 2xt -.x2 - xs +Jq =91
x1+x2+3 =Ol (iii) xl,+f;*-"*=31 (iv) xi + 2i - 3x3 +-3xa =P
' -xr - x2 +2xs-2x+ =O
'
2xt - - xc + 8 =^o I
2xz lD. u. s. r9s4l
4xi'xs+r4 - =9 I
x1'-3x2-xg +5 =O J

An$rers : (i)xr =m,*='ffi,*"=#' Aagwere: (t) ,t =-* a' x2==|' x3=a

(ii) xr =Lf ! , * =7, X3 = a where a is any real number' where a is anY real number'
(ii) Xl - a, x2*- &1 X3 =2
10. (il Solve the following linear equations =
:

' xr + x2 + 2xs *]'n = 1] . wht" * i" an albitrary real number'

3x1 + 2x2 - xs + ll& =-?l j : -'--'
real numbers'
*t a'" a and b 4re arbitrarlr
4xi + 3x2 + x" + !4 =lll
2xi+x2-3x3+24=l) (iv) xt '= a - b' xz = a-b' =
)6 a' x4 =b
(ii) Find aII rational solutions of the following system
ol *t"*. *a b are arbitraryreal numb€rs' 2'{+ = I
In particular, leta =2,-b-= I thenXt = & = 1r *s =
1'
linear equations :
xt+h -x3 -_& = -Il
34+4x2-xs-2xa
\+2x2+x3 = 5)
'"
W# il':T:iiffiii"-lili:"*" ", rhe ro,,owing

Aosscrs : (i) xr = 5a-b - 4' xe = -7a+ 9' x3 = & ?b

a'

where a and b are arbitrary real numbers'

{ii) x, = &'+2b-7,'xz=-Za-b+6'x3 =a'&--b
where a and b are arbitrary real numbers'
'Qd art rmine whether each system has a non-zerc

solution. If exists, tind the non-zero solutions'

x1 +x2+xr]=gl
l', +2x2+ X3 =91 Aursr: 0t *, ='?;E =?' )b=a
(i) xt.-xz*"i=of (ii) 7xi-xz+2L4 =ol t\

xi +12x2 -374=91 where a lc arrirea!number'

xt + h-*; =Ol Llnear AlScbra-8
AnswEfe: (i) xr =O, h. ='O' 16 =0' -r
t
JI 5
 35
tt S'STEMS oF LINEAR EQUATIoNS :r | :i
34 tor,iuBb ur.rBnn ar,oBsRA
I':r:i ir Annrorr: a2a
(ii) xr =-ia,x2=-2'xs=ra'xa=a *, =!,4
General solutlon : x1 = o, x2=;, =a
i i:
where a is anY real number'
wherc a ls arrY rcal number'
(iii) *, =ai, *r=?i, xs = a'-& =a x3 2'/Y. =9'
Partlctrlar solution i Xl = A' xb = 3' =
where a is anY real number'
of linear (ll) Solve the following homogeneous system:"of,''llnear
14. Solve the following homogeneous systems
cqrtallrlns :
eQuatlons :
xt-Zth+2x3=O1 J(1 -3x2++*"- -'q =9.)
(t) 2xi+ x2-2xs=Ol 3xi + tt'2+2xs+ x+ =9[
r'' 3xr + +x2-oxr=o1 2xv-4x2+6x3+xa =^uf
3ix1 +4x2' +4 +2xa +34 =9
ixi+zi +24 =o
Z*i - a*i * e*" =91
)
(ii) ui;**'*,**#,:?Jff #t u;.
Aosycf, ! X1 - - a, )h, = x3 = &, )Q =O rrr
i'*i* 10i2+ xs+6xa+5'c5 =o J
where a is an arbttrary real ntrnber'
x1 + 2x7 + 2x3 -x4 + 3)cg' = q
tD' U' H' 19861 of linear equauons :
(iii) x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 * x4 + -16 =.o ! 0ll) Solve the following system
3x1 + 6x2+8;; *xa-+S'{ =o J xr * x2 +2X3 + .lq= .5^l
x1 +2x2 -2x3 +2!n * F =Ol 2x1+3x2+ Xs- &=lPl
" x1 +2x2--; . #- -ziu
(iv) =9[ o'u' H' 1ee8l
2xt+4x2-7x3+ &+ .l6=u) 2I'2;Xe:&=,;) ...,r;-/"!A;
Arsrart': $l xt=7, *r=T'x5=z Arlgwer ? x1 = !' h '= 3' x^'=
l' 4 = - 2'
to
where a is anY real number' t{gdReduce the following system of linear equations
:6=b ir " '' : 'r'' '
3a- =2a+ 3b' JF3 = 4 h=
4 O' '' : 'l"r;
an echelon form alr0 solve it :
(it) xl, - 5b'
=
*t"r" a and b are arbitrary real numbers'
c" x+2Y-32= 4
'tiii) xr =-2a+ 5b- 7c,tt'z=o"x3= -2b+2c'xa =fo'x5 = x+3y* z=lli ) E).U,s.tg8ol
where a' b and c tire arbitrary real numbers' l | '
2x*'5Y-47=13
(M & =-%.-4b,ry=u'xs.i, b:3 =b';6=O 2x+61*4':22) ' . ,i',. ,-
i
wherea and b are arbitrary;real numbers' (u) Solve the folioruing system
"U'""T,-"ffit"ft,'
a general soluticn and a ilticylar
solution of
lfilFind system x+ 2y - P,= 6- ] . i, [D.,Ui;$, 198O
, 1

the following of homogbneous linear equations : 2x- y+42\;21 (tmlrovemcnt)

:. i :qa'lrli;
- 3x2' .t ' ' +**- =9)
",
2x',+ xq+3xs- &=01 uslng echelon form or otherwise'
Sxi -lZi,*;6ft3'+:7-f,ard=OJ " :,,ti'.,.
36 COLLEGE LINEAR +I'GEBRA
ESUATloNs 37
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR
bllowlng linear equations by using echelon
form : lg.Sotvethefollowingsystemofhneareqtrations:
x+2Y +22=2 'x"+iv+32 =-l l'
3x-2Y- z = 5 /Zx-v
n -z' = 5 I
';".'3u;; =-2
ID.u.s. 198ll I
2x-5v +32 =-4
x+iY+62 = O \tt^{Y ax+5v+42=3 I
d/
-;;;iv * +" = - 10 J

llasircrB:, A5rer i x=2,y=-3,2=1.

of linear equations :
(i) x = L,Y =3,2= L 2O. Solve the following systems

(li) x'r= ? - ^, y = 2a + 2, z = awlrere a is any rea-l number'

fi -
#,i'#,=* #i:Y:# :f )'""'1esu
1, +x2+ xs = il
x1 '
a particular Xt-Xc+2x3=-31
17. Find the general solution and also (iii) Bn - i, + 1xs = -.21
solution of the following system of llnear equatlons :
zxi-n- x3= 4 )
2xt- x2- x3'+ 3xa=1'l (ii) Inconsistent (fli) Inconsistent'
Answcra : (i) Inconsistent
4x1-2x2- xs+ &=: I p. u. 3. 1e8o I system of linear
21. Find all solutions of the following
6x1 - 3x2 - xs - Jq =-v- I
2i - x2 +24 -12& =lO, equations :

(l ID.U.IL r9@l
t
xt =ia+b+2 S"r * !r;'{.2:#.:Er
#,: 2i2 - 4x, - 3x+ -9x5' =i}
= I

Aaswers : General solutton , Aogtper 3 x1 = t, &, = 2a' xs = d'

x4 = -3b' x5 =5
Wr] 3o * u
numbers'
Lxa =b where a and b are arbitrary real
22. Solve the follorvin$ linear equations
:

where a and b are any two real.npmbes' x1 +2x2 - 3x3 + 1*, =^1]
Partlcular solutlon ixl = 2'xz=2'xs=-2'4=-L' z,xi + 5i2 - 54 + 6& -* I { D. u. H" 1s871
x, +4xc- xs =O I

,:*1{. fiotyethe following system of 'llnear

equatlons 2xy + 3x2 - 7xs +lO4= |
: 1

X1 t x2 +2x+ + 3'rs = '5' ) Answer ! x1 =- I + 5a -Bb' n= I -a

+2b' xs=a' & =b
24 +4x2- x3 +1& +1xs =- I L numbers'
+5'rq +2x5 =-?^f where a and b are arbitrary real
xi +3&
Sxi * 7.r2 -3x, 9xa + -r2x'' = -i6J
+ 23. Find all solutions of the following homogelleous
7'tq = -
, ,*, .,*q.v, - 4x3 + 2x4 syslt'nts of linear equations :
':
l' o'4=2' x+2Y-32=Ol tD.u.H. re86l
.' .m-: ,0 = 2,.":x2 =- 3, xs = &.= Itl
.:":t-;.r,;\-
i -..o- rr*-:*i, ..:]i i,
i"'. I
\" 2x+5v+22=O I
3x- Y-+z=o )
38 COLLtrGE I,[NEAI?. ALGT'BRA SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EOUATIONS 39

solution
x1 +4x2 +Sx:i +3& =9'l 26. Find a general solution and also a particular
2xi +Si + 5x3 + xa =O L ID.U.P, 1e851 of the followtng system of linear equations :
(ii) 3x, + 2$ +5x3 - x+ =9 [ 3xz -x3 + lxa - 24 = 4, l
2x1 +
4xi+x2+5x3-3-ta =OJ xr* 2x2+ x3+3xa- -4 =-ll
x1- x2- X3- &=9 2x1 + x2-O4 +74+-r3* = II
xi +Sx2- xs*-&=9 5xi + I Lxl +7x^ +124 -l0xs = 4)
(iiil 'lxi -Zxi - x3 - 6xr =! lD. u. P. 19881
Ansrrers ! xr = - M-21a- 24b'& = 39 + lla+
15b'
2x1 +2i2-24 =O
oxi - zxi'- 4xs - 5xo= I xs = - 15 - 4a- 5b' r+ = 3' xs =b'
where a and b are arbitrary red numbers'
2x1 +2x2 - xs - +x5 =9] In particular xl = - 85' x2= 50' xs=- 19' & = L')6 =o
- xi+2xs-3xa+rb=UL
{iv)-xr xi * xz -2xs - rq =9 I 27. Reduce the following system of linear equations
into
xs +.q+.rc5=0 I
echelon form and solve it :
solution'
.&rswers : (i) x= Y = z =O' No non-zero x1 * 2x2 +' 3x3 + 4x4 + 55 = t,l
(ii) x1 = b -a, x2= - (a + b)' x3 = aarrd'q = tr- z"i + 3i2 + 1i3 + \xa + 9o" =:t[
where a and b are arbitrary real numbers'
3xi +5x2+ 6x3+ 7+*-*=?l
=
-axi +7x2 + t0x3 +I-3xa + lPxs I I
xr = 2,a'x2=-?'x3 =a41%
(iii) icxi+Si+ 9x3+l0xa+ S'rs= 3)
. where a is arbitrary real number' Answer i xl = *7 * 4b' h' ='7 + a + lob' x3 = - 2 -2a-
7b'
(M xr = - o.-b, - b' xr = O' 'rj; =tl
xz = &' x3 =
xA = a.xs = b where a and b are arbitrar)' real
numbers'
where a and b are arbitrary real numtrers' system of linear equations into
'" linear equations to ]$-Reduce the following
24."Reduce the following system of echelon form and solve it :
it
echelon form and solve 4x1 + 2xz + 5x3 + 7x4 +
-h =?)
:

xr * x2* x3+24+?;g =Ll * X2* x:t+ 4 *!'q =ll

X7
- 2xr - 2x2 + x3 - 3xa +cxs=t-Yl
-3xs =,P ! 2n +3x2 + 4xs +5& +6:tb = I I
3x1+2x2 +& 3x1+9xz+7x3 + & +8x5=?l
x1*x2+2xs- &+9x5=I8J 5x1 + h, + xs +6xa + .16 =UJ
i x1 = g -'' Answer: xl = l, xz =O, '6 = 1,;8 =- l'xs =O'
,,eryy"' "#,:';,::# ;,1;f..",*. 2g.Determinethevaluesof.},suchthatthefollowing
25. Solve the following system of linear
equatiorrs :
system in unknowns x Y and zhas
(iii) more than one
x1 +2x2 + 3x3 + 4x1 = 5l {i) a unique solution' (ii) no solution'
2xi + x2+Axs*-x, =?'! solution :
3xr +4x2+ x3 +5x1 =91 lx+ Y* z=L I
i*i +3i2 +5x3+2xa=31 x+)'Y+ z=l l B.U.H 1S5l
15 -tl io. 83 x+ Y +)'z=l I
xs= zl' xr= 7t' i'=-2'
, Ar"y:"i lr= )1,x2=-11' Arcw?rs : (i) tr* I and L*-2,(u) {iii} }' = 1'
4o t ir.rnan ercbgRA
,y'\
,( [9 Determin'e the values of ]...such that the following
systEm in unknowns x y and z has (i) a unique solution, (ii) no
solution (iti) morb than one solution :
^ x -32=-3 )
)zx+xy- z---2I
1 x+2y +Az= I
I
J

AttJw.*: (i) tr+2and l"+-5'(li) l'=-5,(iit) l'=2'

31. Deterinihe the values oI )' such that the following
system of linear equations in unknowns x, y and z has {i) a
.r.riqr" soluilon (ii) no solution (iii) more than one solution :
- x+ Y+)'z=L )
x+l"Y * z= ?tl
Ix+y + z=)tz )
Answers: (i) )' * -2, )"* f (fi) ?t=-2 (iii) lt = I
32. Find out the conditions on o, p and y so that the
'non-homogeneous linear equations has
followtng systems of
a solution :
x+ 2Y- 3z= cr I x+W- 9'= gI
(i) 3x- Y+ 2z= Pi (ii) 2x+6Y-tt'=-9 I
2x- IOY + 16z=21 ) 2x-4Y + l4z=21 )

Answer:(i)2cr=P-Y (ii) scr =29 +Y.

33. Find out the condltlons on a, b and c so that the

of non-homogeneous linear equations is
consistent and also solve the system for a = l, b = l "'d " ='- 2'
2x+Y+ z=al
x-2Y + -z =b I
x+ Y''22=c')
Answer : Condition for consistent is a + b + c = O and
.-the,Emerul solution is x= cr- l,Y = d' - l'z=a
where a iS arbitrary real number. :.. , . :,,,:
A particular solution,is x= l, Y = l, z = 2'
 XifiBEAICPnnA
&1 Iatrpfrcfu
J. J. $y{,tprter was t}rc ffrst man sho intnoduced the uprd
'metrf in 1850 and later on in 1858.fr&ur Crytq, de\rclopad
the theory of matrices in a systemaflc
-way. Matrjx ls A
powerful tool of modsn, mathematics wh{h ie origtuated in
the study of llnear equa$ons, and it haq wlde appliqa,sons itr
every branch of sclence and especlally tn Physic+ Che-rnistry,
Mathematics, Statistics, Economics, and Engineertngp.
3.2 Dcfri6oa orf nair|r
A metrir is a rectangular array of nunrbers (real or
complex) enclosed,by a palr of brackets (or double vertical
rolls) and t}re numbers in the array are called the enfies or
the clemcntc of the matrix. that i1 a rectangular artay of (real
or complex) numbers of ttre form

is callqd a natfk. The number.s d1r,ilre, ... ..., amn are

called the entrlec or the etreroeuts of the matrix. The above
matrix has m rows and n bolumns and ls called an (m xn|
mat1k {read "m by n matrix"). The matrix of m rows and n
colunrns is said to be of order "m by n" or ra x n. The above
matrix is also denoted by Iary],
..']
.,';rl'3:
Tlre m horizontal n-tuples (arr, are, ..., ar.,), tazt, d.zz, ...,
az.,), ... ..., (ornr , &m2,..., 2*r) are the m rows of the matrix and
lhe n vertical m-tuples ::
 MATRIX ALGEBRA 95
.COH,.EGE LINEAR ALGEBRA

irii'l'f 3.3 Addttton nunfpUolUon of matrlces :

I- I [ri" I
arz ""n "of"t
lorrll^rrl l^r,
1,1.1,,...,1,1 I Addltion of matrices is deflned onl5l for the matrices
having same number of rows and the same number of
L ;-,1 L .,", I L a,,,, r kt A and B be the two matrices having m rows and n
columns.
are its n columns. The element aU, called the ij-entry or columns.
ii+omponeat, appears in the i th row and j th column. [- a,r dn. oh I
A matrix consisting ol'a slngle row is called a row matrix
(or now vcctor) and a matrix consistir:g of a single colunrn is
i. e., |L;, ; ::: ;;"
A= 13,,1 =
a2r dzz az,-
I

J
,rra

called a column matrir (or cotumn vertor). fl I brr brz br., I

Matrices are generally denoted by capital letters A, B, X, Y n=rhr= | ::, i.: .:: ?"
etc. Square brackets [ ], or, curwed bra'ckets ( ), or. TWo pairs L.:b*r bse b-"
I

J
of parallel lines I I I I ar. used for the mathematical notations :l
Then the sum of A and B is
of matrices. In this book we will use the notation [ ]. [-a1 1 +b11 ap+bp 31n *b1n I
Emmples of mstriees a21+b21 a22+b22 z2n+b2n
a+g=lI ... I

ymprc ,.o
-?l ;i'il; b-1 a.,,2 *b,,1 ?inn * b-r J
I

= [; -3 i1 a matrix of order 2 [-ar,1 +

tlle real ffeld IR and also over the complex flcld C. The multiplication sf matrix hy numbers (scalars) is
The rows of A are (l; O, - 5) and (2, -3, z) and its columns defined as follows : The product of aq (m,r n) matdx A by a
number k is denoted by kA or Ak and is the ( m x n) matrix
*. (;) LS) ,"o ft) obtained by multiplying every element of A by k, that is,
r2 0 i-1 [- karr ka, lrarr.l
D"ramfle2. B=l -i 1 4llsamatrixof'order3x3 ta = l ka'' kazz
u""
I r+i -s sJ I ...
I
I

L k.-, ka-z ka*,, J

over tJ:e complex lield C.
We also define -A = {- 1) Aand A- B =A + (- B).
The rows of B are (2, O, i), (-i, 1, 4) 4nd (1 + i, - 5, 3) and,.its:
/ 2 . , Or zir If the matrices A, B,'C:are conformable for addition and if
columns are -i l, I r I ana [+ l.
[ t*i/(.-5) k is any scalar, then we can state that
I \3) (i) A+B= B+A(Commutatlvelaw)
TWo matrices A = [ a1 I and B = [ bu I areequal ifand only if (ii) (A+B) +C =A+ (B +C)(Associativelaw)
I
the5r are identical i.e ,if and only if they contain the same (iii) A+O=O+A=A .t: .. a'-'
number of rows and the same grmber of colurnns and a1, = b, (iv) k(A+B)=kA+kB={A+B)k. : ".-

for all values of i and j. where O is the zero matrix of the same;order.l r ri$';rill:.,,.ir'. ,; 'r,i

,d
 MATRIX AI,GEBRA 97
g6,
4lI
coLIEqE UNEAS, AITEBRA -1
-a
" [;
l*0"=[-i ol
] *"= [-3
let =
For examph, ,r^= [ I -?
'nJr-
For examples, -1

,rs,^*",;Ill,uu, n'J;{ }=[-i 3] I

thenAB= [] I;5:l-,1-?;'i:3 L 'ti:';:Lf,1,?'.
-::l
^=l?iL ?.u? I= [8 To ] = t;13:'f -'r-*'Zl3 I = t??
ena e-"= [:?-u
-?--'ul =
[-l i ] uo =[ -l il
-B
-il
g.4 llatrtx h$!fifontton L3 0l t;
A and B are conformable for multiplication
TWo rratrlces (-l)'o l^. I * (-1) (-11 I
if the number of columns iu A is equal to the numder of rows
r 1' + Ftl'z t' (-3) +
=l i-;r[; i i-it-&)++ ?)?* o' (-r) I
1
o 4 q'].
in B. R,
=L
b-: rio- z s Fs) +'o o' u,l I

' Ib' I r-1 -3 6l

I.etA =,tir az .... a.l and
"
=L jl L
6 -I4 l.'.AB+BA-
=l 6s -e 151
rn I 3;5 TxansPose of a matrir
real field IR ' then the
The AB = erbr *,adb2r ... + a,,hJ =L P=r*o, If A is an m x n matrix over the
the matrix O OI yTt"U lo-:o*t
n x m matrix obtained from
-.,
.,Jr
Alaln, lOt tle rn x p matSlx 6 = [agl and the p xn mptrix of
as rows is called the transpose
p = I l. thenAB i*&e m x n *"T C = [ q"l wtrere as columns and its columns
h A and is denoted by the symbol
,s' that is' if A = I aij I is an
an n x m matrix'
cs=anbr1 *"oba +... +fu h ?3ib5 m x n matrix then 'S' = [aJi Iis
T 1 21
ti= | .l', ',r Forexamples, leto=[] 3 ?
-[l' ur".,N=l g
i6.1 I

' If the matrices A, B, C are conformable for the in&cited | -z

sums and products, we havg the foIlowing properties :
(or conjugatc) of a matrix
3.6 Compler co4iugate
, , (it (AB)c = A(BC) (Awcl,ntive law) z' x.r iy is the
(,)A(B + The conJugate of' a complex nurnber =
"' :f" lgSl (Eistribudve lars)
(ii0 (A+BlC= cornplex number z = x- iy' If
A is an m x n matt"ix over tire
Lhe conJugate o[ a rnatdx
A is
(iv) k(AB) = (kA)E = A[kBlwhere k is any scalar. r:ornplex field, then we say ttral.
l'hc <:nrtjui':l1cs
RemarLs : In the matrix product AB, the matrix A is called i!tc nrll'[rix A whos* fi:lttTteljJ-si n.,..11 11.1.11,;pf:Ctivciy
A =[Ziii l' t'
lhe pre-rntltlpllcr (or Pre-factor) ancl B is called the r-,il.lre:elernentsofA.'l'ha1 is'il'A=[n'i ]'tlren
postmuttlpltcc {or p6t factor) i 1.irtr".ri- lUgebra-7
r1
 98 COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA MATRIX ALGEB.RA 9g

Z.
For examples .
ifl
if A='l -i
I
, 2+3i
l+ i I
I -# igslan8lular matrlx
-,--_.
: The number of rows and coluntns of a
Ls 1+2i -5 J
rl -i 1-i r er of rows and qoltlmns qf ths
A=li
-t 2
2 2-sL
_t I
.
t-
- ,t 5 L-2i -5 l ,rrrl =.. :* =aral, then the matrix js known as the
reetangulas.maEix:
/ A matrix A-lq_-c,allecl real provirled it satislles the relation -l ?6lyli -i2 21 3I
o s lrrxl_
A=A -,.furexamples, I -L
Definition Imaginily matrix are rectangular matrices'
it Dj1g9".1 m"lg : Arytelatrix whose element: :iL: O
A matrix A is called imaginary Provided satisfies the
relationA=*A wry"s$511*
@.:IEEIe*r,I
1)re conjugate of the transpose of a given complex matrix
Forexampre",Ii 3l*.LB 3 ?] are diaeonar matrices'
A is said to be the conjugate transpqse of A and is generally
denoted hy the syrnbol A*. That is,
if A = [aq ] is a comPle-x matrix, then
* * 1(e= IQil.

.o,.*rffi o=l--l i, 'rl;, I

1' I s t+2i -5 I
4,,r.=[-1 i 1-r, l
L r-i 2-3i -5 -l
matrices of order 3 and 4 respectively'
/*raif B=
lt'*'n" ;f;, ?;z: fr zero matrix or null matrix-: A qattl']5lnJvhich--srcry
/*"r,8*=['-* ,:i1
-l
Lt"*il--i" ,ero is called a rllrllJnatrix 61 a zero rn?trix'
[2+5i 3-2ii ;ilr.".[Tl 3] ",otg [[] arezeromatrices

S/Gpecial types of matrices v{th*exarnples

J Upper and lower triangular matrices :
Squite rnatrix : A gglru< with t hc _same- nr:mbet
A square matrix whose elements aU = O for D j is called

;,=.ffi
:1l9r""3"d an
colunrrrs js t'alled a square matrix.
l"r upper triangular matrix and a square matrix whose elemcnts
' s lor. square tnatrices. i
trr J a,j = O for i < j is called a lowgr triangutar matrix'
roo COLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA MATRXATGEBRA }OI

2 3l In this case dlagonal elements of the matrices will be real

i 5l
Forexamp'.",
[Lii] *,.[B i 3-2
o 7)
I
numbers.
Skew-Hcrmltlan matrlx : If A = [ a,J I is a square matrix
are upper triangular matrices. overthecomplex{Ield, andA*=( 6t;=-A i'e 3u=- 6ir for
5 o o.l I I 3 3 3].*lowertriangurar
r ij = l. 2, ..., nthen A is called a skcw-Hemltlan matrix'
-r2ol*rol-Li f 21 2-31 3l
"'dl sztj -i;l
_r:i rt .] "",
matrices.
L L-A; -i;l For exampres, A =
L-1-8,
Symmetric matrlx : A matrix equat to its transpose i'e q r i l-1 5l
square matrix such that a1; = oii for I s i' j " t' is said to be n= l-r-i 2i i Iare skew-HermiUan matrices.
symmetric. In short we can say a square matrlx A will be L-s i ol
symmetric if .Ar =.{. In this case diagonal elements of the matrix will be either
t-ahgl l- 12 -3,r)I zero or wholly comPlex number.
exampres,"=L!
i:landB=L_A ? Tdhogoaal matrk , A t@is said to be

are sJrnmetric matrices. orthogonal tf AAT =AT A = I.

LA and l.B are also symmetric if l, is a scalar' ttrat is, if.S = A-l (the inverse of the rnatrix A)
,/ r l 8 41
Skbw-symnetrlc matrk : A matrix equal to the negative ./., ls o -0z
4 l
I

of its transpose i,e a square matrix such that 2U = - a;i and in For examPles, A=lI a,
O -O -O l*d
which therefore, du = O is said to be skew-sSrmmetric' lq 4t
ro Ohgl t-21
g=lIo O 3 L9 -L
9 9J
Fore:<amples, -
A=l-h f -l
L-e-folland Lz-s oi |
r | 2 2-1
l'55 3l
t_-t

. are skew-sYmmetric matrices. 2l

B=lI zt -A
;; lareorthogonalmatrices.
Hermitian matrix : If A = [ ai.1 I is a square matrix over the I zz -3J
I r _* I

complexfield and A* = (Ar)=A i'ea1= aji fori' j= l' 2""' u; s t

L-s
then A is called a Hermitian matrix. .a-
' 12 2-3i .+i A14 '
i'rrt. ex;irnples,, A,= | 2-rlji 5 I | ,r.,rl l idempotent ry!!"_if
I ': I --i 0j -41
' [-t 3 5] L I -2 -34ll
I .J :j

rr. i J : _-; Forexamples, I I -3 -s lanal-t 3

;,1 -.1 li jrli'r: aii.'r'S; it
v
l- *zit
{ are idemPotent matrices.
\
LA2 COLI-EGE LINEAR ALGEBRA MATRIX ALGEBRA r03

Nilpotent matrix : A square matrix A is called a nilpotent 3.9 Ttreorems on transpose matrix
matrlx of ordern if A'r = O and An-l + O where n is a positive Theorem I If A and B are comparable matrices and Al and
integer and O is the null matrix Br are the transpose matrices of A and B respectively.
3t
For exampt.", e =
[3 ] I ,'n ,=[-i 3 sl then (i) (Ar)r = A (ii) (A + B)r =;S + Br.
:
(iii) (AB)r = ISAr (iv) (crA)r = cr AJ. where n is a scalar'
are nilpotent matrices of order 2.
Periodlc matrii : A square matrix A is called periodlc if
Proof : (i) rrt A = [ au l, l=rl;1'...,'7
Am+l - A where m is a positive integer.
then bY definition ,{' = [a; lr [Ei I
If m is the least positive integer for which Am+l = A, then A =
Now (AI )r = [qi] r = [ a,:l = A .'. (,$)r =,{.
is said to be of 1rcrlod -j ,
r I -2 -6-t (ii) t€tA = [ air ] and B = [ bu ] whereS ill f'...: l'
then C =A+B is deflned and [ -qL I = [aiJ I + [ b1 I.

period 2. Now by the deflnltion ol'the transpose of C

A square matrix A is called an [glr = [qrl = [a1i ] +
-]horotutory matrlx : we have (A -t B)1 = Cl' = tQi I
qff
iivolutory matrix f A2 =1. = { qf+{\ lr =.S + sT
.'. (A + B)r = Ar + Bf.
For exampl., o = [-3 -? I ," an involutory matrix.
:
tet A be a complex square matrix, then A
(iii) LetA= [au I i= 1,2,..., m; j = l, 2, ...,n
Unltary matrlx
is called a unltary matrlx ,l** = A*A = I or equivalenfly
A* = A-t.where A*=.:fi'r= 61). Then AI = [aiJ ]T = [ ajil is arr n x m Inatrix
gr [h. l, = IbrE I is a p x n matrix.
=

ThusABisamxpmatrixsothat(AB)r is a p x m matrix.
Also BrAT is a p x m matrix. Therefore, (AB)r and BrAr ltave
Normal matrlx : [rt A be a complex square matrix, then A $ same dimensions.
is called a normal matrix if A*A = AA* where A* is the
NowAB = [ ct ]where (i, k) th element of AB is
conjugate transpose of A.
[ = [ '.ui 3 ; where i = l,2, ...' m
no, example, ,,.L,] is a normal matrix. cu. =i , ?U DJr, k = l, 2, ..., p.
,'t"
J=l
:
 105
MATRX AI,GEBRA
104 COLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA
{Tz2where z1 and z2 are arry two
comPlex
since i 1 +22 =
"lherefore, trre' (t;iith''i:lement of (ABlr
numbers.
nn Again 6- +B = complo( conjugate of lary
+ b1]

,.:i=I
- =Ij=I ajrt b$r
=f,' alib;x
= complex conjugate
of c,i where -Q; = ar1 + b,

=bul=[rFo,,]r"t"u1<i sm'I sn'(2

n <J
T
L.
j=l Jl
Therefore, ATB = [ fu;b;] r"tru I
sism, 1 sJ <n'
= (k,i)th element of BrAr Since the corresponding entries of
A + B and AJ-B are
equal and also both f + E and A;E
Hence (A6;T =g1O'
are matrlces of order

LetA=[aij I .'. $ = [a1 lr = lajrl m xn, from (1) and (2)' we conclude that
A;B ='6' +g'
0v)
B [bplbe
Now (ctA)r = [cxaijlr = [craii l= c taril = aAI Theorcm g. I-etA= [aljlbe anymxnmatrixand =
(ae)r any n xp matrix over the complex fleld i'e A and B are
= crAr'
"'
3.1O Theoremson complex conJugate of
amatrix conformable to the product AB' then
;E = A e
m x n complex matrix' then to the product AB'
Theorem 1. IfA = 1 a1; i is any Proof : Since A and B are conformable
Ib1r.l=[cL lwherecft = atlQ1 for all
I < i J m'
A=A. "oeg=[ai1lx
Proof : By definition of complex conjugate of a complex lsk <pand 1Sj<n.
matrix, wehaveA= taulforlll I <i<m' I SjSnand
ao isttre Rtso A=1ir;forall 1<i3m'lsj sn
complex conjugate of a1; i'e iu is ttre entry
in the i th row and and 6=l h* J forall 13jSn, I 5 kcSP'
j thcolumnof A. Again.E= Iiul for { I < i< m' I j n
< ( and NowABis defrnedandwehave AB= tqt x [bEl = F" t ttt
(the entry in the i wtrere a,*=- aq+.;x firrd-+<i5-m' 1<k<<pand
I<i<n'
E. i" th" complex conjugate of l.i i'e 5'o = ai1
entries ffi
# -," i th colum, of tnt mitrx A)' Therefore' the
""a
Again = comPlex conJugate of
AB
entries of A' or. AB = [cr lwhene cil
of the complex conjugate of A = tJre corresponding = qJ h.
Also A and .E are matrices of the same order'
Hence A = A' f
-- [ -u
a,r brk u-,r
1i, -J^ t
"Jl( I -= r-u
matrices
T.heorem 2. lf A and B are two complex [d*l (2 since = ZrZ,
conformable to addition, then ffi=[
+ B'
= "{'"
of order for any two complex numberd z1 artdza '
Proof : Let A = [ai1 I and B = [br] be any two matrices
< i< m, 1 Sj S n' Sinced,k=irEuforall 1<ism, t=Oi:pand 1 (jsn'
m xn. Thenwe tar.e + E! = [ au + biil for alt 1
Combining (1) & (2) we conclude that AB =
A B'
Also by rlefinitioll, we have A = [tul and 3 = [biil matrix' then
*e = 6,il * trul = t a'F5rr, rJ,=, Theorem 4. L;et6 = [a11] be any m xn conrplex
. A
=, =
*, =
r, ),A = tr A. I ueing any complex number'
 r07
MATRIX ALGEBRA
t06 COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA
(ii) BYde{inition' *: h^'"
Proof : By definition of the conjugate of a matrix, we have - ".
1<jsnand 2ii isthecomplex (A+B)*= 1A+n)'=14+B)'
A =t;ul foralll<i<m,
conjugate of atj. =(A)r * tB' since(c+P)t=cI+Dir'
<i<m, I sj<n'
atso 1.e-[ ^;;l=t ^ "11l trtforall I
= = A* + B*, slnce A* = ([)''
slnceilz'2 =;tr2where \ andz2 are any two complex
numbers. (iii) (A8)* = (ABf = (AB)t

= F)t(A)r since
(CD)r =ilCI'
Again 1 A, = h1l*t.t bl= Ifu forall I si<m' I5j Sn'

=t l4lforall'l<ism, 1<jsn (21 = B*A*-

(R)" =fA*
Thus from (1) & (2)' we conclude that the corresponding (iv) GA*= o,Af = G[)t =[
matrix A' (IA)*= IA*
entries of l'A and 1 e are equal and they are of same order' Corolla y : For any complex
Hence 1.A = )' A . where l, ls a sealar'
and shew-sYmmetrlc
3.11 Theorers on the conJugate transpose ofa cotnPlex 9.12 Theorems on sYmmetrlc
matrix. matrices.
matrix can be uniquelY
, Theorem 1. kt A*and B* L,e the conjugate transpose of A Theorem 1' Every square
and B respectivelY, then expressed as the ""* of
a symmetric matrix and a skew-
(i) (A):A !**
symmetric matrix'
and 'S be its transpose'
(ii) (A + B)* = A* + B*, A and B being conforrnable for Proof : t et A be a square matrix'
addition Then we have
(1)
(iii) (AB)* = B* An, A and B being conformable for o= i B * f) *; te-'s) =B +c (sav)
multiPlication. (2)
i 6 +.tr) and c =| te -
A1)
where u =
(iv) (kA)* = [ A*' k being a complex number'
Now Br =*jo+ F)r =| o+
* ffi
Prqof : (il l.et A*= B, then B = ( Ar) = (A)' =ir* *\= n
and Br = (t At')'= A j
and cr =i,ro- ,{)r = r+ -
(s)r)
Again (E)t = 1fr = F= e =jr+-ot
E)t = (B')
Therefore, B* = A, since B* = = -Lro- ,$) = - c'
(

Hence (C)* = A, since B = A*'

 MIITRIX AI,GEBRA
r09
r08 COLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA
Second Pordon
Thus B is a symmetric matrix and C is a skew-symmetric
(a.6t;r = (N')r Ar = AS Since (,s)r= A'
matrix. Hence from (1) we conclude that a square matrix can
be expressed as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a skew- and (NA)r = Ar (N)r = 'SA
symmetric matrix. matrices. Therefore,
... Iu\T and .qT A are both symmetric
To prove the unlqueness of the representation of (l), let if
-A2isasymmetricmatrix.Againsince_lisascalar,
possibleA=P+O (3)
A2 is a sYmmetric matrix'
where P is a sJrmmetric matrix and O ls a skew-symmetric kA is also a
matrix so that PT =PandOr=-O Note : If A is a symmetric matrix' than
scalar'
Ttren,S = (P+QIr =Fr+ S=P-O (4) s5rmmetric matrix'where k is any
matrices
Adding (3) and (4) we get Theorem 4. If A and B are both skew-symmetric
of same order such that AB = BA'
then AB is s5rmmetric'
A+Ar =2p ...f=2(f +A)
matrices' then
Again subtracting (4) from (3), we get A -,$ =2O Proof :.If A and B are both skew-symmetric
I AT = -Aand BT =-B
...8=;(A-s)
i'e A=-N andB=-Bf
This establishes the uniqueness of (l). (-AI) = BrAr = (AB)r
Hence the theorem is Proved. Also given AB = BA = (-Br)
Thcorcm 2. lf A is a square matr'rx, then A + Ar is "'
(AB;r'=66'
symmetric and A - af is skew-s5nnmetric' Thus AB is a sYmmetric matrix'
Ploof : Eirst Portion Theorems.IfAandBaren-squaresymmetricmatrices,
and B commute
If A is a square matrix, then then AB is symmetric if and on{ if A
6 +.$)T =,$ + (S)T =Ar +A =A+'qr (i.e AB = BA).
Hence by definition A +,S is symmetric' Proof : Since'A and B are spnmetric'
AI =Aand Bir =B'
Second Portion Now (ABlr = (BA)r = NyriP
- Ar)r = d - (,s)t =.S - (.{r)r =Ar - a = - (A -'S)
(A
.'. (AB)r =AB. ./
Hence by delinition A - Af is skew-symmetric'
Thus AB is a sYrlu{retric matrix'
Theorem 3. If A is a skew-symmetric matrix then ConverselY , t/= (rrB)'i - IfAr= BA
AAr =,SA and A2 is symmetric.
S;inc'd llr'= IJ a-nc1 Af = i\'
Proof : Flrst Portion
I-lenee A ancl lJ cutnrtrr-tte
Since A is skew-s5rmmetric, Ar = -A
...A,4r=A{-A)=-A2 (i) Retnrtrk:.[.lrllrttittrixl}1.A1]issYrrriltr:tri<li'ii"Sk(.r1.\j-
andAlA=(-A)A=-A2 (ii) l]yrtlrTlctri(:irr'cortlirl$il:iAisjsyt::.trtt,:[i:ic1i1.5[,;111.,,-l:i.ytnrrretrit''
From (i) and (ii), we get AAr = Ar A.
 MATRIX ALGEBRA
tll
*.T:l"es then
tIo COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA
Theorem 2. rf A and B T:.T'*"t11
AB + BA is Hermitia"
t'la AB - BA is skew-Hermitian'
3.13 Theorems on Hermitian and skeu'-Hermitlan Hermitian 'wematrices' have
matrices
Proof : Since A and B are the complex'coniugate
*i"t" and B* are
Theorem l. In a complex field every square matrix
can be o.=-o1]ro';{; ".
matrix and a ,r.rr"ro""" of A and t"ll.t"tT-"1'r;
expressed uniquely as the sum of a Herrnitian
Now (AB + BA)" =
'
(AB)'' + (E}.|)
-
skew-Hermitian matrix' = B*A* + A*B*
A* be the
Proof : t,et A be a square matrix of order n and = BA +AB =AB
+ BA'

*;=j;.;.
conjugate transpose of A' Then we can
writ€
(r)
Hence nb + BA is a Hermitian
matrix'

L*o-A*)=P+Q(sau Again (AB - BA)*=

j e -a*t B',I_ f.?-
where, =L,W+ A*) and g =
= tsA-AB
Now P* = i ,o + A*1*= i {t + (e*)*) :
=-(A8-BA)
matrix'
- BA is a skew-Hermitian
Hence AB
are Hermitian' then AB
is
=){a"*A) =P
Theorem 3' lf A and B
A and I commute'
g* =i,(A - A*)* =f, ra* - (A*)*) . Hermitian if and only if
Hermitian'
Proof : Since A and B are
=jta*-nt A*= A and B*= B
(1) \
1* AB' since AB = BA'
-)o- A*) = - o. No*'p1gi* = B*A* = BA = \
=
Thus'by definition' AB is
He:mitian' 1

rnatrix'
Thus P is a l{ermitian and Q is a skew-Hermitiari Ag;ain = 9u)" = 9*6*=
BA
A can be expressed "o""'""''';
Hence from (1) we see that a square matrix Since A and B ale Hermitian
as tlte sum of a Hermitian matrix P and
a skew-Hermitian
*"1T matrix can be uniquerv
$rorr" the uniqueness of. represe.ntalion^ (1. l."i' o H::l#t?:'ffi$"square
*t'ol p and are Hermitian'
g
A R + S (2) where expressed as P + i8 n and A*' be its
possible, A be also e"ft"""iUfe in th.e.fbrm = matrix of order
R is Hermitian and Sls skew-Hermitian
such that Proof : kt A be the square
R*=RandS*=-S' conjugate transPose'
R- S Then we can write * 1 {.,
Norv A* = (R + S)* = R* + S*=
(3)
;=i;.^.' ;;;; -a*)=.1>(a+e*)
*i le-a*t -

(3). we Set R = A*) = P *

)W. (A - a-)
(savt (r)"wrrere P = |fo *o*t |
and Q =
= I) + iQ
Subtracting (3) Iiorn (2). lve $et S = )W-A*) = 8'
=lrrn* A*)* = | {e* *
(A*)*}
(1)' Now P*
which establishes the uniqueness of
Hence the ttreorem is Proved'
 ll3
MAf,RD( AI,GEBRA
COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA r"rii'r'i
tL2 O,ta Scorrammi'lqofg't'otrnrtrlcca ttrpn AB is
f : f iJ e *" idempotent rnatrlces
=;d+A)=in*A*) =P tlicarcm
ra"mit rrt 663 = BA'
A; B are idernpotent matrlces
n. = L\ 1o - o*t)*=# 16* - 1a*)*l Proo(: Slrnce
A2 =Aand BF = B,
Also gPen 63 = BA'
=-fita* -A rro*
'.
gos;i = AB BB) = A (BA) B =
AjaE) B

=fio-A*)=o = [A'A]
(B'B] = tP * = ltB' ! '

matrix'
Therefore, P and Q are Hermltian matrices. Thus from
(1)' Hencc AB is an ldemPotent then A + B
g If a;tB are idempotent matrices'
we see that A can be expressed in the form P + rO where P
and Q trkor@ :
BA = O'
if AB
are Hermitian matrices. *iU il Ue*eot"nt tf and only =
if areidunpotent matrlces
To prove the uniqueness of the representation
(1) let P.imf I Sirtee A and B :

possible
- A = R + i S (2) where R and S are Hermitian' that is' "/,}=AardFF=B' + B) 6 + Bl
R* = R and S*= S. Nor O* = ;; = 0' ttren (A + B)2= 6
NowA* = (R+ i S)* = R* -iS* = R-iS
(z) + (3) gives A + A*= 2R
(3)
:X:#J#ii,;il=o
A? ='&'E?'=B'
I = A + E slnce
.'.R=; (A + A*) = P :' :'
HenceA+BisanidemPotentmatrix''
matrix' then:
(2)- (3) gives A - A* = 2i S Agairr if [A + B) ts an
idempotgnt "'
...s=*1e-A*)=o [A+BP-A+E '; i:';': 'r]
or, A2 +AB+BA+BP'=A+8" I '
whichestablishestheuniquenessof(t).Hencethe
theorem is Proved. or, A+AB + EiA+ B =A+ B
Remarks : (f) If A is any n-sguare complex matrix then or. AB+.84r-0" - :'' '' 'r ' :"-'r:r':' lii r:'

A + A* is Hermil"ian and A - Al is skew-Hermitian' or, AB=-AA (11 .

(2) If Ais any n-square complex matrix then AA* and A*A
-'^.'
' ^"0'b-.44-'*aOu'6FqA'=-(ABIA "''
are both Herrnilian. :.-.t.t;FAts 7,EA?'t-"Be
' !' r

(3) If A is l-lermitian matrix, ttaen i A is a skew-Hermitian o

we get aa + AB; - BA
+ BA:
matrix. Addkls f rf Jtzl' ' I .,
(4) If A is a skew-I{ermitian matrix' t-hcn i A is a i. e. 2AB*o, .:.aP,t.o+-BA.'.- .:'
i_ -^*
if and only lf AB = o = EiA'
Herrnitian malI I-\. Hence A + B'is'ide.inpotent therr 13 = I *A is
(5)Aisl-lcr.rrtil'iariiIirrtr]oniyif.Ai.stlerrnitiirrr' Theorem 3. If A is an iclempotent-rnatrix,,
idemPotentandAB.=O=.E$'' -''
:'
t6) .A is sltrw-i'lct'tltiiialr if :r'nii ';tlh' ii A lSr sl'ir'"iv
Ilerrtril i;tn.
 l:\1 coLlFrQPrr,rN.p4rrncEBRA
r15
MATRIX ALGEBRA
hoof : We know.t*ratan
= lA = A
:'Al$o:since. A is idempotent, A.2 A
=
12r3l134-11
=Ll _? ?l
" Ll _; ?]' "
Again since I and A are square matrices, so I A Asain =
- is also a
squzrre matrix.
Now ( l- A)? = (I. A1(I-A) = I _ tA_AI +A2 are non-singular matrlces'
=I-A_A+A=tr_A.
]ri;;' = tit=-6+oandD2= Bl=18*o'
' '''
'So 3.16 Inversematrlx i I ,'
by definition I-A is an ldempotent matrix. lnvertible if there exists a
A square matrix A is said io be
Again AE! = A (I-A) = AI - A2 =A-A O
= unique matrix B such that AB = BA =
I where I is the unit
,'. AEI = O
matrix. We call such a matrix B the
lnverse of A & is generally
inverse of
BA = (I -A) A = [A - A2 =A-A= O ;i|"'u o, ot Here we have to note that if B ts the
... EIA = O.
A. then A is the inverse of B'
Theorem 4.If A and B are squ.rre matrices of order
* 'u -]l
that.AE! = A arld BA B, then A and B are idempotent.
=
n such
*,rampre 1. I€t = ll
" ta -"1
= [-3
Proof c ABA = (AB) A = AA = A2 (l) since AB A
=
AlSo AEA = A (BAl = AEl.= A (2) since BA B & AEt A.
*."*= [3 ll I-3
= = -?r**'nl=[l
?I='
, F.tom (I) & (2), we get A2 = fi ... A is idempotent. =[3-3
Similarly, we have , . tll ]l= [-3;3 3-.11 =[i ?l =i
:
uo= [-3 E
= B tAB) = EIA= B
BAB (S)
strrqeAB =A & EI{ = B of each
g are tnvertble and are inverses
. AIso BAE| = [BA)B = BB = 82 {4) slnce EIA * B Therefore, A and
other. That is, .[' = B ard d =[:
',o
Ftom (3) and (4) we get B?
=B.
-il"u'=f-'3 i
... B is idempotent. ,, l

&16. Silngular end non&3iular ntrdGor ' - .

r'-o'ndcr.,.,o=[i
^-Loi? aJ- i
L 5-2 i]2J
I,et D be the determrnant of the sqtlare matr!( A, then
if 12 O -lll- 3 -l ll
D = O, the matrix A {qcalled,the sl4gulif nirtrlr,and tf
D* O,
p""*=l3 I gJ[,9 _; -Z)
the.matrtx A ts call,ed the loa-flng& rnetrt. 2+O,-2-l
r 6+ O- 5-2+A+2
As for e<amples =l rs-rs* o -5+6+o
o+6-6 3:3131
2 3'] L o-15+15
rl o o1
^=I; 11,"=l_i
are singular matrices,
i;]* .=li 5 6l
8 eJ
. =l o I ol=I
Lo o rJ
13 -l I 1r2 O -ll
sinceDl = h[=O,D2= lB l=OanODs= lC l=O. :
=L-!u -8 -z llr I 3l
 116 COLLEGE LINEARAITEBRA
MATRIX N.GEBRA
rt7
F 6:5+O O-l+l -3+O+ 3l flOOl offrdng t.hc lnverrce of a squarc matdx
-l-so+3o+o o+6-5 l5+o-15 l=lo I o l=I 3.18 Irnoccc!
L ro-ro+o o-2+2 -b+o+ oJ Loo tJ r iltz
I-ar
aln

Therefor.e. A and B are invertible and are inverses of each - la" a22
A=1...
azn
I-etthematrix
other. That is, .[l =B and d = A. Lt'' z1e "' Bnn

3.f76dJoht or adJugPtc natrlr of the matrix A' Evaluate the

I-et D be the determinant
fuas no
f-arr arz ah I determinant p; if D = 0' thi
roatrix Atg atngElsf, and:it
, I azr azz
.-. :.. ... ... I
42n ls noa-eingufar and A-l erdsts'
inverse, if D * O the matrix'A
I
Let A=l
of ttre matrix A then
I ... t
Find the adjolnt matrix AdJ A
L"", q, a." J r AdiA'
L€t D be the deterrninBnt of the matrlxA,
a t =DAdjA=-m
a, Ant
i Art Azt
l"' ]atz r "'
ral" I '
EI EI EI
lazr 4zz . ..i azn
then D= la l= 1... ..f I

I ,l ,
An Azz Anz
ET El .: EI
l;t * ,"' t """ I
,'. rfl =

Irt4{ $1 ,,?,$ .::, nandJ =

l:2,3:
...,rt ' Art Azn
EI E]
3.19 Theorems on lnverse
matrlx
Forrr .the matrix [&11. Ttren the,trylspose of the matrix
I&l k called the adJolnt or the tgjugat! nat;k of the matrix of the n-squarex$atr,( A'
Theo,r.n I : If A-l is the inverse
Aarrdb{Bnenallydenotedby,AS,A.,
: ', . i..,
t. .:- .:

then A^FI = A-rA = I' where

I ts the unit matfix of the ""*
[-Arr Arz Ar' l- l'Arr Azt A"r -l ,, . ,,,r'1.
I Az, Azz Az,,' l' I Arz l,1zz Anz I order.

I "' I :':" : "'' "' Eoof : lrt A = Iarl i'J = t,2,...,n then,A;-r = ff'*1;are 'Dtheis
loz ,-. Aoo J ',
I
'1 * O) and Ag
tA"r. Lt$,+,, &, An,, J the determinant of the matrix
A (D
AS fOf e1alnDleg ,; :i r ;,i I t'. , i i ' "'';
';';;.-,i '. "
co-factors of D' I .'
r 7.;r rl
firi.gf I"'i t&l
1j ''i "''
AA-r = Iaylxo I&l =D
Let R=l I 3 -l luren i !''
iai i
Lz I oJ
r l _2 _E.rr r l . & ':_i, i ,,,'' 1I
[-ar r ate
?22
zln
azn
Azr

!:' Hl
3 -o sl=['.2,'-i
L-rl 4 lJ L-s fl : +l;
=DlI "'...
AdiA=l
" lJ r,
:

,'
' r it
L"r, a,,2 ann ]H: Azrt ;;. l
1i
 ll8 COLLEGE LINEAR AI]GEBRA
r19
MAi!'EIX AICEBRA
oI o
O
ol
Ot Arr
Since lA l+ O, we can let b11 = EI
l=r
co-factors of ag in A'
oo ll I (i, J = t, 2' ..., n), where &J are the
Irt B be the matrix [bryI. Then
Similarly, we can show that A-I A = I
*=[i=, ",- ",]=
ThusAA_r =A_l A=I.
Theorem 2. If A and B arenon-slngular matrices,
[a, ""ry]=[+r]=,
'
(AB)-t =B:r A-1. Also O-,f1 =Aand (A-r)r = (.,Sft. simirarry, ,o = h* *]=[L, ffi*
hoof : Since, (AB) 1B-t A-r) =A(BB-t) A-r = AIA-r- AA-r =I [i= t ]=,
Hence B is an tnverse of A and every non-singular
matrix
and (B-rA-r) (AB) - Br (A-I A) B = Et-rIB = FrB = L
A has an inverse. i

Thus E)-t A-l is the Arverse of AB i.e (AB)-r = B-r A-l

Finally, we have to show that the inverse of a non-
and
If A and B are two matrices such that AB = I, then A = B-l singular matrix is unlque. Suppose that A is non-singular
of A, then we have
and B =A-1. A-l-is its inverse. If EIis another inverses
AEI = I Multiply each side of this equation
on th9 left by A-t''
Therefore, A = B-l = (A-l)-r ... A = 01;l)-1.
then we O-t 6[i) = A-l I =,fl.
Ar (A-r)r = 0rrA)r = (Ilr = I shours that pt-t;r = (AI)-r.
Corotlary : If A1 P*r, ....A., are non-slngular matrlces of the
or, 1e-rd B =A-l
s.rme order, their product is non-stngular and
or, IB = A-l
(ArAz .... &) -t = &-l .... Ar-l 6r-t.
or, B =A-l , l:

one inverse A l
Hence A has onlY ,
Theorem 3. A matrix has an inverse if and only if it is number of
non-slngular. A non-slngular matrlx has only one lnverse. [The rank of a matrix A is the maximum
fi linearly independent rour (or column) vectors of A'l
Proof : Suppose that A is of the type (m, n) and that m <n. If $
patrlccs'
8.2O Ttcerclrc on otthogoral
A has an lnverse A-r the products AA-l and A-t A are both ,i
each of
Theorem l. If A and B are orthogonal matrices'
,I
defined and hence A-r must be of the form (n, m). It follows I
{ order n then the matrices AB and BA are also orthqgonql.
Proof : Since A and B are n-roived orthogonal *"ll"-ti-'
that A-l A = Ir,. IfA has rank r, tlten we have r < m < n s r, since i
tl:e rank of I, is n and the rank of the product of two matrlces
ls less than or equal to the rank of either factor. Hence m = n The matrix product AB is also a square matrtx o{ o,,i,,dSr n
= r dDd A is non-singular. If n <m the result follows sirpilarly, aud{AE)r(AB) = (Br S) GB)
using AA-l = Im.
. =ntr (l\relB
Now suppose that 6 = [arJl is non-singular Bir I,rB
r2O COLLEGE LINEARAI-GEBRA MATRIX AI,GEBRA t2l
'
Itrus AB is an orthogonal matrix of order n. Now (AB) (ABlt= (Rg)'(n*a?)r
Similarly, BA {BAir = (BA) (ArBr) = B (A.{r)Br Ar
= A (BB*)
= BITTBT = BE|I = Ir,.
= AIA*
Hence BA is an orthogonal matrix of order n.
Theorcm 2. $ Ais an orthogonal matrtx, then ^[l is uho -AAt=l
orthogonal. SimilarlY, we have
Proof : If A ls orthogonal. we have .^s)*!q,):::l'ffi
fu{r - Ar A = I where I is the identity matrlx.
or, (AAr) l= (l{ta) '= ['- t
I
or, (At) d 5 .a' larf'=1 =BtB=I
Hence AB is a unitarY matrlx-
=I,sirrce (.{Tf'=6-'f
-l -l -r -r
or, ( allr A'= A'( C')t
Hence A-I is orthogonal by deftnition. That is, inverse of Theorcm 2. IfA ts an unitary matrtx' tfren .il ls also unitary '
an orthogonal matrix is also orthogonal. Proof : By dellnttion if A is an unitary matrix, then we
Theorem 3. Transpose of an orthogonal matrix is also have AA* = A*A = I.
orthogonal. 1ee+;-t=(A*A)-l= i'=I
Proof : Here we have to show that if A is an orthogonal or, (e*l-'A-r =A-r n*il= I '

matrix, then Ar is also orthogonal. By deflnition if A ts an -t

{d
or, *
( C') .Cl = A-' (C')*= I Since g1*f' = (A-ll*
.1s
grthogonal matrix, then we have AAr =Ar A= I.
.'. C' i" an unitary matrix by delinition
or, (a6rF=(AfA)r=F=I
or. (Arfr .S =,S (AT = I Theoreio 3. Tlanspose of an unitary matrix is also
Hence AT ls orthogonal by deffnition. unitary.
i' Redart : For any square matrix A, we have if ArS = I, therr Proof : By delinition if A is an unitary matrix, then
Arrr= I.
AA* .=, el* =.t where I is the unlt'matrlx.i :' " : ': '
:
:$lgt Theorcms oa rmttarymatrlccs -.i
Theorem f . If A and B are unitar5r matrices then AB is also (aa+;t=1A*6;r=F=I
a unitary matrrx.
Proof:IfAand B are unitary matrices, then by definition or, (A*)r At =.$ {A*)'=I
we have or, 1ar1t6r =4t {Ar)t = I Since (A*)r= (4,}*
*=A*A=I (U
AA Hence by delinition.S is an unitary matrix'
and BB* =BnB=I 121 1
nemart : For any square matrix A"if AAf= I, then A*A= I'
 MATRIX ALGEBRA 123
L22 CoLLEGE LINEAR AI.GEBRA
matrix-form as
3.22 Tlreorems on lnvolutory matrL. I-arr a.tz aln I fxl
| dzz a2n I I x2 (2)
Theorem 1. A matrix A is iavolutory if and only if ^r,
(I -A) (I +A) = Q. L;;, ;*:: ;"" 1 L* It]
Proof : Let (I -A) (I + A) = O + I -A2 =O Suppose that
=+A2 =1.
[",, a,rz ar' I [",] [l,l
A is involutory azr d2z
l, *= l:: lr"al= l'i
=+
R=l 1*
;* ;;" I L*"J
l
Conversely, L€t A be involutory. Then by definition, :::
L;;, Li"l
we have A2 =l
.'. (I (I + A) Then equation no (2) reduces to A)( = L (3)
-A) =l - A2 = I - I = O.
' Hence the theorem is proved. L,et D. be the determinant of the matrix A. Evaluate the
Theorem 2. lf A is an involutory matrix, determtnant, if D = O, A is slagular, so A-l does not odst and
II
Then 0 + A) urd; (t - A) are idempotent. hence ttre system has no solution. If D * O, A is non-slngular
i
So A-l exists and hence the system has a solution' Now
Pnoor, ,, + a)l'z =|a, + 2A + N)
G multiply both sides of (3) by A-1, then we have
I
=fi (l + 2,4. + I), since ,{2 = I & P = I A-IAX = A-lL
fsince A-IA = I
= jII 0 +A). Thus2 tt + A) is idempotent. or, IX-A-r L tX=X
or, X = A-lL
Again
{} u- o,}'=i (P - 2A + Nl X1 Ar r Azr 4rt lr IIll
I EI 8I...
Arz -[al
lAl
=;(l -2A + I) since A2 = I & P = I X2 Azz Anz 12 t}J2
ll That is, E] "' EI (say)
=i0-A).Thusi 0-A) is idempotent.
xn At., Azn Aert
Hence the theorem is proved.
3.23 Solutton of ilndar equations by applldng matrices
EI EI.. EI 1,, ffin

(i) When the linear system has n linear equations in n Then xl = (rll , xz =trr2...., 4n = mn is a solution of the given
unknowns system of n linear equations.
A1 txt * O.px2 + + Om)Qr =lr I {t is to be noted that the solution of the system of
2.2 rxi + azzh + * d21,X1, =tz
l,€t (1) equations can also be found by reducing the augmented
L

an rxr + d1pX2 + .* arrrr.lc., =rl matrix of the given system to reduced row echelon form'
The above linear equations can be written in
 MATRD( AI,GEBRA l2s
I24 COLLEGE UNEAR AI,GEBRA

(tt) Itrhcn the cyster has m linear equatlons in' n sothatA Iil=,
rrrtnotmga[dm<D" L*J left
constder the followlng system of m linear equatlons ln n Multtplylng both stdes of thts equation by 6-t on the
unknowns xt, h, ...,4t
O11X1 * 312X2 + ... + arrr{n = ll l u,esetAr
A21X1 +a2fc2+...*a26X,.=t2
l tft ^[i]=*'o
a-rxr i'^r*a"*... i"-r'q" = l" J

inwtrich m<l and fu afrd [ ' i =1, 2, "',m, *'o srnce FrA = I'
j = 1,2,.'., r\ are constants (scalars)' "" Ii ]=
The gtven system (l) can be written in matrix-form as Herrcex=A-Ibistheuniquesolutlonofthegtvensystemof
a'tz
[a,, azz ar" I lxrl [], I linear equatlons Ax = b.
d2n
1", I lI'
l= [ ? t2l I Worted out eramliles
L;;, ; ::
;;" J L,"J Lu,J -/
.fuilct.
Now the augmented matrix of the system is
4ln : lrl
,-l?
G1!*,
'" -il *r=E 'r-il
Etnd the matrices 2A. A + B and A* B' r ''
"^
i
..''..
,,;;=-[l tl *"=fi i-rl
I
..-I
arr,, : l-J
Weshallapplyt}teelementaryrowtransformationson
the above augmented matrtx to reduce it to the redueed row
- fr
^-I3:.!, 3:1 ",,T,l [
-Zl' i i ' . ,',i{
ccheloa fom.
The reduced form of the augmented matrix will either give
a solution of the given system or will indicate that the system
A+B= Il -? -fl.fi i il I
is inconsistent.
Theorem 8.12 If A is an invertible n x.n matrix, the system
= [ll i*r'];',*,'.t-i,l . [3 5 r, t
" f L-z 3l ,f-2 -.3 -5I ,,

of linear equations Ax = b has a unique solution given by e-B-LE l-1Jl[-,1 -4 2l

x= A-lb.
Proof : SinceA (A-tb) = (Au{-t)b=Ib=b, *fl:'3 - f,], .'"''
= 1i..[3ir?l iilfil';t'l
,

.'. x=^&lb is a solution. i

Conversely, suPPose - =l
f,rl rc *t,,uor,, *"-* z.rrtar a/rirE* t; ?l ,, , ,, .,
[l 8ln""te.es3n4 BA" ,:; : '
" Compute the rnatfipt ;

L*J
 MATRX AI,GEBRA 127
126 COLLEGE LINEAR AICEBRA
r-8 38 -57 1
=l 38 4s -1141
sorution,*= [; 3] I; ?J =[3]?r%..%]=[?. 3J [-rs - ss so J
uo= [; ?] t6 3l trtS Slgl = [i g] N -21A- 451
.'. A3 +
r-8 38 -57 1 rll 4 -61
Sowe see thatAB * BA =l B8 384s -rr4 l+l 4 tz -nl
-', L-le - 30 J L-2 -4 15 J
*^rgfi*=[;3 3] and B =li Zr
lz -r
?l r-2 2
-3-'l
l -6l-+slo r ol
11 0 0-r
1 s.l -2t12
Calculate tl:e product AB. L-t -z o_J o
Lo rJ
r-8 38 -57 a r ll 4 -61
*= [; |'Jlii
3-'l
sl =l s8 4s -l ra l+l 4 n -nl
_+ sJ L-rg - ss 30 J l-z -4 rs J
2+6+S -l +4-3 3+ t0+9 I r -42 42 -63 -'l f 45 0 01
-_Jr+z+o
12+ 3+ lO 4+9+5 -2 +6-5 6+ 15+ 15 J -l 42 2t -1261-l o 4s o
L-zt 42 o I Lo o
I

t9 n o 2zl ' ,,.,ii i

4s)
=lrs
.

t8 -t 261 [-8+ll+42-45 38+4-42-O -574+ 63-O I

It is to be noted rhat the pr@uct BA ig not delined. =l 38+4 -42-O 49+ 17 -21-45 -ll4- 12+ 126-O I

r-2 2; L-rg-2+2t-o -88-4+424 so+ts-o-4s J

a.ra=12 I -3-l
-61 ( rO O O-l
O O 0 l= O. HenceAa A2 -21A-451=O.
=l +
ProvethatAs +N41A -54I=O , LoooJ
where I is the tdfnUty matrix of brder 3 x 3. 5 3']
r-2 2 -31
Pr,oof:A=l 2 I -61
L-r -2 oJ "=l:,,1 i]* "=l-i o -31 -2 1l
then prove that (ABP =E[rAr.
r-2 2 -sl r-2 2
62=al{=l 2 I -61 I 2 I
-31
f l2 3'r rl-221
-61
L-r -2 oJ, L-r -2 oJ *:Gtuen
"=L-r, s ?J,.
*=13 _?
tl
f 4+4+3 4+2+6 6-12+O I f lf -6:'l
4
-14+2+6 4+t+t2 -6-6+0 l=l 4 -r2l
t7 r-l 5 31 t-=l 7 2'l
I z-++o -2-2+o B+ 12+o J L-z -4 l5J GtuenB=l 7 -2 tl....gr=l 5 -z
r lI 4 -61r-2 2 13']
6o=62f,=l 4 tz -tzl| 2 I -6I
. Lz o-sJ Ls I sl
L-2 -4 ts J L-l -2 oJ r-l 7 21 rl -2 21
NowBrAr=l 5 -2 ollz b sl
7-22+8+6 22+4+12 -33-%l +O I L3 r -3J13 -l 4J
=f -8+Stl+12 8+17+24 *12-tO2+O I
L +-8-15 -4-4-go 6+24 +o J
 129
I28 COLLEGE UNEAR AI.GEBRA MATRIX AI,GEBRA

fFl)'r+7'2+2'3 (-1)'F2l +7'5 +2'l-Ll

=l s.t +(-21'2+o3
Ls.t*1'2 +(-3)'3
5. 1-21+ F21.5 + o '(-U
3. {-2) + 1'5 + t-31 '{-1)
+2'4 I
(-1)'2 + 7'3
Sotutlo I GtrrcnA= [s?I "{iqil
l'
of o = 14 + '{)
5.2+F2l'3+04 I The sYmmetric Part
3'2+t's+(-.3}'al q?]
r-1+14+6 2+#-2 -2 +21+8 1 =*[[l ?il.li 4il
=l s-4+o -lO- lO+O 1o-6+O I
I s*z-s -6+5+3 6+3-12 I
rtg 35 271 =*[iii ?i?i?l =+Vt fl=L; :;l
=l r -2o +l (u
L+ z -sl
Ttre skevr-symmetrtc
part of A = | A- St
2 3'r r-1 5 3'l 4
Asain* =[-i s-rllzz -z
s al L o -sl
tl
_lrtL
-z1Le ? s fl[i qil
rl' {-l) 2' 7 + 3.2
+ 1.5+2'F-2)+3'O
=l {-zl ' (-1) + 5' 7
L2' (-l) + 3' 7 + 4.2
+ l-Ll: 2 (_2).5+E.t-2)+Fl).p
2:S+S.F2)+4.0
=;[l - i
ii i-|.=;[-? Lil{
-2,
-]l=
r.3+2'l+3'(-9) I
I + (-l)' (-3) |
(-2)' 3 + 5' P::",;1""Ti*'n*trix
ij
2.3+3'l+4't-31 J
r-1+14+6 5-4 +O 3+2-9 1 '' i"'
-l z+BS-2 'lO- IO+0 -6+5+8 | "=ruli
Ls 1-b ilr"o'tr'oso""l
[-e+zt *s 1O-6+O ' 6+3 -12 J

r19 I -4 I
=l ss -zo zl
Ln4 -sl i
i j il
Proor:G'en^=*11

nr=nli
i j i] 3 3l
1 ll
[i'i i] [l i
j I -5 I
n'we*=* -5 1-l
Unear Atspbra'-g
130 COLI,EGE IJNEAR AI'EBRA MATRD( ALGEBRA 131

.I [9+9+f+9 9-15+3+3 9+3+g-15 9+3_15+3r 2-31 3+5i I

_ I9:I5+.3+39+25+I+t 9-5+t- 5 9_b_5
-3619*3+3-159-5+l-5 +I 3 il
9+t+t+25 g +I-b-S
I

L9+3-15+39-5-5+l 9+l-S- b 9+t+25+l )

I
-i 5 -l

l-360 0 0t ls Hermitlan.
r lo s6 o o I 12 2+3i 3-5il
-3610 0 36 0 pnoof: [=lZ-Si 3 fi
Lo o o s6l
I I

[3+5i J

r1 0 0,ot 12 2-3i 3+5i1

*, Ao==l 2+3i
lo l o ol 3 i
5 Il=.S ..
. AF :j
=lo o l'ol=I .'. AAr = I. i,.i : -i Ls-si
Lo o, o- rJ A* :'A. Herice A is Hermitlan'
'-'.
3 s 3l[3 3 3 *it iiA = # [:, , il
similarry,
"'"
=* -5 1 rlls-5 I ?r Exampti io.'prov6 ueii'tt"
1 l-5 ll,s I I
[j I -5 rlls r -5 ?l . is unit4ry.

, [l o o ot
i [], -l]
proof : Given ' g,u
l o ol
=lo o I o l=I. ^=

.Theiefore, aalgra=:.
Lo o o rJ o*=
t [1, _l]" .L trl

Hence A is orthoponal. No* aet =,1 [],, _ll, [], :iI

*r"B.rrA= [],.r, '.iJ ,r,as =l?;t tI
t =+ [-il i i;i] =;Y, gl = [3 ?l=
i
then prove that e+B =a.+ g.
Similarly. A*A = I.
Pr,oor: I= r, 'lJ
[l * and e=
[?;1,
-;J : 'i:
AA*.=AilA=I
"1

Thus
a*e=[3]ri l:'il i,, (1) Hence A is'an unitary niatrx' i:

AsairrA+B = [3;rl li'lJ, ""--'*--

Exampleff.Showthatthernatrx4=l 3 5 O I

A*rr =
[3 ] 4, i:
riJ '' 7"'2''j'lil"' L
et
, :r ' "" inwlutol-v" .
t'
Thus from,{1) and (2), we;get i
[-53 -B 0l f-5 -8 ol
5 o 3"5 o i
-.,\+R = A+B. 'rvvr.A2=axA=i
Froof
-,tll"l 2 -tJ
Ll 2 Lt
I
 lp?
MATRD( AI,GEBRA

182 COLLEGE LINEAR AICEBRA

1 l-r =,,' *=\'rB\ =-u'
A21 =(-1)l 3 1\
r25 -24+O 4O-4O+O O-+Q+Q1
=l-i; *ii*o -24+25+o
=L-i"*-4"-'i Q+Q+o
-e*ro -2 o+o+lJ
I
=
lz
t-I) [a
-l\ =-n,o., =
\-l -',\ =
''
^r.
rt O 01 lz -l\=n'
A2=I ,n,o*= \?
=LB
I ?l=' e.s = Fl) la -3r\
=
11 tl
Hence the given matrix A is involutory' r 3-11 L2 Tfr3
I -5
- -'^ I =l-tt
141
r, . rrynd the lnverse of the rnatrrx" = u ?l rherefore, Adj A =
l'l r7 Ltz-e 4J
_@r] D be the determinant of the matrDq
then
L

^ Slolutlon : Irt 1-1

I r= - 6 =' 2 *o' so the matrtxA is non-sin$ular
and
e-'=*AdjA=*,Fie ld +)
141.
I
] ?l =4
hence ,t-l dsts'
Nourthe cofactors of D are 3l
" [?
the matrix =
rao,plg/G. Frnd the lnverse of
Atr=4, A12=-3
I9t=-2, t"zz= L

o=I-t -?f = [-3 -?l

rhenAdJ
solutron'I^'r=[? 3 i 3 ? l::::1"]ffS:'*rstand
-11=i
;. x, ={eay,=} Li ffi -',1
*-fv/6(b)' zurd *".i;*T
".T
rnatrix !
- Il 3 i I I H:r*l'E'J"ii:H"H'3{""#j"*
a=14 o -t2)l. *[o-t 3 ii1o -2I I X,".H:X'lI,i'#&u.il?"i'lJ'?'-'
tl
Ls 3
the matrlx;
Eolutlnn I Ict D be the determlnant of *"*nlv second row 'bv
(-1)'

lz -I 3 l =2(O+3)+ 1(8+3)+3(12-O) - tl -? ', -Zlw;

O -t
'"*'"- 14
tfrerrp =
16 3 i
I

[=o+11+!fi=s3*o'' -te?:"' =g'A-rr

and A-l eJdsts' Now tlre
lio the matrin A ls non-singular -?l
-11
Hence A is invertible
and o'' = [-?
ohctors orD are = =t' i3
.i ^,,
|,
r! la- t l+ ol
li. 4,, = (-U
rr.e'. = l6 5l = tz'
t.' l3 2
T
 COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA -; IV{ATRIX ALCEARA
r35
134

[-r2 2t -3r r Adr A I r5 4 3l r-5 4 -31

Elampler+.tfR=l
l+ -2 sl
f2 I -l't
O lana
e-, =* = i.=L_lo '" -g l= L lt i g
l
n=l O 2 t I nrra a-,n. p.U. p. rgg5l r-5 4 -31f2 1 -ll
Ls 2 -sl
-B
rhus A-,u=L
3o g
i
lL8 3 _i J
solutron: Giveno= [-i i I r-IO+O-15 - 5 + 8 - 6 5 +4+ LP 9I
l+ -2 s_l
=l 2o+o+3o 10-14+ 12 -10-7 - I

l_r 2 -sl=- 1(5+0)-2(ro-o)- g(4-41 L to* o+25 8- 12+ 1o -8-6- 15 I

rrtD=hl=l 2 I oi r-25 -3 18 I
l4 -2 5l=-5-2o+24=-l*o =l so 8 -sE I.
So A is non-singular and hence A-l odsts.
L+r 615.-2e)
Ft;d tne invS;7f the following matrix by
Cof;actorsof- I =or, = g =$ exampte
l-; -ll t
using row canonlcallrvrrrr
form' o =l i
"-L? iu
2=A,=Fl) -+)
l? 3l=-ro
lz rl
=-t
Solution:
-3=e13=14 _tl 4 -1 i 1 9 9ltnte.ctangefirstand
13
-31=-n rer,r=[r :, 3 I !]#;;aro#s.
2 = Azr= Fttl-| 3
O 3 : O I OlWemultiplyfrstrow-by3.3nd
rl
t=Pw=ll-r -a
4 5 =! -lA4 -i ; I o o lz"nathensubtractfromthe
; i : o o i lsecona and third rows respectlvely'
l;
2
" O=A23=pl) -14 -2 =6 O 3 : O I 9 l'srUtr"ctthird rowfrom
.' . "fl -
* lz -3 -Lg 3:13 i L ?1,;;;;;r;;;
4=Asr = I o =$ -3
I
. rl O 3 iO r Ol
- -2=4o=(-l) l_r -3 o i r -t -r lnautuplv the second row bv (-t)'
- I o -iE-loio-2
|2 I
q =-6 Lo IJ
Tl o 3 :o I 9lw"*uliiptvsecondrowbv5and
" b=Agg= -l2 ?l =-u -Lgl_?,;-J-;11,ffi'ffiHJ,il;;'il,iiii,i.*r
-8-Tr r5
.*ro=[-? -10
7 ol=l-ro 4z6 -ol
3l
i ? lwe murtiplv *rird row t, (- +r)
! 3 : -i5-7-4)
-6 -sl L-e -sJ - l-l
Loo-toi
L
 136 COLLEGE LINEAR AI.GEBRA MATRD( AICEBRA tg7

g O O i I o O Ol
rI -1
o o:-t I ool
[t :i:.,i;l] [i :i:jhl] -lolo o | -2 i 4 2l ol
Lo o -2 I : -5 -3 o lJ
We multiply third row by 3 and then subtract from the We multtply second rowtY I
first row. n-roo:too"l
[roo' B+-g I _lo r o o'-* +2 ot ol
-Lsi?:-i lo o t-2:4 ol
ki .1=bA-'t L" o -z l:-s-B r_l
o
llrst row.
f s-tt 9f We add second row with the

Hence A is invertibre and *, =l-i i i f, or oo o: 3 + o rl

o'_+*ool
L-z lo 5J I _lo
Example 16. Find the lnverse of the matrix lo o t-2i 4 2 t ol
rl-l o ot [_o o -2 1:-s-B o U
lr 2 o O IUV ustng only row transformations We mulflply third row by 2 and then add with the fourth row.
A=l-o o l -2 lto reduceA to I.
Lg t-z rJ [, o o o, 3 ] o rl
I o o,_++ool
f l-r O O:lOOOl
-lo
lo o r-zi 4 21ol
soru,on,rar.l=l-l 3 ? -3 ; 3; ? 3 fooo-s:st21_l
Le t-2 l:ooolJ
I
We:nultiply fourth row by (-'J
T, o o o, Z + o ol
We subtract flrst row from sOcond row. We multiply ftrst
_lo I o o,_++ool
row by 6 and then add wtth the thiid row. Also we multiply lo o I -2 | 4 2 r oI
first row by 8 and then subtract from the fourth row. lo o o ,,-i-+-3-il third ror'
fl -1 O O : I O 0 Ol We multiply fourth row by 2 and then add with the
lo s o| o:-lrool
-lo o'3+o I i:,, .,'' !'Y
-6 -2: 6 o r ol
Lo e-2 li-8oorl t-'or o o'-|+ o ol
lo \-'
We multiply second row by 2 and add with the third row.
-lo o t o,i t-i--31 =rl+A-rl
Lo o o r:-r-*-3-r"l \
We also multiply second row by 3 and then subtract from the
fpurth row
 MfiTRIX AI,GEBRA 139

T38 COLLEGE LII{EARAI'GEBRA

A-rA)K= A-rL
Hence A is invertible and or, IX = A-r L Jstnce A-lA = I
or.X=A-rL tand D(=X
z l o rl
f135
I r 1 o ol I

rhusX=[i =[i lt
l-5
z T ' ,l t] EI ;]= t
^_,=l ,f_r-Tl
L-l-5;E-Ei *, [;l = Lil HenG ;= -l]
linear equations with the Sccondurrcesg
Eramp!9l1?' Solve the following , fA. ""!*."iia matrix of the given system of llnear
herp of matrice" i:;J: ll (1) i, i;i/ations is
', i'" tALl=
Solutlon : Flrat Proccss t tt" "y"t"m
of linear equations
[? :, : [] Ir,"*hange flrst and second rouls.
as
can be urritten in matrix -form tt : 3I We multlply flrst row by 2 and then
- lZ -2I : lJ subtract from the second row'
t? lllXI=El Qt
- 1|, -u -?l ." muftiplysecond -*uY |.
tz' l.*= $l,"=El,*"'.t.*
rcte= Lr _z

(2)wegetN{=L B)
-ll -i i-il
Now the system is in row canonical form'
of the matrlxA' then
I-€t D be the determinant Then formtng llnear system we have r = - I and x- 2y = 3'

,=1,lz _zl=_*-L--vrv.
r l-- 4-r=-5*o. .'.x=2!+3=-2+3= 1.

^-r-+a
^_, etdsts'
and hence A-l Thus the requirgd soluflon of the system is x =1 and y = - 1'
So the matrix A is non-slngular
Now the cofactors of D
are' Erampt4^/**. the following linear equations with the
=-2,
A.11

A91 =- 1,
A12=- I
Ar2=2'
herp ormatrrce" , ?Xi 7-
2x+fu -Sr=2O
,fr:
:E
)
I D.u. p.
rss{

rhererore, Adr A:If *o Eolutlon I Ftrst Procerg : The given linear equatlons can
be written in matrix-forrn as
,r]';ttr-,,1
-ll
6r =fi aa1 n = - | [:? =Li i,]
of equation (S) by A-t'
lzi -,i\[i]{;al u,,

We multiply botl: stdes

14O COLIEGE LINEARAI,CEBRA
MATRIX AI.CEBRA
t4l

suppose,*,^=[! - r 1O5 4€! -53 I

3 _rl" =
[i]*,r"=[;A ] and A-r =$
^o ^=
# f 17 -rtr -r? l
then the equation gven by (I) reduces to A)( = L (2)
Now from equation no (3) we get
Let D be the determinant of the matrix A' then

p= ls
14
5 - 7 I =s(-s + lo8)- s(- tz +24r-z(s6-2r
t
-t2l=irs_60_ 2#=tZ*o.
lz 9 - 3l-ote-w--w [;l=+[-tr ]i ]l[;]
So the matrix A ls non-singular and hence A-l odsts-
We multply both sides of equation no (2) by A-t on the left,
=+[-ffi i,B]ffi1=+[ 'tr ]ff1
ThenweBetA-t A)K=A-rL
or, D( = A-l L
= I and "" [i]=+t{l=[i]n** r=LJ
or,X.=frL (3) {sinceA+A matr[r of the gtven linear
ryiotaProccs. : The augmented
Now the cofactors of D are eqqaUons ts

= : l'l = r*. Arz = Fr) lt -'?l = - rr, rs s -7 : IQr #:,"ffi:f*:H['ffit*-

^,, l3 rAIr = subtract

o,,=lt li =*,
ffi
Ll I -!r' irZ J fryg",i#f*
&r = Fr) ls : Il =- Qg,, r*=13 -Zl=u, -[i -,i *'i.JAl *ruf*ifHt3',f"T**
...,.
- l-l ,r? i i :s'n-lw..aa second rowwith ttrtrd ror'"
lq-ql Lo rz 5 : gaj
ls-zl
ar, =
l7 - irl
= - ss, As = (-r) li--iri =s. rI-44
-lo-tz-o 'l -n't]*" ","tuoly oeond row bY f +)
ls sl
o*=ln il=-tz. Lo o-I
and thtrd run' bY {-11'
Therefore,
r lo5 -r2 34 T I lo5 -485 -53 I rr 4 4 . -71
a8 5 -r7 I =l-12 8'l
AdiA=l-
" L-ss I -r7) L 34 -t7 -17 ) -Ls
It. aJ
 MATRIX AI,GEBRA r48
I42 COLLEGE LINEARAI,GEBRA

Now the system is in- row canonical form, Then forming [b) Construct the products AB and BA'
the linear system, we have z = O, ro 1I Ol
roll0-1
6
y+ Wz=2,x-4y-42=-7 where"=ll33llu=l:l 3 3 1l
ot,z=O,y =2, x=8-7 = l. Lorlo] Lo-t-t ol
Thus x= l,y and also show that
= 2, z = O ls a solutlon of the gtuen equations.
EXERCISESI -3
-r -2 5l AB_BA=_4c,where"=LB
[33 3l
1.(dro= [i 33i J,"ou=[? o -3 4I B B ?l
Ilnd the matrices, SA, A + B, A- B, 3A - 2E}. r15 15-2lr-3 8 -rll
"l-z25 --15
Ansrwers: tall 4 11 I,l 4 - I 22
Ansners,[,333131 ,IZ-L-1 3] :. :
2JLg t2 tz )
f-2'o o'21 ': l2 oo 21
l,

t-l I 3 .i I*o hB 3 '3"-? I: , ,;,,,. i,: b)AB=l 3 3 S 3l*=l 3 3 3 3l

l-z o o z) l'z o o -2)
1:
(bl Sho.w tllat the six matrices
I I -I Il l-l 2 3l
,=[3 ?],^=lA -91 "+[* f] +. Ifa=l-3
L-z
2
I
-rlande=12 u_]
ol LI23
n
then show that AB * BA. lR.u,P_. \w4l
r2-3
-51 T-l 3 5l
satisff the reration"' 5,rfa=l-l 4 sl,s=l I-3-slana
"=j I aj * ] Lr-s-+) L-l 3 5l
.A2 ! AC: BA= E.
=W =.C2 =I, AB D, r 2 -2 -4l|
*0"= [-i -i] -1 3 ltnen shoWthat
t tt2 -3i ;
C.=l
z.trA= [i -B],u= [3 -1] ,
,

i fh"ri show that [i) A (B + C) AB + AC AR = BA,= O, AC = A and CA =tC. i [L U.S Lg7sl

=

. r. i:1.,, ,
(ii) (A + B) CrAC + BC. [R.U. S. I:fftl
r-l 3 2] ft -2
3.{alltA=l 4 -2 5 land e=12 3 - , f :4 6 6l
Lo r -3-j Ls 2 z.tra=l rB *"u. that A3 - 4A2 -A+'41='o'
[-r -4 _3 I
find the matrices AB and BA. '
 UATRIX ALGEBEA
r*5
I44 COLLEGE LINEARAI,GEBRA
12. (i) Find the lnverse -lof the matrlx
r I -4 -r -41 12 -l -l
I z o s-+l
e.IfA=l-r t-Z el e=l t-z tl p. u. IL 1s751
Ll -l 2)
L-r 4-t 6j (il) Flnd the lnverse of the matrix
that A4 - 5A3 + 9A2 *7A+ 2I= O.
Prorre r5 4 41 p.u.P.
e=17 4 -s6J 19791
lz I
I
9. Veriff that (AB)r =S,$ wtrere
11 I l-1 ro I -l 1
^-LiZ lard -3 2 4l
a=lz 2 s t L -L;l
e=l
eJ*- Li i oJ
tilrr=l
r1 -1 1-'t
ro.ffa=|2 -i o ltn ttshowthat
AoswcrlB:
i tl
?
L-6 -6 zJ
!

Lr o oJ
A3 = A2 . A =,{,. .$ = I and hence ffnd A-l
p. u. H. leE&
-

L#ill
(ii) *'=#[-?i -,?, e)
R- U. S.
-?
Ansrcr A-r =l o
:
r0 o I 1
-l 2 |
,r. oo =l I
L-s ;
-1 I ,,,0 , =i-i -" -u,2)l
-;J-'""-1 5 L
rt. Lr -l lJ Find the matrlces aB, en' A-r' B-r'
(aB)-t' Check your
6r.\*"O the adJotnt matrices and the lnverse matrlces of results by veriffing the relatlons'
eathpf the followlng matrices : iagf-l lfY a-t, AA-r =I, EriB=I.

@ ^=[?
-ll .,B=f_i i il
L o I ol
ADsrGr,,;=|-'i iBl,*=1":3
--li -i-sl' i
It 4? ill
rsj
-r 7 19 I1
r-l o-r
O
(Iil) c=l o t "-'=#f 11 '+ ,3 ]'
Lo o ?-,J
rf-2 3 ql
B-r =#l'g -'J _;
rrngrtrs : (i) AdJ A = [ -: ] I, o-' -* [j II l
GBrr=ig[ ,,$ -;* -i}]
*"=[_i i ,i]*,+[i i i]
'i! rt o rl rg l ll
"=Ll I ?l*'au=ll I ll
14. rf
,*l Adrc=[i.' l-, -?]-'{i i +] N +A-28=O' Ic. U. P. 1fr161
Show that A3 -

!,t{F?r ahebrq-lq
 MATRX ALGEBRA r47
146 COLI,EGE LINEAR .AI,GEBRA

f2 3 41 r1 2 3l 2o.Findtheinverseofeachofthefollowin$matriceslby
s 4l elementary row operations (row equivalent
t5. U a=la
*'-'-12 3 2larrrdl=lz ""i.rg-""t-the
t 3J Ls+ IJ canonical matrix) :

Show thai
-t ::: ;,
(A + B)2 * A2 + 2AB +* '
P'U'H' 196'C'U'tI.lg77l
u) l3 ll'',[i i -rl41
g ltut
r 1'3 4'1u"''i
Is
-r ol
L-r 5 Il
11 f2 5 3l
r-l 2 3l l-l t ll r-1 2 o1 [1 -l 2 2
16. re=l l3 slr"ae=l 12 9l (iv1 l2 I j'l? : ?1,13 rz'o
33 tl
Lrs;zl Lt4 eJ 14 -2 *
'l
rl l+ 8_l
Find the values ofA-r B'and AB-r tD. U. P. 19761
ADswers:
[o roi
$.nj.{i !4.

[r-r-il l- 3t rZ
Anscrers,e-'s=l o I ? l*-'=l'? 3l I z -2 l',I
tLo o ;5JI l-o-zz-l (i) l-3 -;],r[-',;
# li]* I s
lr'-2
l-z !
5,
:l
r1 o or
i al, tt.P' ts77t I 0 -21
T-5 4 -31 To
rz. ffa=l1 o-o n-' * ID.
Lr I ?I l_z I -1 1
'-'La lM [_i i _i o I
I ro -z gEJ :\
I

11 0 Ol (iv) :: :,.-
Arrswer: * fa-, *ay =l o 0t OrJ,l= l. -6 L-i _; i s.l
.LO ,r.
r^ 3 5 l_1
:

:t-3
-3 41
4 I P.orr" ttrat
i
l-r 45 4 ra
I '5 I
-3 A3 = A-1- l, -4
18. IfA=12
.Find
Lo -i il ,l I
tu,l I -. , ,'i' fB I
I
:

19. the inverse of the matrix '

It -a-4 -4a I
o 121 {
lrlrl
i

e=l[_iI t 2 tl Lo 4 '-4t' 16J' i ,t

o I 1l )
l

r'i s '\
iru
Ls I ?,1 tn.r,rinla a3 ,o, - +a
rT 'r l::il: au,
::1,=t
'tr;Fti 21.tr^=l? "o
Ll -r #;;;ffiiar."-
]J.---i ?,1 ,
, .. l
-'21'

€e 6' 6 ' c
I

ii.,., i i, i t, i

I : Er.u.H.f.+p,ft
I

lr,rr;1.U" ! tl*rlr' i

Answer: R-r= l ,-2:

:l'-; rl =?i,,',,!
6 -6 ;l i,
r
i Answers, {*0"+,r;[ ii -i _:l ' , i

l;r'i{,:i .ri..i.f 1}i

L I' rrQ -t o J',':, I
l*" , !l

ffi ;i
148 COLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA
MATRIX AT.GEBRA I49
rt 2 3-t
22. Find the inverse of the matrtx e=12 E s l I l-r
Lr o 8J
_t

{o
2 .I5l
f -4O
Answer:A-l=l 13 -5
16
_31 -G r"l {51
Ls -2 -rl I ll
__l

23. Show that the matrlx [* G\i5J

oo = [3 i -il t]ren show t]rat
l-cos0 sin0 Ol
27.
--Lo coso oltJ
e=l-sine
o 4:g,t and.SA are both symmetrie matrices.
is invertlble for all values of 0 and flnd A-l 28. Show that the matrix
.
rI I l rt
A=rlt -rt _lr _f
rlr -rlli"orthogonal.
t-cos0 -sln0 O-1
Ancwer: frr -l sin 0 cos e O
Lo o tJ
I

Lr -l -r 'rl
r1 2 3-] rl I l'l Prove thatthe matrix
z+.ffe=ll 3 Slanan=l I 2 sl r [r r+rI
-
Lr s LxJ Lt 4 5J e=
6 li-i -il is unitary.
are hrro matrices, then lind A'n a e g'. -l
"t u. H. T. lsl, rs?l
p. show that the matrix o=l-?
-l l" ------r
idempotent.
-3 -il -Z L-q 4 -sJ-
Aoswers , A'B =* [3 E' =* [-B 3I
show that the matrix = [6 i :1 I ," involutory.
l,
"Lo o -zJ " "L-12 r7-s) 31.
r. " Ls -l -sJ
rl t 1-'t 12 5 31
zs. tr
^=Ll ? B.]*"=L? L ?l
then prove that (AB)-r = B'. A' p. U. tI. T. 1$3, fS4
26. Prove that the followlng matrlces are orthogonal :

-":L% ;-cos0 -sln0 Ol

(i) Itr3 ] fiflLST' T'?J
r! ?
l-3 3
2_1
3l
r I 2_ Z1
I 3 3 -3 I

(,,) Ig-l 3l
t
lz 2 -BI '' | 1*, ?
.4

:l
(r)
x+y+z=6)
(ii) x-y+z=21
Ls s L-s 5 I
5J
I
):
1
,ri
iJJrrt= ,. ) 2x+y -z= I )
[D. U. p. ts77l
,fl
il
 151
MATRIX AI,GEBRA
150 COLLEGE LINEARALGEBRA
t..
'3x+2Y-z=2Ol x+ Y+z =1'l u.P. rwsl
(iii) 2x+ iY - 3z = 7 | rc. u. P. Lsnl (vi) 2x+5Y+52 = 2l lD.
x-Y + 6z= 4l ) 4x+9Y + l2z=3 )
x+2Y+z= 2 ll
3x-Y + z=-2 I I AEsrertX= 1.y=S,z=-3.
, (iv) (v) l. I 2x- Y- z=6
*:rilr:'::8| ?x-_ lr:32__:
(vii) x+3Y*?"=! I
)
ID.U.P. 19851

Answers:(i)x=2iy=3,(ii)..tr='=,t=2'z=3'- 3x-Y-52'ii
4'
(iii) x= 5,Y = $, 7=l' .0{)' x= -2:Y =O'z= Angr€rix=3, Y=-2,2=2'
(v) x=-2'Y =l'z=2' x+ y+ z=3 )
with (viii) x+2Y+22=41 [D.u. H. 1*]31
36. Solve the following systems of linear equations x+ 4Y +92=6 )
the helP of matrices : A[ss.tE: x=2,Y=l,z=O'
5x-.6Y + 4z= 15 )
+
p' u'P' LsTs'J' u' rr l98ol 2x+ Y+ z=3)
(i) 7x + 4y - i; = Ls I (ix) 3x-iY+22= 9l
4x+3Y-z=-l )
A3swer:x=3,Y=4,2=6. Aos;wer : x= 1, Y = - I' z = 2'
2x-3Y+42= 1l x+zy+32+ + =O I
rrr' 3x+ 4y -t, = rc
(ri) t p'u'P' 1966' J' u' rL 19781 .^' 2x+iY +52+ Z =O I
(x)
iiiiv*a'* 1o=o
tD.u.P. 19861

;;-i;+22= 3 l J

Aqgref i x=-3, Y = 1, z=- l'

Ainsg3r 3X=2, Y=1, z=o, by
x+!*z=91 37. Solve the following syst6ms of linear equations
Ic. u.,P. 19841 (by elementary row
(iii) 2x+ iY + Zz = 52 I using row equlvalent canonical matrix
2x+Y-z=v) transformations) :

Aoswef i X= 1, Y =3,2=5. x+2y + z=2 )

2x-Y+z=1.1 3x+ Y-22=l I
x+2Y- z---l ) 1s761 (i) x+4Y-sr=-?l (ii) 4x-3y- z=3
tD.u.H. 3x+2Y- z= O
I
Aivl 8Y * 22 = 28 |
3x+ J 2x+4Y+22=4 )
//""' ;;*si- z=14) .)

l' x+2Y+32+t=3
Ansmtr. 2 x=-26,Y = 13,z= v* z-t=S t
x1 +3x2 +Zx, =?1
(iii) x+
x+ y- z+t=4 I
\v' 2xi+
{v) 'rq+3x3=1f tD.u. H. 19781 x- Y+ z+t= 2 )
5r, * 2i2 + trs = 4) AosurcrB: (l)x=o,y= 1' 7=2' 01)x= L'y=o'z=L'
2174 (llt} x= 1, Y = - l, z =2' t= -2'
Aaswer: xl =O' &=T, xs =-0'
t52 COLLECE LINEAR AI.CEBRA

x+ Y+ z+ t=5 I
t=14 I
(iv) 3x+ Byv+32-
2x+
- 2z + 2t= | t
4lt-2Y+ z-3!=6 )
Aosrcr:.x= 1, Y=2,2=r',i;,*, 2
ls o
38. FindtheinverseofA=12 I
z p.u.P. 1S761
-l
Ltol rl
ro I o -21
-t l-z l -l 1l
Answer: A =l-r I -1 ol
Lr -2 I 3l
11 2 t 2 3l
lz 3 l o I
e=lz.zI II oI oI l
I

39. Find the inverse of the matrix

It
Lo-z o 2 -2)
I

by using onlY the elementary row operations {row

equivalent canonical matrix)'
Angwer:
2 4 5-3 I 2
-1 3-3 I 1
T
-1
[= -2 2 -3 4 o
I
o l-l 0 T
I
7 -2 2-I T
L

40. lf A and B are two s5rmmetric matrices of the same

*a.i'ur"";i;& th;i; n"i""'"u.y and sufliclent condition for
= BA'
tt. *"t i, AB to be symmetric ls that ABidempotent
41. Show that eiery non-sin$ular matrix is
an -;i: matrix.
-' identitY
nJAis an idempotent matrix and A + B = I' then prove
that B is arl idempotent matrix q"d AB = BA = O'
- 4g. If A and-B are n-rowed'unitary matrices' then prove
that BA is also unitarSr matrix'
 CIIAFTTR Sffi
VECTOR SPACES
6.1 Blnary opcradon (or composldoa) on a sct
It ts a rule by whlch two elements can be combined
together to glve a new element. Such a rule may be addition'
sribtractton, multiplication and so on. The most fundaqeptal
concept fo; studylng algebraic structures is that of btnary
operatlon on a set.
Defrnltlon : Irt S be a non-empty set' Then
S xS = {(a, b) : a eS, b eS}. AbFary olrcratlon on a set S
is a

funcfion (or mappin$ from S xS into S: i' e lf f : S xS -+S' then

the set S'
-f is satd to be a bhary olrcratlon on * , X, "' etc to denote the
Often we use *rJ symUots *, o,
binary operations on set. Thus 'r'wlll be a binary operation
on S if and only if a *b.e S for every a, b eS and a*b is unique'
A btnary operatlon on a set S is also sometimes called a
blnary in the set S. If a*b e S for every a' b e,S'
"ompo"ltion to
then we also say that S is closed with respect the
composition denoted bY '*'.
A set having one or more binary operations is known as
algebratc stnrcJure- :

Nowwewillde{ineSome.,algebraicstructuressuchas
Groups, Rings, Fields and Vector Spaces using btnary
operations.
9.2 Detrnltion
orgroup wlth examples
a group C is a non-empty set of elements for which a
binary operation * is defined. This operation satisfi5s the
following axioms :

(i) Closure, g-p implies that a * b eG;

IfgL
(ll)Assoctattvity. If d, b, c e G implies that
(a*b-)*e=a*[h*n]
tr
214 COLLEGE LINEARAICEBRA VECTORSPACES 2I5
l.
i Identlty,.There odsts a unique element e e G (called the
(ui) Eamnlc 2. Conslder the set Z = {O. 1. 2. 3, 45}
ldentityelemcnt) suchthata t e i e * a= afora[a eG' Z is ring under the binary operations of addition and
(iv) Inversc. For eve4r a e G there exists an element a'e G multiplicatton modulo 6.
(called the inversc of a) such ft121 a,* a'= a'* a = e' 6.4 Dcf,nttlon of field with cxamptes
A fieme ring with urut eiement rn which
When the binary operation is addltlot G is called an
every non-zero element has a multiplicative imrerse.
addltive group and when the binary operatlon ls Examples of fields are the ring of rational numbers, the
ring of real numbers and the ring of complex numbers.
e gro.rp G is called abellan (or commutatlve) if for every
!
;i For every pair of real numbers a and b there corresponds a
,i 1p$a*b=b*a
t
' i,.. p:ample 1. The set {1, - l} is a group with respect to the real number called their sum and is denoted by a + b. The
*
,} addition composition has the'following properties :
.l blnary operation of tnirltiplication.
tl
Example 2. fhs,sef, {1' -1, i, - i} where i = a/Jis a group .SlLa + b = b + a for every a, b in R(comsnrtattve).
tl b) + c = a + (b + c) for wery a, b, c in R (Assocfatke)
-S]pL{6+
ll" with respect to the blnary operation of multiplication'
i
AJglThere odsts a real number, vD O such that
:l p-xagde 3- The set oJall integers, i. e' {"" -3' -2' -2' -L' A' a + O = O + a = a (cdstcnse of addtttv,c fdenfity)
ri
ol
t, L, 2,'3,...1 iq-a group #ih respect to the binary operation of A t4l To each real number a, there corresponds a real
,'f addition. : number, vlz (-al such that (-a) + a = a + (-a) = o
!,.

il (edstence of addttise luverse)

I Also for every palr of real numbers a and b there
J
A rtng R is an addltlve abelian bo'p with the following
!r
I corresponds a real'number called their product and is denoted
I
,f
additional ProPerties : by ab. The multiplication composition has the following
.'i
I . (i) The group R is
closed with respect to the binary properties :
i
t
operation multiplication. i.e a, beR + abeR tr4-OJ ab = ba for every a, b in R (Coqmutattvel
i
t
* (ii) Multiplication is assoclatlve i. e' U fZ1(ab) c = a (bc) for anery a, b, c in R (Asgpciatfw)
t I
" IVI t3) There exists a real humber, viz 1 such
that for every
- all4. b. c eR
il.
:. ", thb)g =gQ*}for ae R la = al'= a- (e.rdstence of multlplicetive identity')
(iii) Muluplication is dlstrlbutlve with respect to addiuon
i
:
il
M (4) Io each real number a * O, there corresponds
on both ttre left and the right' that is'
a(b+c)=ab+acl'--^ all a' b' c eR
,,lf
another, lri, | ",r"r, ** (]) . =. ("f = ,
6 . "r"J = ;;; !l| ror
,,ti

i$, (odsteace of muttlpllcatlve lnverse)

Example 1. The setZ = {O, t 1, t2, .'.!is a ring under the AM (1) ah + c) = atr + ac for every a, b, c in R
binary operations of ordinary addition and multiplication. fDistributive law)
 rt{
ti

COLLEGE LINEAR AICEBRA VECTOR SPACES 217

6.7 tranplcs dtcctot sPacc

spage over an arbitrary field F is a non-empty set nrnrrllrlc 1. IR2= (a, b) la, b e lR } is a vector space over the
V, whose elements are called vectors for which two operauons Iield F = IR rvlth respect to the operations of vector addition in
&fe, pr€scfibed. The first operation, called vector addltlon, IBPand scalar multiplicatio., on IR?.
assigns to each pair ofvectors u and v in V a vector denoted by
11 + v, called their sum. The second operation, called scalar
dr"pr.""rrts the sei of all points in the plane'
multlplication assings.to each vector v in V and each scalar a E*unFle 2. Ep = {@' b, c) |.a, b, c e IR} is a vector space over
in F a vector denoted by a v which is in V. The two operations the field F = IR with respect to the operations of vector
are required to satisff the following adoms : addition in IR3 and scalar multiplication on IRS '
4ljrAddttioa is nfrmmutstfue. IBPasplssgnts the set of all points in space.
i
For all vectors u' v € V, u + v = v + u.
t
Example 3. kt V be any plane through the origin in R3 '
I
A t2)Additlon fs eggegfaggg
For all vectors u. v, w eV, (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) Then the points tn V form a vector space under the standard
ii, A (3) Ddstence of O (zeno vector). addition and scalar multiplication operations for vectors in
lt
There exists a vector O eV such that for all v eV IRP .
v+O =O+v=v.
(4) Hsiercc of neEatlv'e.
Erampte 4. For any arbitrary fie1d F and any integer n, the
,A
For each v e V there is a vector set of all n-tuples (ur, u2, ..., ur,) of elements of F is a vector
- v eV forwhich v + (-v) = (- v) * v = 0 space over F under vector addition and scalar multiplication
][lUForanyscalaroe Fand anY t' given by (u1 , u2; ..., uJ + (vl ,vz, ..', vJ = (u1 +v1 , 1r2*Y2, "', urr,+ vn )
vectors u, v e V, (u + v) = c[u + 0v
cr o(u1, u2, ..., uJ = (cru1 , c[r2, ..., ou,r) where u1, v1, a eF'
M(21 For any scalars a,P e F and anY Thls vector space is generally denotet by F". Th.e zeto
vector v eV, (ct, + P)v = anr + Pv.
vector in F is tlle n-tuple of zxro i. e. O = {o, o, ..., o).
!!p[For any scalars o,P e F and anY Example 6. Let M be the set of all m xn matrices with
''"' M (E Fo, each v eV, lv = v entries from an arbitrary field F' Then M is a vector space
where I is the unit scalar and I e F. over F with respect to the operations of matrix addition and
For some applications it is necessary to consider vector scalar multiplication given bY
spaces where the scalars are complex numbers rather than the br" I
l-ar r e,tz aln I [b, r btz
"r, dzz ^r! I*l o,
real numbers. such vector spaces are called complex vector bzz bz, I
|I ... I I ... I
spaces.
Vector spaces are also sometimes called linear spaccs'
La-, a-z ... a-r, i Lb-, b",, b-r --l
 219
VECTOR SPACES
218 COLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA
vector addition
these definitions of
We claim that wtth
Ettt + brr dtz + btz 8lt *bt, I IR o becomes a vector space'
ozt bzt dzz + bzz a2n +bz, and scalar multipltcation
of all continuous functions
+ I

=[ I
EsasPlG 1O' The set differential equation
3ml + bmt amz + b-r, J fH, oo satisffin8
y= - "' ' "':* frre of this
?tr r ?ttz 4ln I [oar t cl?r2 Oaln I
is a vector space' tln fact any solution
I I o"r, clAzz oJa,zn y" -y' - =O
2y y e-x and
ozt a linear combination of =
dzz dzn I
-[ l=1... .1

differential equation-is
"" o-n I Lo"-, cra-r, I
2ml ano @n2
y=e\. be a vector sPace gver an arbitrary
_^_^ fteld
where &1, bu and a e F' Theorem 6'1 l,et V
Erample 6. f€t V be the set of all continuous real valued Then, \
functions defined on the closed interval Io, u. For'imy
f' g e v F.
and 0 eV' cro = O'
n
(f + (.ld f (d + g (x) (i) For any scalar cr eF
and cre IR, deffne f + g and odby d = v eV' o1
(cd (x) = cd (d for every xin [o' U' (ii) For o eF and anY vector
(-c) v = cr(-v) = - crV'
Under these operations V becomes a vector space
over IR ' (iii) For creF and v eV'
v eV' then er - o orv =
O'
(sirace the sum of continuous functions and scalar multtple of (id If arr = O' *h"" aeF and
+cto
any continuous function are continuous) i*"t: (r) 0O = tt'(O + 0) = oO
Example 7.I-etV be the set of all polynomials we get
Adding- uO to both sldes'
ao .lF + a1 ;F-r+ az /'-2 + ... + a*r x + a,, with
co-eflicients ai
(40) + cro = (-oo) + (c[o] Cto)^ -,1
over F with
from ap arbitrary fteld F. Then V ls a vector space
polynomials and =(-cro+aO)+600=O+fl'O
respect to the usual operations of addition of
or,O=O+q0:00 "'oO=O:
multiplicatton bY a constant (u) O = ov + [ov) =
(o+ o) v + (-ov)
real
Example 8. L,et S denote the set of all pairs of positive + (-ov)
= (ov + ov)
numbers. ir = (ur, uz), v = (v1 , v2), (Ov + - ov) = ov + O =
ov
Deffne u + v = (ur vr, tTzvz)and am =
(uto, uzo) (o is any scalar) = (ov +
real numbers oll=O'
where u1v1 and u2v2 are the usual prodqcts of
crrr + cr(-v)
(iii) O = sQ = cl(v + (-v) )=
and u1s and u2q are the cr.th powers' S together with
this
sides' we get
prescription for addition and scalar multiplication is
a vector Adding - cff to both
(cn'r + cr (-v))
space which we denote bY M2' - ca/ + Q = - Gv +
real numbers (-v)
E)rample 9. kt m', Ue the set of all positive . = (- cnr + crv) + cr

and define forx, Y = fr, a vector sum by x*y =

xywhere the
If a is =O+o(-v)
product on the right is the usual product of numbers' (-v) = - ot.
is' the number x or, - ay =ct(--v) .'' cr
any number and ,a R, define d x = f ' tllat Again, Q = ov =
(o+ t-cr)) v = crt/ + (- ct)v
raised to the a Po\Yer.
 22O COLLEGE LINEARAICEBRA VECTORSPACES 22I
Adding - crv to both sides, we get t€t O = (o, o'..., o) be lrr IRn ' Then for any
(iii)
-crv+O=-crv+(mr+(-c)v) u=(ur. u2, ..', uJ m ff we wlll have
= (- cry + crv) + (- alv
u + b = (u1, u2, .... uJ + (o,o,"',o)
:

= (- cl) + a)v + (- alv

+ o)
=ov+(-mr)=O+(-a)v' = (u1 + o, u2 + o, '... ur,
or, - cn/ = (- a)v .'. (- s) Y = - ov. = (u1 . u2, ..., s.
r-r,J =
Moreover, if v = (vr, vz, .'., vJ is any vector 6
(iv) Suppose that crv = O and cr* o, then, there odsts a scalar IRn such
a-leFsuch thato-rs= l, hence ttratu +v= u' then (ur *V1 , u2 *Y2, ""un +vJ
i (ur' uz' "" uJ
v = lv = (a-l o)v = a-l (crv) = a-l (O) = O.
Ilefinition of Cartesian or Euclideaa space Therefore, u1 * v1 = ut implies vr =^o I
Let n be a positive integer. The cartesian n-space denoted * o
by IRn is the set of all sequences (u1 , :u2, ..., u,r) of n real l? "' :.* 'il]"" ::.= t
un + vn = un impues vr, =o )
numbers together with two operations
i. e. v = (o, o,...,o) = O, Thus O ts the unlt vector witli
(ur, uz, ..., uo) + fu1 , v2, ..., vJ = (u1 + v1 , Ll2 *Y2, ..., u,, + v,r)
(3) hotds'
and cr (ur, uz, ..., uJ 1(aur, mrz, ..., mrJ' property that u + O = u and so tlre a:dom A
ln particut"r, ql = IR is the set of all real numbers with (iv) Ietu = (u1, tl2, ..-' u'J and set
their usual and multiplication. -u = Fur, -uz, ...' -uJ, Then
2 For each positive integer n, Euclidean space u + (-ut (ul, u2. ..', uJ + (<rr ' - uz' "" - uJ
=
IRN space. =(u1 -u1, :Uq--u2,.-.' un:uJ
: We shall have to show t]:at IRn satislies all axioms (o'o'""o)=O' I '

ofa vector space. Moreover, lf w = (w1 ,w2' ..., wrr) is any vector ln
ff such
and
thatu+w=O, then (u1 *w1 .u2 *w2, .''r urr+wJ = o' "" o)
(i) Le.tu = (u1,u2, ..., u.,) and v = (v1, v2, .'., vr,) 5s in IRnthen (o'

u + v = (ur, uz, ..., uJ + fu1 , v2, ..., vr,) therefore, u1 *w1 = o implles v/l =-ul
=(ut *v1 ,u2 *Y2,..., ur+vJ u2 * w2 = O imPlies w2 =-ttz
= (v1 +ur, v2 +uz, ..., v, + u,r) = v + u. So axiomA
(l) is true. .

t (ii) l€t u = (ur ,t)2, ..., uJ, v = (vr, vz, ..., vJ and
w = (wr ,w2, ...,wJ be in Rn. Then un +wn = 0 imPlieswn =-lln '

property
{u +v) +w=(ur *v1 ,u2 *Y2,..., u'r+vJ + (wr,w2,..., wn) i. e. w = - u. Thus - u is the uniqu€ vector with the
I

t.
i\ =(ur *v1 *w1 , i.jr2+Y2*w2,..., ur+vrr+w,.,) that u + (-u) = O and so axiirm A (4) holds'
(v) kt cr be a real number (scalar) and u = (ul' u2' "" u")
and
= (u1 , u2, ..., uJ + fu1 + wr, vz *Y,12, ..., vr, + wJ
= u * (v + w). So axiom A (2) holds. v (v1 ; vfi, ...,vr) be vectors tn IRn, Then
=
 COLLEGE LINEARALGEBRA
VECTORSPACES 223
/ (ul ,t)2 * Y2,..', ur, + vJ
+ v1
Proof : Since S is non-empty, V is also non-empty. Now we
ct(u + v) = 61

+vr,)) have to show that all the axioms of a vector space hold.
= (cr(u1 +v1), cr(u2 +vz), ..., cr(u,
+ s/n) t0 t€t f, geV, Then
= (du1 * crV1 , c[u2 + Gu2, "', clun (f + g 1:d = fl.{ + g($ = gH + IId
(ov1 , ov2, "', crtd
= (cru1 , c[r2, ..., ouJ +
= (g + 0 [rd for anery xe S.
, = cr(ur, u2, ..., uJ + o(vr , Y2, "" vJ = ou + crv' Thus f + I = g + f. So adomA (l) holds.
So that a:dom M(1) holds' (ii) t€t f, g, treV, To show that (f + g) + h = f + {g + h),.It is
. (vi) I,et cr, p be the real numbers (scatars) and required to show that function (f + g) + h and thi function
lJ=(u1,u2;.-., uJbein ni, Then f + (g + h)) both assign the same value to each x e S. Now
- '0 u = ((a+ 0 ur, (cr+ 0)uz' "', (s+ 0 uJ
(cr+ (f+ g + h) 19 (f + g B + h (, (flr)+ g(rd) + h E.
- (f + + h)) (d = (S + g + (.d =
= (ctu1 + Fur, clu2 * 0r:2, "" c[tln+ BuJ G =f h) = flS + €(d + h(d).
for every xe S.
= d{ul, t72r ...,+ P(u1, uz: "" uJ '
uJ But f (x), g(x) and h (x) are scalars in the f.ield F where
addition of scalars is associative.
= cru * Bu So axiom M (2) is satisfied'
(ut' !:z' "" uJ Hence (fld + g0d) + h(x) = f(d + €H + h(rd)
(vii) L;et a, p be real numbers (scalars)'and u =
(apu1' "'' a0uJ Accordin$y, 6+ I + h = f + 19 + h).
be in i*. T'tren (op) u 1 aP fur, u2, "', uJ =
So axiom A (2) is satisfied.
= a(Bur,puz, .., FuJ
a (0u) (iii)"I.et O denote the zero function.
= o (0(ur, uz, "','uJ) =
O(xl = O for every xeS.
,, $ adom M (3) holds
(viii) Let I be the unit scalar and
' ; = (ur. uz, ..., uJ be in IRn ' Then (f+ (d = f{d + O E = f (.rf + O = f (d
O)
lu = i(rr,*, uJ - (Iur, lu2, ";, luJ
..., for every.xeS.
-=
(u1,,u2, ..,. uJ = u
Thus f + O = f and O is the zero vector in V.
So a$9rl M (4) is satisfied'
So axiom A (3) holds
tiv) For any function f e V,' let - f be the fr.Inction defirted
Theorem6.S.I-€tVbethdset.of.allfunctionsfromanon-
emptV set S into an arbitrary lield F' For any
functions f' I eV by (-0 x= - f (1.
arri any scalar oe F let f + g and cr be the functions in
'f V Then (f+ (-0) (x) = flx) + (-0 A =f(fi -f(x) = O = O (d
(cr0 (x) = af (x) for every for every xe S. Hence f + (-fl = I
defined by (f + g ) (x) = f(x) +,8(x) and
xe S. So axiom A (4) is satisfied.
t' Prove that V is a vector space over F'
I
i'i
 ;.Y',
I

vECToRspicps 22:t
I
224 COLLEGE LINEARN'GEBRA
69 nrnrtrflcrlofrutap*Cc
(v) lrt ce F and f' g e
V'
Exeoplcl.I,etVbeanyvectorspaoeoverthefieldF.Then
((f + d (d)'= s 614 + gH)
ttren tatf + d) H = a the set lol conststlng of the zero vector alone and also the
=;;;d;
H + (ad (d = (of + ugf
xe s'
(d forevery
= (ol) F where Example 2' consider tlte vector space EP= {(a' b) la' b € R}
cr' f(x)' 6 (x) are scalars.tl t:e field
lslnce ttrenWl ={(a, 0 laeIR}, Wz ={(0,b) lbeIR} and',
over addttionl
multiplication is distrtbutlve
W3 =(a,b) la=bandabe IRlaresubspacesof d'
frerrcea[f+d=qf+og'
Wr andWz represent the sets of aU points on the x-a:ds and
So a:dom M (1) is Pattsfied'
on the y-a;ds resPectivelY
(vi) Let o, 0 eF and f eV'
f(d = 06(.d +
pf 0d Also W3 represents tfre set of all points on the line-5r = '16'
Then (a + g) 0 (d = (cr + 0
Uamptc 3. Consider thevectorspace
=(od)(d+00(d mP=11a,b,c) la,b,ce IRI
(d for every xeS' \
= (af + F0
Then W1 = {@, b. 0 la, be IR}, Wz = {0, b, c) lb, c e IR}'
Hence(cr+9)f=cf+0f'
and w3 = {(a, o' c} la, c e IR} are subspaces of IRP ' w'' w'
so a:dom M (2) holds
l*ts"PeF and f e V'
(vll)
andW3 represent the sets of all points in the X-Y,Y-Z and'Z-X
a (Ffk)) planes respectivelY
---=;(CIP)0 d = (aS) fl$ =
;;" ,as'
dlo m = (o Pol [d for wery fxanple 4. Consider tlie vector space
E9={h.b,d la,b,ce tsP1.
the unit scalar leF
(vlil) I-et f eV' tf'"" Ot
"=iiot* lf (d = f['$ ThenWl ={@,O,O) IaeIR},W2 ={(O,b'q lbeIR} -
for every xe s'
= and W3 = {(0,0,c) lc e IR} are subspaces of IBP ' W1, W2 and
Hence lf = f' J M t4} rs
1:*- are vector space W3 represent the sets of all points on the x-axls, y-axis and
satlsfled' so V ts a
' Stnce alt tne-Jims z -a:ds respectivelY.
fiample 5. I-et M22 be the vector sP*1jr of all squate 2 x 2
matrices. Then the set wof all2 x,2 matrices having zeroes on
[:n T: #;; :' ]1.:: :::Ti L:il:"H; the main diagonal is a subspace of the vector space M22'

:$ f:
1
li'lJ;* :il
'",#. ffiTT#;;;':n:'"::,H;ifr Example 6. Let V be the vector space of all square n xn
::ffiffiffiffi; oJn"* *':.1'^'T':i'*Yi
implies that
w' cr' 0 eF I ;; matrices. Then the-set consisting of those matrices A = [aq] tbr
:Sil#tl'#H].";il':;;-e which au = aJr called synrmetric is a subspace of v'
StricSs
crwl +$r4 eW' Linear,tlgebra-t6 ,#,
 COLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA
. VESIORSPACES 227
226
of all functt1nl of a Tlreorqn 6.6 A non-empty subset W of a vector spg.ceV over
Erample 7.i-etV be the vector space
set of all functions f eV for the fleld F is a subspace of V if and only if
real variable x and let W be the (l) u, v e W+u -v € W (ii) oe F, u e W+au q W.
geW and let h = f+ g1' Then (5) = O'.
which f(5) = O. Suppose that f'
+ g[5) = O + O = O' Pr,oof : The conditlons are neeessar5r I j,''i ,,, . : , :, ;
= O and so h(5) = fl5)
g(O-r,
-'
follows that heW and so W is closed ""1"j, "Oli*"^
If W is a subspace of V, then W is an abelian group.with
Again let k = crf where cr is any scalar'
k(5) = ofls) = ct'O = O respect to vector addition. : , , ,,. . ,

multipllcation' i, e, u, veW+u, -v€W

*i.rr"" ke W. Clearly, W is closed under scalar
Thus W is a subsPace of V' +u+(-v)eW
is a
'--- ft"-ptu A. Tht set of all continuous functions =+U-V eW.
of the vector space of all real
valued functions' ' Also W must be closed under scalar multiplication, i, e
subspace
complex numbers' Then C creF, ue W + crueW. Thus conditions (i) and (O are necessary.
' Example 9. IJt C be the set of all
IR' The condltlons are suffcient
is a vector space over the real field
subspace of C' I€t w be a non-empty subset of V satisffing the two given
l€tW fiU lu e R i = '/eflt' ThenW is a
=
tlreorcm.6.4WisasubspaceofVifandorrlyif conditions, From condition (i), we have
(i) W is non-emPt5r ueW=+u-u.eW= OeW.
(ii) W is closed t"tiut vector addition
i' e' v"w eW implies Ttrus zero vector of V belongs to W and it will also be the
thatv +we W' zero vector of W.
(iii) W is colsed under,scalar multiplication
i"":'Y t W NorOe W, ueW+ O-ueW=+-ueW.
impliesthatove Wforevery cre F' ., ..," Thus additive inverse of each element of W is at6b.in W.
Again, ueW, veW=+ueW, -veW- :

Proof:Supposethattheglventlrreeconditions.(i)(ii)(iiil
' etnd closed under vector +u-(-v)eW
hord in w; then * o
:

1o".:*::1 Since the vectors in w =u+veW. '"i : tl

addition and scalar multiplication- Hence W is closed with respect to vector addition.
M(2)' M(3) ana Uf4 hold in
reiong to V axioms A(1)' A(2)' M(1)' Since the elements of W are atlso the elernents .of V.
to show that A(3)' A(4) hold rn W'
By
W. Hence we have only therefore vector addition will be cor-nmutative as well as
ueW' then by condition (iii) associative in W.
Y?.

condition (i) W is non-empty' say

r,

A(3) holds in w' Hence W is an abelian group under vector addition. Also
;;= ; .; *rd v + o = v for every vew' Hence fibm condition (ii) W is closed under scalar multiplication.
and v + (-v) = Q
Again. if veW then (-1) v - - veW The remaining postulates of a vector space.will hold in W
of v'
#;"; A(4) holds in w' Thus w is a subspacectearlv -
the given since they hold in V of which W is a su.bset. Thus W is a
;;;;;;;;iv, if w is a subspace of V thentheorem is proved' subspace ofV.
Hence the
conditions (i)', {iil, (iii) hotd in W'
 ,?, COLLEGE LINEARAIrEBRA yECToRSPACES 22g.
Theorem 6.6 A non-ernpt5r subset woof a vertoi spac€ v over Now taking v = O, we see that
if o, peF and ueW, then
the lield F is a subspace of V if and only tf cru+poewl.eorr+oew =+cruew.
i
d, 0€F and u, v e W=oru + pveW; Thus w ts closed under scalar multiplication.
The
hoof : ltc condltlontcneceseary remalnlng postulates of a vector space will
hold jn W sirlce
If w ls a subspace of v. then wmust be closed undervector they hold in v of which w is a subset.
Hence w is a subspace of
addltion and scalar multlpltcation, Therefore, v. I
6ge IR, and ueW=+oUeW Dellnltlon : kt S and T be two sets.,By S n T uib
rnean the
peFand veW=+fl,veW. lntereeectlon of S and T, the set of atl element"
to
Now cueW and pveW+ou +Sv€W. and T, By S U T we mean the unlon of "orr_o, S
S and T, the set of all
Thus the condition ls necessary.
trhe condltloa fsgrficacmt Theorem 6.Z.Ihe intersection of two subspaces
S and T of a
. suppose that w is a non-empty subset of v satisfirlng the vector space V is also a subspace ofV.
given conditlon,.i.e o, pEFand u, t eW= cru + pveW. Proof : Since S and T are subspaces of V,
they are non-
Irt o = 0 = I, then leFand u, veW+ lu + lveW empty and clearly O e S and 0eT. Therefore,
OeS fl Tand
1.e,u+veW henceSnT*@.
[since ueW=+ueVand lu = u€V.l Now let u, v eS O Tthen u, v e S and
u, v eT. Snce S rra f
Thus W is closed un&r vector addiflon, are subspaces of V, u, v e S implies that
ou + pv e S where
Now takingo = - I, F = o, wesee that if ueW, o,0 eF. Similarly, u, v eT tmplies that au + pveT
where
then (-1) u + o ueW+ - {lu) + O eW=+ - ueW. a, p eF.
Therefore, the additirre imrerse of each element of W isralso Hence u, v eS fi T implies that au + pv.e S O Tfor,o, eF.
F .

Therefore, S nT is subspace of the veetor

space V.
Now ueWand - ue'W. It is to be.noted that the union of S and T is
not a subspace
u + (-u) eW=+Oe W.
.'. of V unless S CT orT C S,
Thus zero vector of V berongs to w and it udll arso.be the .l'
[the sSrmbol "C" tneans contai:eed ir:l
zero vector of W. Theorem'5'g The intersection of any fam,y of subspaees
{
Since the elements of .W arE also the elements of V, ''|
ofa vector space is a subspace.
therefore, vector addition will be associative as well as $ koof : kt {S, liet} be an5r family of subspaces oli
T vector
cornrnutative in w, Thelefore, w is an abelian group with I
space V over the fleld F. Let g O
rcspect to vector addition, ,# = 51.
,"1$l
,ro tel
tr,
ffi
 28t
VECTORSPACES
230 COLLEGE LINEAR AI.CEBRA b" i' d')
pv = cr(a' b' c' d) + P(a-'
non- We have au +
,Since 0 eS1for every i e I, we have OeS' Hence S is a Fc., Pd')
(oa, clb, ac' qd) + 0a" 0b-
empty subset of V. Now u, v eS.and o, pe F impltes that u €S1' =
Pc-'dd.^f''
+
cr,b + Pb-' cc
.Jl = (oa + Pa,' g"') - (qd + Pd')
nst and hence cru + pv eS1 for every + 9bl + S(cc +
v€'q for every i e I as S =
Also we have 2(aa
+ pa1 - 3(ob
po = o'
;.; ig tr
-3b' + 5c- - d') = co +
3b + 5c - A)'+ FtZa
I eI, since each 51 is a subsPace ofV' = a(Ya- of ' d
and so T is a subsPlce
.'. Gn + 0v eS. Thus cru + FveT IR anda-'o*3=5]
Therefore, S is a subsPace of V' ' w=-;';:; i"'u'ce
ra'e'r"lilc'3'
WORTED OI,T E:TAMPLES of d'
is not a subsPace a 3'Q = o * 5'
ffil. Show that S = {(a o, c) : a, c e IR} is a subspace d, o (o' o' o) €W' Since o-2'o
For O. =
of all square n
xn
of the vector sPace IR3. 4' l-et'V be the vector space
Exanple
pr,oof : For 0 e R3, O = (o, o, o) eS F IR'
matrices over tlee real fleld =
Since the second comPonent of O is o, ^'^- ofvwhere :
;;;;thatw ls a subsPace t"tttces' that is' all
Hence S is non-empty. -
(i) w consi*t"-or all svmml:T
For any vectors u = (a, o, c) and v = (a" o' c') in S and any 1' 2' 3' """" n'
ij=
for which at1 = a1t'
matrices e = {all a given
scalars (relrl numbers) s, P, we have tii'-"t"""" which commute with
(ii) W consoo
,cu + $v's (a, o, c) + 0h'. o' cl
*': LV : AT = TA)' tD' u' H' T 19sol
matrix T; that
= (oa, o, uc) + (9d,o'Pc') '"' ve
OEW since all entries "j ":: ::trj:T:to W.
Proof i: (u
(0
19 = [bi,l belong
,., = (ca + Pa, o, ctc + Pc') that A = [ag] anc
equal. Now suPPose
'. Since second comPonent is zero' b''
o{.'*'' that is, 4t= Etandbg = matrix whose
Thus cu + pve S and so S ls a subspace a' I e F' oA + pB is the
rx^r"r'fle 2. Shorythat
. Then fo' t"y."""tt'"
.
ij + pB is also a svmmetric
T= (a, t, Oe IR4t 2a-3b+ 5c-d) is a subspace of
IRa'
""*T, i"JJ,:i r",, + pbli'rhus aA
",
pnoof : Foroe R4,0 = (o, o, o, o)eT *
aA + FB eW'
matrix. Therefore'
Sir:ce 2. o - 3-o+ 5.o - o=o
of V'
Hence W is a subsPace B e W;
Hence T is non-emPtY. O TO' Now suppose that A'
d-) are in T (ii) O eW since OT = =
Suppose ttrat-u = (a, b, c' d) and v = (a" b-' c"
BT = TB'
then 2a - 3b + 5c - d = o and 2a' - 3b' + Sc'd' = o' , that is, 61 = TA and
il
Now for any scalars (real nurnbers) cr' B fl
 41'

.232 COLLEGE LINEARALGEBRA

VECTORSPACES 233
For any scalars cr,peF
(aA + pB) 1= (cA) T+ (pB) T
(CI Let, =;, S. T ew and o = Ge IR= F.
=0(AT)+BGrO rhen * = G @,s.2)= (sfi, s.15, z13 ) e,
=aEA)+pEB) since its components are not rational.
T(0A) +T(FB) HenceW ts not a subspace ofV.
=T(uA+pB). Erample O. Let V be a vector space of alt 2x2 matrices over
Therefore, oA + pB commutes with T. Thus aA + pB eW.
the real field IR. Show that W is not a subspace of V where :
Hence Wis a subspace ofV.
(i) W consists of all matrlces with zero determinant;
eample 5.I€tV= show thatW is not a subspace of V
IRP ,
(ii) W consists of all matrices A for which
where: ,{2 =A
lD. U. P. t9;n2l
(i) W = {(a, b, c) I a2O} i.e W consists noor: (il l-.tA=
^
IRP whose first component is non-negative.
of those vectors of [3 3J andB= [? 3 I
ThenA, Be[ since det (A) = O and det @) = g.
(ii) w = {(a, b, d la2 + b2 + cz s l} i.e W consists
of those
vectors of IRP whose lengfhs do not exceed l. ButA.'= [3 il . [ 3l= [? 3] **
sincedet(A+B)=-l*O.
(iii) w = {(a, b, c) I a, b, c e O} i.e w Hence Wis not a subspace ofV.
of IR9 whose components are rational numbers.
""i"?",1J.:;'tr:,:l
(iil The unit matrix , =
koof : (i) ktv = (2, g,S) eWand c = - Se IR= F. [; !J ororg" w, since
, Then ov = -3 (2,5,5) = (-9, - g,-f E) GW, since _6 is negative.
Hence W is not a subspace of V.
,,=[3 ?] [ ?] = B ?l =r
(ii) kt u = (O, l, O) and v (O, O, t)
=
But nr=lt ? Jo*" not belong to w
Then u(W since 0P + 12 +G = I < I
since (4t)2=tfi .!]
and veW since @ +G + 12 = l < l. tf;. lJ=[|u,!J*nr
Now for any two scalars 0 = p le IR F, Hence W is not a subspa.ce of V.
= =
' ocu+0v= I (Ol,O)+I(O,0, t) 6.lO f,inear combiration of vectors
=(O;l,O)+(O,O, t) Let.V be a vector spaie over the field F and Iet
v1,. .., vre V
=(O,1,l) 6y then any vector v e v is cared a *near
Sirrce o2 + 12 * 12 =2 <1. y1,y2,.'.., v,, if and only if there "o-uioatiootor
exist gpalars d1, d,2, ...,*.;;
' Hence W is not a subspace of V. such that v = Gr v.t + %,yz + ... + okrVn
=l?",.
 235
VECf,ORSPACES
23i- COLLEGE LINEARAI-GEBRA
we have Gg = 1' Substituting
From the third equation'
Examplc 7. Consider the vectors v1 =
(2' L' 41'v2 = (1' -1' 3) we get 3CI2 - | = - 13 or' 3c2 =-
12
(5' 9' 5) is a linear o3 = 1 in the second "qt'"uo"
and v3 = (3,2,5) ; UP. sno* that v = Of d'2 =-4'
'
combination of v1 , v2 and v3.. 4' uB = I in the first equation' we
Proof : In order io sho- that y is a linear combination
of Agatn substltuttn g W = -
ez and oP in F such that getcr, + 4+2=9 "'0'1 =t
v1 , v2 and v3, there must be scalars o,t'
v=0lVl +azvz +C[3v3 Sothesolutionofthesystemisctl=3,aa=_4'o3=1.
*
i, e, (5, 9, 5) = or (2' L' 4l + wi (1, I' 3) + oe
(3' 2' 5)
+ (3",'-2%' Hencev=Svt -4v2+vg'
=.{2c,1, sr, 4or) + @2, -a'2, Wl 1'l of vl ' v2 and v3'
g, + 2oa, 4rl,1+ 3a'2 * 1'u) Therefore, v is a linear combination
= (2ouy'+ a"2 +3ca, o1- 5' 3) in Ef ls a linear
Equating corresponding components and
forming linear Exemple 8' Is tl:e vector v = {2' -
the vectors
systemwe get ' combinatlon of 4'-1) and vs - ll' -5' n'
I
2o1 + c2 +3cr3 =51 vl
' = -(1, 3,21,v2 = {2'
+ cts v€ where o't' oQ' and o3
cr1 - W+2as=9 I (1)
Solutlsn : trt v = o1 v1 + wv?
4o1 +3a,2+fus=5 J
are unknown scalars'
Reduce the system (1) to echelon form
by elementary *3, 2) + wz 12' 4'-1) + cls' {l' - 5'n
i.e (2, -5, 3) = crr (1,
Ttren we + (W' - 44a' - o'zl +(oe' -
Sos' 7%)
op.r"Uorr". Interchange first and second equations = (or, -3crr' 2sr)
hlve the equivalent system
o1 - o'2 + 2'c4 =9) and forming the
2a1+ ca+3o.=5; Vl Equating correspondtng components
+Saa+5ctr=51
4o,1
linear sYstem we get
We multiply first equation by 2 artdby
4 and then subtract
a1 +2a2 + cls = ?l
Then we
from the second and third equations respectively' -g", - 4az - 5cr3 = -5 |
have the equivalent sYstem
2ot- *2+7o4= 3)
form by the elementary
C[1 - A,2+2a3= ?^l Reduce the system to echelon
3W - cr3 =- t3.i (9
equation O'
tn*
7g'2-343=-31 ) operations- We multiplv lst .'.1Y::
respectlvely' Then we have
then subtract from subtract from 2nd & 3rd equations
We multiply second equation ty I ana
syptem the equivalent sYstem
the third equation. Then.we have the equivalent
dt + 2W+ os = 2-1
dr- dz+20s = 9l :

2W -2a3= I f
W- 2crs=-I3!
2l {4
" '5a'2 + Sttg = -L )
_
{t=_ i )
 236 i COLLEGE I,INEAR AI,GEBRA
I

,l
VECTORSPACES I zsz
I

We multiply 2nd equation by ana then add with the 3rd

! We multrfly 3rd equatton bY-i. Then we have the
equation. Then we have the equivalent system equlvalent system
. ct1 +2a2=l
a1 +2a2 * 0,3=2] or +2o,2+ 0e=21
fu = l"+3I
1
:

2a,2 -2qs =^l

l= 2e, -2o, = 1 | e2 =-| )
o+ o ='u)- o =rul This system. has solutlon for l. = - 8 and the qolutlon is
Ot =3, U2=- 1
This system has an equation of the for* O=3 t.e th-e systern (*) has solutiori for'}, = - 8.
Hence v ls a linear combinatio[ v1 and v2 tf l" =:8..
whtch is not true. Hence the above system is inconsistent
i.e it has no solution. Thus the vector v is not a linear ffiplc lo:writethematrix"= [?-] I*"
combination of the given vectors vr, v2 and v3.
Itnear comblnatlon of the matrlces
^, [; -i I,
=
Example 9. For which value of l. will be the vector
v = (1, 1",5) tn IR9 is a linear combination of the vectors =,Li ,1tr *o o, =[] I I E U.E T. 1S4
^,
Sokrttoa : Set A as a linear combinatlon of .$1, A2 and A3
v1 = (1, -3, 2) and v2 = (2,-I, l).
Solutlon : kt v = o(l vt + aq vq where o, 1 and a2 arr- usqg the unknourns rr,r, (b and os.
A1c1A1 +'tbzAz ttbAs.
unknourn scalars. i.e (1, l, 51 = sr (1, * B, 2l + a2 @, -1, Ll
={or, - Scl1, 2o1) + (zae, -o"2, ad
rlratis, [?:i I *o, [i-\ I .* [-l I I*". Ii ;l
2*j, -3q - o,2,2a1 + o2)
= (c1 +
[?: il = [3'-;'l . [-ff 3'l . tr' ;"'l
"'''Ja,
Equating corresponding components and forming the +oa+gu; 0,t+b-ael
linear system, we have ='l,o-CIz+o -or+o+o I
cr1 +2a2=11 Equating co,mesponding components and. rrrming the
-3ar- ez'=)\l (*) 0,t+&Z*d'3= 3l
2o4+ %=5 ) +g]2- OS
C[1 =-1 [
Reduce the system to echelon forrri by the elementary -o"2 = tol I
operatlons. We muldply Ist equation by -S and 2 and then -c[1 =-2 )
ttrence the ttre solution of the system is ct1 = 2, wz = -1, n, =2
subtract from 2nd and Srd equations respectively. Then we Therefore, A = 2Ar -A2 +2Asi .

have the equivalent system that lis, A'is.a linear comb{nation of ,{1, A3 q$ 43.
+2fr2=l ;ll. write the matrix a lirrear
" = [?'- il ""
a1 I Exemple
fue ='l'+31
-3o, =3 !
combination of the matrices
o,={l 3] ,"=[? ?] andAs=[3-?]
i
I

I
,.J
 VBSTONSPACES 239
238 COLLEGE LINEARALGEBRA
S is a subset of L (S)'
Proof : If ueS, then lu = u€Sl hence
Solution : Set A as a linear combination of ,{1' A2 and Ag
Also L (S) ls non-empty' slnce S is non'empty'
using the unknown scalars dt, h and cr3. (S)' then
Now suPPose that u, veL
A=Ctr Ar + de rA,2 + caAg
u = ctlul + ot2v+ "' + cl"u-and
[?-tl= *[l .*t? ?l .*[3-?l
3J v = prvr +52v2 + ..' + Prrvr, where
F' Thus for )" peF
ui, v1 eS and oi, ft are scalars in
=[xl f'].[3, LI .[8-ff] l"u + pv = l,(cttut +%!z + "' + ot"uJ t

=[Il .*:l r?,:'] + F $rvr +fuv2 + "' + P"vJ

= (l,or) u1 +
(la2)u2 * "r * (l'otJ u*+
Equating corresponding eomponents and forming the +
ftrpr)vr + U02) Yz + "' 00Jv"
linear system, we get elements of S and so
which is a linear combination of the
01 -B is again in L (S). Hence L (S) is a subspace
of V'
01 +2A3 =
of V containing S and.
Now suppose that W is a subspace
C[1 + 0,2 =
W- 03=- i] u1 ,1r2, ..., u.eSCW' then
all multipl€s cr1u1 ' azutz' "" cq"u*eW
+ + oqnum€w; that
where cqeF and hence the sum c[1u1 buz "'
Hence the solution of the systern is ct'1 = 3, wz = - 2, ac = - | *
Therefcire-A = SrAr - 2Az - AA : is; W contains all linear combinations of elements of S'
theorem is proved'
Ttr:ur4 is a linear combination of A1, ,{2 4nd A3. Consequently, L (S) C W' Hence the
vector space V
flf f:near qran of a shbcet of avrcetor spacc Theoreq 6.1O : If S and T are subsets of a
If S is a non-empty subset of a vector gPace V, then L (S)' over the field F' then'
the linear span of S, is the set of all linear combinations of (i) sGT+L(S)GLrD
finite sets of elements of S. (ii) L(SLrI)=L(S)+L[I)
Example 12. The vectors e1 = (1, o, o), .e2 = (o, 1, o) and (iii) S is a subspace of V if and only if L (S) = S
e3 = {o, o, l) generate thevector space mt..fo, any vector (iv) L(L(S))=L(S)
(vr, vz, v3) € mP i" a linear combination of e1, €2 8rrd €3, Pr,oof : (i) Lrtu = c[Iul + %rJz + "' + a"u" eL{S)
specifically (vr , vz, vs) = vr (1, o, o) + v2 (o, 1, o) + ve (o, o, l) of S and
where {ur, uz, "" ur} is a finite subset
= Vl€l +vz e'z + v3 €3' c^t, se,..., c&r€F' Since S
gf' therefore'
Theorem 6.9 I€t S be a non-empty subset of a vectOr space subset of T'
{u1, u2, ..., ur,} is also a linite
V, ttren L (S) is a subspace of V containiqg S. Furthermore' if W So u = (t1 u1 * uavz + "' + crru,'el- fI)4'
is anrother subspace of V containlng S,.then L (S) c W.
e,

frn
,,t.
 l.,-F -r-
VECTOh.SPACES 24t
,14O COLLEGE LINEARAISEBRA ' i , L --r. .. ,!: -,t
Conversely, suppose tJrat L (S ) = S. then we hayg to prove
thusuel.is):+u€LfD. .'. t($ ELfD
HenceS e:r+L(s) cL(I) Now we lmov that US) iq a subspac" of t., , .- : r,, , , r

(ii) I-et uel, (SU'I) then Slnce S = US), Therefore, S is also a subspace of V.
g =orur + &zW+..., +CIru" + Frvr + 01,.vz "' F-v-
+ +
(M We kr:aw that L (S) is a subspace of V.
where {ur, trz, ..., lrn' vt, v2. "1' vm} ts a flnite
$ibset of SUT
thefiore, by part (iii), it follows th,tt L 1q511 = L (S).
such that frr, rr, ..., uJ G S and tvr ' vzr ""
vJ Ef' ' gle 12 (a) Show tlrat tJ:e vectors u i (1, 2,'B), rv:s (0' 1,
Now ct1u1 + o,2W + "' + qtu"eL (S) 2) andyT= (0, O, 1) generate d. E;U"P. 19?51
and brvr.+ gzvz + "' + P,rrv,rreL[I]' Proof : We must determine whetl:er an qrbitrary veei<ii
(I).
Therefore, uel. (S) + L
v'= (d, b, c) in dc"n be expressed as a linear combinati#
Eudently USUT) EL (S) + LG)
(A)'
v'= xu + yv + zvr of the veetors u, v and w. Eryressing this
Let w be any element of L (S) + Ifl) equation in terms of components gives.
then w =.1t * v for ueL (S) and v eI{t)' (ab.c)=x(1,2,31+y(O, 1,2)+z(O, O 1) ;

Now slnce u is a llnear comblnatlon of

a linite ndmber of
- k 2x 3{ + (o, y, 25r) + (O, O, z)
of a linite number
6$'. elements of S and v is a linear combinatlon = {x"2x+y, 3x+ 4 + z) i
?
;;;"*s ofT. Ttrerefore, t'* a linear combrration
l9o" Thus u + vel. (St].D'
Equating corresponding components and forming the
of a finite numbers of elements of SUT'
x =a ) z+2y+3rcc1 ri : :l
Therefore, from (A) and (B)' we get 2x+ y=b i+ y+2seb
. USIjD = US) + L(D' 3x+2y +z=c ) ra )I .

to
(iii) Suppose that S is a subspace of V' Then we have The above system is in echelon form and is consistent. In
prrye that US) = S. Irt ueUS)' fact, tlre sys@ has the sohrtion x= 4, Y =b' 2a, z = c - 2b + a
Then g r o,1u1 + e2W + "' + onuowhere c[1 '
cr2""' on€F
rAu6 vand w generate (spanl mF.
and ur, u2 , ... u,'eS. But S is a sublace
ofv ple 13, Determine whettrerrreeto.rs Yr =(2,, -1" 3J
Therefore, it is closed with respect to
scalar
yz=(4,1.2)andve={8,-l,S)span d. I

multiplication' and vector addition' Sokrtloa : We must determine whether an arbitrar5rvector

Hence u = 0lul + d2W + "' + crru,,eS'
Therefore, L{S} E S' Atrso'S
v = (a, b, c) in d,W be orpressed as a Unear combinati6n
v = orvr * o'2v2 * ct3vs of the vectors v1 , v2 and vg.
g -Iu,{S}i
&rprqssing ttlis equation in terms of components, we get
Ltnear Ngebra-I6
 w? COLLECE LINEARALGEBRA VECTOR SPACES 2A&

(ab, c) = at (2,- 1, 3) + oe 14, t,2l +% (8,.i,:- 1, 8) Now form the system of llnear equations by equating the
r',r..: ,i j,..., I .. ':r.t , i i
'-.
= (2a1, - cr,1, kr) + @o"2, aa,zoel + (t3os, - as, Scts) eorresporldlng components.
= (2o4 + 4uz + S%, - or + q2 - oa, Sar + fyq.+ *6) x1-2x2+ 3x3=2i
Equati+g. cg:IfFPold[g.3opp11nent3 and formin$ the ixt -4h + 9x, =b I
2a1 + 4uz + 8cr3 = 41
llnear system, we havC'd I + 'W - os = b i ixt-8;h,+27a5=c)
ir-i r ir."r: i' r 3O1 + Zoq + 8o3 =9.,
or, equivalently
: ?hts pftiblem thus reou*eesito deterrrliirihg whether or not x1 -2x2 + 3x3 = a1"'"' '-
''
Wrsystspl$ consistent for all values of a' b and c. No-w this x1- 8x2+ 18xs=2bf (1)

ssstefn y{!l F-e iaorlsiqtg$t,fo{ all a, .b and e, if and only if the x1 - 32x2.+ loSxs =4c J
matrix qf co-efficients.
ii{):l'.rr1rri',r i,:,i .. Now we reduce tHe system to eeHelon ,,form by the
r2 4 81
.

'' '"' A=l'-1 ll -1 lis invertibte. elementaty transformations. We subtract ftrst equatiori frorr$l
L s 2 Bl the second and thtrd equattons respectively,'Then we haveE
il
:. theequivalentsystem , ,, .: r r .e
EI
4",
xt-2xz + 3x3 = 3 I !)
lz 4 8 = 2(B + ii - a1-g+ 3) + S(4 - 3)
-.6:q +15x3=2b-al (21
l' hl=l-r I -l8 -3Oxz+lo5xs;4c-a)
E

{ ls2 =2O+20-40=O.
We multiply second equation by 5 and then subtra"t fro*fl
"9
Hence the co-efficie nt matrix A is'not invertible and
I vr, v2 urnd v3 do not span IR3. the third equatlon. Thus we'get tlib' equiValent system
"orr".qycftly, x1-2x2 + =43x3 I
u1 = (1, i,b, ri, - (-2,-4,-8) and u3 = (3,9,27) generate -6xz+15x3=2b-a : i6t
(spud d. which is in echelon form
Solution : We must determine whether an arbitrary vector
,
From the third equation, we get xs =i (2a- 5b + 2cl
u = (a, b, c) e tri3 be expressed as a'linear combination
' "r,
u=xrur +huz*x3u3 of thevectorsrr,u2,zlnd u3' Putting the value of x3 in the second equation,
Bxpiessing this equation in teil of compbnentS, we S we get - 6xz + 2a- 5b + 2c = 2b * a

11!,")="('' l'') .*F2'4'-+r)+ xs(3'e'2v

or, 6x2 = 2a - 5b + 2c - 2b +a = 3a - 7b + 2*
:
' )ii :
.'. n=*,(sa-zb +2c).

: (*''gu;' ]"1),f,
tr-,zn' -4xi',8*,) + ts*' s" z*11
z
' Again, putting the values of x2 and xs ilr.the first equation
I
i

,l

we get r, -l ts" -zb +2c). i {2"- 5b + 2c) =-r' . ,

.{

I"{

{
I
''l
tia?_ coLLEGE t INBanALcEBRA .YECTORSPACES :. ?lp
"oi, iS"i - rsaigbu- loc+6a- tsb+6c= 15a Agaln, the columns of A are ; , :; ,, ,.i {

or, 15x1 =%La-2'Ob+4c [arr I I

larz [ar" I
xr =*
{%La-zr)b+ 4cl.
Therefore. (a, b, c) = fi \Z+^-ZOA+ 4c) u1 +
.L;;,J-L;;,J
::'
c, =l ::"
I o=l?.'.' I
"" L;;"]
., =l I
;

* tg" - zb + ?.cl uz +* {zr - 5b

+ 2c) us.
These n columns of A viewed as vectors ln Rm' span a
Hence ur, u2, u3' sPan trf . subspace of Rm called tlle cohrmn slnce ofA
,

Yerifioatlon of tlrc result 'a

Defialtioa : For any trvb subspaces'S'"rrd T of vbctor
(i) *@q"-20b + 4")-i $a-7b+2nl +*tz"-5b + 2s) 'l
space V, thelr sum S + T is the set given by {u+v ue S and veT}'
=]utz+^-%)b +4c- 15a + 35b- loc + 6a- 15b + 6c) Thdorem 6.11 For any two subspaces S and Tofavector
,, .: *$ {SO"* 15a + 35b- 35b + l0c - loc = fi {tSu') = * spaceV, S +Tls a subsPace ofV.
i:, 1.,:. ,

", (ti;, $ .6tza- lob + 2c)-i tou- 14b+4c) +i 6a- 15;b+6c) Proof : CIearlY, 0 = 0 + OeS +T : So S +T * o
i,
'':'" ''ofigza- lob +?,c-Soa+7ob-20c+ t8a-45b+ 1&) i,e.S+Tisnon-emPtY.
*
= S tsO^ 3oa + 7Ob - 55b + ?,oc -
ZAd IJtrcye S+T, ot, peF.Thenx=ul +vr'Y=rrz*Y2
where ur, uz eS and v1 , v2€T.
=ft {rsu) =u.
(iii) * to"- 5b + c) -ittz"-2{3b + 8d "* (18a-45b + 1&)
Thirs ax+ ff = o (u1 +rlr'1 + Pfu2 + v2)
I *4Oc + 54a- 135b + 54c) = o(ur * cnrl + fr:s + pv2
=fi tOa- SU.+ c- 6Oa + 14Ob ":
=coltl*Frz+cr,ir'+frz'(l) '
=StOO"-6Oa+ 14Ob - 14Ob+55c-40c) Now stnce S and T'are subspaces of V'
' i

=* (15c) = c.
crul *frrze S and cnrl + Pv2e T. '
': i

Hence tlee result is verifled. Consequenfly, (1) Cfives that ax+ pyeS + T.
6.12 Row qnae end aolumn sllEcc of e ua'rtx Hence S +Tts a subsPace ofV.
Irt A be an arbitrary m xn matrix over the real field
IR: 6.19 Dir.ect sum of nftcPaccs :

l-arr dt2 arn I The vector spaee V is sald to be the dlreat gufoirbf'lts
a=1"" 4zz
I ...
a.zn
I
I
subspaces S and T, denoted by V = S @ T if every vector veV can
be written in one andonly one way as v ,.'u + w, where ueS and
L"*, an2 a-n I weT.
The m rows of A are Rq= (a11, a,12,,"', arr,) ?heorem 5.12 The vector sPace V is the direct sum of lts
Rz = (azr, dzz, ..., aar). .,., Rj, = (a*rr 462,"',a6j' j subspaces S and Tif and only if (i) V = S + T and (CI SnT = {O}:
' These
,:1,: - i. I

m rours viewed as vectors in Rn span e subspace of Rn Proof : Suppose that V = S (DT. Then any ve! 9,9 be
called the tos sPacc of A" uniquely written in the form v = u * w, where ueS and weT.
 "*fl\1l,) *
:il
,iii
.

246 COLLEGE LINEARET,bBARA

VECTORSPACES 2e7
Thus in particular ; V = S + T. : l

Now suppose that veS O T, Then 2 . {0 flrrd xe d cuch that u +x=v,

$rherc u = (2, -1, O, 3. CI andv = (O'l' 2, -L,-2) D' U' P' 19ml
{1) v = v + O, where veS and
(21v = O + v, urhere OeS and 'eT.
veT.
(lt) Solve the vector equatlon u + x = v for the following
S-ince gugh a srrrry for v mlpt be gnique. palrofvectorsuandvm d:u=(| o' r) :' '!'t''':
s' l-
.'. v = o; Accordingly SOT = {O}.
01 the other hand, suppose that V = S + T and SftT = {O} x= (-2,2,2,4,4)
Anmr: (i)
kt ve V since V = S + T, there odst ueS and weT such that fl
t
I
(ulx=(0, r'-t'-tz'o). d: , :

v = u + w. Now we have to show that such a sum is unique. If ttre {2,9, 4., - 1)' u.a f F, I' l, '*l nnd
i
3. Let u1 = (-1, 3, 2, O), u2 =
sum ls not unique, letv = u' + rV' rvhere u'e S and r/ e T. Then
,,{
E+ = (CI, 9, l, 2). Flnd scalars crr, a4, Qs ?r1d ct*.6pch that
u + ur = u'+ w- 45rd so u - p'= w'- rr. qut u- u-€$ and w'-weT, f
o1u1 * &zrtz + ds us + %u* ={p' 5, 6, -3)
Ars-rEr i o1 = L,or2= 1, 06 =-1. ao = l.
I
hence by SnT = {O}, u-u' = O and w' - W_ = 0. '}.
,:,.:.:
4. LetV be a vgctor sPace over the fleld F lrt u :m{ v any
_

Theref,ore, u = p and w = w'. TtU6 FuFh a sum for ve V is I

!l
uniqueasdV=S(ET. ,},

ffpntetF. Let S endTbe suFsp4cep of na 4"g4ea ry Shorv that (t) (-1) v = -v

S = {a, b, o, o} la, beF} ana T = f(O. O, c, d} h, a .F}. One can (ii) s(u - v) = cu - cw-

easlty verts that both fhese subgets qre subspaces of IRa. S.Verify whether the followtng sets are subspaces of
. . a','
The zpro vector of Ba !s e, o, o, e. TtpF z ta, b, O, S vg (lR):
" r i, l

= {O, O, c, d) for sorne ai b, c. {e!lifpp[s tha] {i} t0q 2Y' 5) : x YelR }

ir = b = c = O. Flenqe z.* O, &th4t S OT= pf. (ii) fiiq x+y,*z),& Y, z€IR l.
Therefore, S + T = S (ET, Npry pver.y {et,b;r pr, 4r} #"un {nf*f* 0l t!€ eet ls rpt a subspace' '
be expressed as {a1, br,O. o} * @..P, cr,dll urtth (ar, F,,. "O, Ol e S

9f EP. F. U',P, l{Qtf

::' , pfpB0l6pff-ff {4, qv tlr,at lil = ltra, h, c, d) l[a" U, c' 4) : naBn4, I ,. '.;. 1
l. [,.etu = (1. 9, l, -Z),v= (3, O, 4, U a&C b - 2s- d = 0, is a strhPace of B4 . p-, F, s lpsfl,
'',,"* :. {6, 3, - 3. 0 be thp veciors in Uf . Compute"the foilowing ts" h+b+c.: !1,!+,1,pghPfapE
that lV {(a, b, e
"l pp:q lF{
retons: {02u +v-w(il) 5u-3v-w.
,ffaryrerll: {i) (-1, f,9. -3}
=

that V = fia, b, c, d)
,
eB" la +b +c d + is a
= 0l
{rt} F to, 7,-4.- r3). of ts4
 COLLEGE LINEARAICEBRA '::j. , :.,';i,.. VECTORSPACES 249
';i..i'
of the following are subspaces of IR3? 19" .Write the vectors (1, O, O) and (O, O, I) as linear
.,(r),S^;, {k
y,. z) eIR3 ly - oz = ol eombinattons of the veetors (1. 0, - l), (O, I, O), (1, O, l)
[{:s{*{
, Fr T= !,n_\o =IR3 l**y rl ID. U. P. 19851
)

Aorrtl8 q =;(1, O,- I) +0 (0, l, o) +i(t, o, U

: (1, 0,
1, , i. .

::; I

i
(o, o. 1) =-)0,Q -t) + o (0, r, q +; (1, o. 1)
-4
Urit W = {(a, b, lr; U, ce IR and 2a - b+ c = 10} is
I
WWrtte (8, 6, 0) as a linear combination of (-I, 2, Ol,
"t B,f,q.@,-t,oland(o, t,-1) [D.u.pnel: ts3]
ofVs 0R ). ID. U. P. 19341 l (5.6,0)=2(-1,2,Ol+ t (g,1,2)+ I (4,- I,O)+2(O, l._l).
Shovs that each of tJ:e following subsets of the vector -An-srer:
ls a subspace of EP : @. Wnrther or not the r"rror- (1, Z,;i't"; ,rr.",
cd:dination of the vectors u1 = (2, l,O), r:2 = (I, -1, 2)
{i)w=11*b,c)la+b=6; - D.U.II.T.1986l and us = (0, 3, -4) , [C. U. p. Ig?gf
(ii) W=
c) lb + c = 0h'
{(a, b, Anawer : (1, Z, 6) can not be written as a linear
(ui) W= {(a, b, c) lc + a 0}.
= coTF\)affon of u,, ard us.
r.9
13. Let W = {(a, b, t) I U. lR } be a subset of the vector
", ffiWnte the vectors (2,8, -Z, B) and (- 4,6, -lB, 4) as a
spacetffP . Then show tirat W is not a subspace of IRp . iirr# comblnaflon of the vectors
p. u-H. T. resl , v1 = (2,I, O, g), v2 - (3, -1,5,21, vs = pl, O,2, t)
,:
Ansrcr 3 ti (U3, -7, 3) ;.2v1 - vz vs
, L3',*1* = q'b' c.) la2 b) be.a subset of the vector space mP . :
(iil F4, 6, -13, 4) = 3vr - Bvz -vs.
Then show that W is not a subspace of IRF . tD. U. IL T. fggEl rO0-
I5. Show that W = (a, a, a) la e IR l ts a subspace of Eg . \fl O.turorine u,tether or not the vector (8, g, -4, -2) is a
lineAr-eombtnatlon of the vector set {(1, -2, O, A). {2,8, O, _l),
B. U. IL 1e851 (2, -t,2, Lll D. U. p. 1S4l D. U. II, T. 19Sl
16. show that each. of the follorrrng subsets of -thq-retor
Aorser: (3, 9, 4, -Zl= I (1, -2, O, g) + S(2, B, 0, -t)
spac€ mP is a subspa.ce of IBp : .

:, r," (flWl ={(ab,O) la,belR} (DWe=(O,b,c) lb,ceIR}. n - . 3J1

24. Express the potynomial p = t2 * *;?
l*r#"',t7.,J-e* Y be a vector space of
all n-square matrices.over a comtrinatlon of tlrs polynomtals .. 1 ., "'L*,
real field IR. Show that W is a subspaee of V if W consiits of pt =F -^.+5, k *h, -St and ps =tt3.
&&.*-"y""inetrie matrtces (i.e At =-A). ADsmr:p=-3p1 +!p +4ps:' I
B.U;II. fry .

25.|n tjre veetor space tsP erpress the v = (1, - 2,

' '' i& Shornr'that w is a subspace of IRa where
S) as a
Iinear combinaUon of the vectols vectors v, (1, l, 1),
**iirir q =
*r' ($W= =(a;lb. o) la, b, ceIR l v2 = (1, 2, 3) and vs = (2. -1,.1).
flxr, h. xs,*] la1x1 +&z xz+ssxs +%x4=eqeIR I Anccr:v={vl +S,ir2 +2vg. t

q.i
 VEC-TIORAPACES 251
25O COLLBGE UNEARAI'GEBRA

36. Determine rvhettrer (4,, 2, L, O) is a-linear combination 30.In qB3 , bt s =ll,2,l), (3, 5, o)l and
of ich of the foUprvi,qg sels of vectors. If oo'find s'e such f ={1,2, l), (3, 5, o), (2, 3, -1)l
combinatio$. e-whether< S> * <T>. U-P. fgFq p.
(il l{L,2,-1, OJ, (1,3, l' ?)' (6: 1, O. 1} Show that the veetors Er = (1, U eld u2 = (1,-!f spap
{iil 93, I, o, u, [1,2' 3. 1), to' q'_6'-61]
h
(8, l' o' o)' (3' 8' -2-' -1)l
iliit flo, -t' ?, u, (1. v,4.-21. R2.
emrg" i (4 (4' 2, L, ol ls not e llnpar co-mbfnat{on ,..3),6eterrnine whpther ol not the followtng vpptors span B3
iiii- ti, 2, t, ol is ngf a linear corrpfnat[on' " (il ,r, = (1, l, 21, rt2 = (1, -1, 2), us = (1, O, l)
(iii) @,2, L, O) is a linear combination and
(L' 7' 4' -21 = (-1, 1, O), v2 = F|, O, 1), v3 = (1, 1, l)
{4, ?,1' 9: 216. -L,2, 1) +.1 -4W,
-3(3,1,O,0) + O(3' 3' -2.-1) Aemr: ur, uz.ue span IR3
(i)

z?.Express the matrix =

" [-3
ll * a [near lfi ut,v2,vq sPgn m'3.
-i
combrnauon of the matrrces = [l 8l' * = [l I p9,.6noW that the space generated by the vectors
^, u1 I (1, 2, -1, 31, *z*{2,4, L,-9ilandtrs = {3, 6, 3, -n and tIrc
p.u.Er. lsEN space generated by the vectors v1 Z 1L, 2, -4, I U arld
srd AB =
[-? el
f*rFGr:4=!$'*SP*tt& l9 rl v2 = {2, 4, - 5, 14) are equal. te.u.P. tq7g|
28. Express (if popqlplel the mqtrtx A = [-1 -eI +s a 33.{il Show thet Ep = ffI,8, U, {&, l. g), (l;-1, 8}
*;=[i-i[;:i-l
ltnear combinatlon Pf the 4PfftcPa Q.u.Er. tgp$
ll ;;*=[l 3l (til FInd a condttlon on a, b, c so ttrat v r (+, b, Q
p.rr.E.t 19O$8-['s rgpq ic a llnear combinqtion of v1 = (1., -S, 8) a$
as a llnear conrbtrt+4qr of vz- lP, -1, -U, that !B , so thatvbbngB to spn [vr, vzl.
fArppf I A parr no.t be erpreesed fncr: a+b+c=O.
Ar,
- Ae a4d A3.
*. WU ard W be the srrbspea of IBp deflnpd by
?i. Whlch of the following matrices are llnear
paq+HnaHons of t-he matrlcPa
that Ro = U@tt/'
ShorY , P-.V. A. fffi
^=[-l 3l'"=E 11,".[fi
3f' 35. 6hgv that eEch of the follourlng subsets S is a subspace
V:
3l *[-3 rll of the lndicated space
{il Ye lR3. S is thp collectlsn pf all trlples {x y, al auch
',[3 r$a!x =yard z*Q,
tprrp, u,[3 8f =n*n*c (ii) V= Ifa. S ia tlre cpllection of all rF-tuples (x, r,z,$)
u,l [-3 :il "2A-,ts+c' wchthatx-Y=?+L
 COLLEGE- UNEAR AI.GEBRA II/ECTOR SPACES
,,25i2 258
36. Show tltat:e, p1aneW = (a, O, c) in R3 is generated by
Linear dcpeodoacc md llncer lndependcncc.
(i) (1, O, l) and (2. O. -1) Definitloa : Irt V be a vector space over the lteld F. The
vectors v1 . V2, ..., Vm eV are sald to be ltncarly dcgendcnt over
.tifl) (1, O,21, (2,O, 3) ard (3, O, 1).
,37.li) ProvethatS={(xy, z,tleIRa lx +y-z +t=O..and
F or slmply dcpcndcnt if there exists a non-trrvial linear
combination of them equal to the zero vector 0. \
Zx=yl is a subspace of IRa
That is, flrv1 * %vz +.., + oqnvm = O whene ar * o
(ii) Pfove thatT = {(xr, xz, .,,xJeRI lx1+x, +... +;q 1O}is
forht treast one i.
asubspace of IRn.
On the other hand, the vectors v1 , v2, ...., vm inV are said
kt Wr and W2 be the subspaces
38. of HF deflned by .to be llaearly independeat over F or simply in@GudGat if
Wr=fia,b,O) labelRl
l

the only lrnear eombination of them egual to.o (zero vector) is

arldw2 c) b€IRI. Show that IRP =Wr@V/2. .
= (O, O, the trivial one. tleat is,
39. kt W1 and W2 be the subspaces of IRP aefinea ty e['1v1* ezvZ +... + oqnvm = O if hnd only tr
W1 =(a,o,O) laeIRl andwz=(o,b,d lb,ceIRl. dt=&Z=...=(LIr=O
Show ghat EP =Wr (il[2. A single non-zero vector v is qecesgarily independent.
N
N.Ir:LS andTbe strbspaees of IBf dellned by *'iffi". crv = O if and only if a = o.

S = (a, 0, O O)' I a e IRI and T = (O b, c, d) I u, e, d e IRl. 6.13 The non-zero vectors v1, v2, ..., v' h a vector
'
X@"eoElrn
(\/space v are linearly dependent if and only if one of ilre vectors
Show that IHf = S(ET.
V1 is a linear combination of the preceding vectors
4r.tew (IR) =
{[: ] J .,b,
, c, d . ts']. rhen strow that Vr, v2 . ..., Vk-r.
V(IR)=Wr Orillz where RroOf : Ifvs=GtVl +%vZ +...+Gk_rvr_r.
fi, ttrencrlvl +%vz +... +Or_rvk_r + (-I)v1 *ov1a1 *...*ovr,=e.
yt,v2, ..., Vn are linearly dependent.
and hence the vectors
iwz
= {[: 3 I ,". R]. :
\!.
Conversely, suppose that the vectors vr, v2, ..., vn'are
42. I,et V be the vector space over ttre lield F. linearly dependent. then srvl + a.2v2 *... + c'vn = O where tlle
Shour that V = Wr@ W! where Wl and Wz are the subqraces scalars q1 * o, ttren c1v1 + %vz + ... + c1v1 + 0vL*1 +'...'+ &r, 0
=
of symmetrlc and skew-symmetrlc matrices respectively Or, C,rvl + %vZ + ,.. + 01V1 =Q.
over F. Now if k = l, this implies that c1v1 -O.
 w@nspAcEs 8s.6
B$4 COLLEGE LINEARALGEBRA
= (orrbr + o,12b2 + ... + ag brlvl +
r*rlth o1. + g" 90 that v1 = 0, Slying a contradiction' lrqequse (aerbr + o.4bz + ... + trertt) vz +
the v1 ls a non-zero vectof' Hence k > I and we may
wr,tevp=-(fJ,' (tr) Y2-..- (H)*-, + (d"rbr + oab2 +... + qlbp)v,
0v1 +0v2+...+Ovr,=Q. r.
gfvlng v1 ?s s llnear combinatioh of v1' Vz' "" vL-t'
Thus tf k>n, we can chooge b1, b2; ..., bk not all zero sueh
Thus the theorem ls Proved'
that b1u1 + ... + hur = O t. e. {ur, uz, ..., ur.} ts a dependent aet
L.fi6r 1. L€t V be a vector space which is spanned by a whlch ls a contradiction to the given eorldition, go we
be
flnlte set of vectors, saY {vr ,Y2, ..',vr, }' Let U = {ut' u2. "" uit}
conclude that k < n. Hence tlte lerrtrna is proved.
an itidelibndeflt set in V. Then k S'n.
IfAAa 2.lx:t {u1,;Ir2, ...,u.} be an tndeireUdent set lii d
i*Oof : Since &r, vz, ..., v,,l spans V' eactr vectoi lrt U is a
vector space V. Let W be the sub3pac€ spanned by {ur, uz, ..., rlr}.
llneal combihaUon of {vr ;ur, .",v',}, i'e' [.et v be a vector ruhich is in V, but not in W then
lI1 = O11V1 * d'21v2 + "' + okrvn I {ur, uz, ..., u, v} is an ttrdependent set.
U2=O12V1 *d22v2 +..'+Clm2vn | (1)
Proof : Letclul + o4uz+ ;.. +ol rtr + cv= O (l)
{
t\ = 61r*Y, * 0.2YY2 + "' + a4vt 'l We will show that et = % - ... + c(r = c[ = o.
If o * o, solve for v. This gives. i
Suppose that k>n, then tl:e system
Gr A.o- 0- r::)
C[11X1 * A12X2 * "' + C['1XJQ. = O v=-EUr-o=u2-...- Ar+ (2)
' CL2tXr + dZ2h + "' + CZtXf. * O (2t
,:
'.: The right hand s!d9 of fhip expressin (2) is a linear
ClntXl + A19X2 + "' + Ar1X1 - O
comblnation of u1 , t)2, ,..,, F"
1!fl |re4ee in W,,b,ut the left hand
has at least one non-trivial solution, say fbr ' b""" h') sl<le of (2) is not in Wt which is q eontradiction..Bewe eonelirde
c[11b1 + apb2 +... + cr11b1 = Ol lltirt a = o:,Tlri€ $ives ixiui + buz,+ ... + qk{rr,iQ.;,; i': /,.,, r, :

02rb1 + o.22b2+...+cr2kbk =Of (3) Since {u1, rr2,-,..,.;iu. },is arr,independent s8t, 'rilU dttrisit,trave
t
all *(X2 =..,=0(r=O. ' 't\-
,cnrbr * a",.2b2+ ... + ohkbk = 0
Hencewe have stfown thdt Ul =&) =... =cq. ='g=6 .
Thpn b1u1 +t:1.ttz +'.. +Lrr.gr.
'lhercfore, {ur , uz . .J:,"u;,'v} is an iirdependent set. '

,: . = !, (cr11v1 + ctafz.+ ... + oktv.,). + , . .,,:- , ., i; _l- r:, ,

So the lemma is .rt proved.
'' :.: :ii;1 ', j: ,i r.' ri i r: I :t 1 . ... t'
Thcorem 6. 14 The non-zero ; ,
rows of a matrix in echelon
i _i :

hrrrrr ilre llnearly independent.

+ bg(c1r.vr *,&2YY2 + "' + q4vrr) .
 ITECT,OR, SPACES 257
COLLEGE LINEAR AI'GEBRA
flon-zero rows say Ibdof : $foicc tXre cet {vr ,Y2, ..., v*. \il} is llnearly depeqdent
%of. , Suppose that the set of
dependent rhen:l:*:11''*" there exist scalafs o1, oa' ,.'. q* F not all o (zero), such that
&o-r, ...,Rr) is linearlv o1v1 f hvz +... + (&nvm + Prv = O'
of the preceding rows i: e'
say R- is a linear combination If p . o thert one of ttre o{ ls not zero and
R- = ocrn+t &n+r + oLn+z &n+z
+ "' + *t
rtr' ^ll ia
orR{n *c.Brs
i8 its flrst non- * * "' + o'mvm = O' But this contradicts the
il;;$#;;;; "o*ponent the ktll
c1V1 c.2v2

erltsy.Then slnce the matrix is 'echelon form' hypothesls that {vr,v2, ..., v6 } is linearly independent'
zero kth
Rn are all zero and so the
-ln
components of "' Accordingly P* o and so
";.; o + cr"'*2 o + ao*2o + "' + crno = 0' But
cornponent of (r) is ctt-l
this contradicts tf'"1"1'*puon
that the kth comn3ne3t of
R* o,* (-?) ",.(-?}v2rr..+( r") *
Rn are linearly independent' That ls. w is linear combination of the vectors v1' V2, ;', V6'
is not zero. Ttrus Rr'Rz' ""
Hence tlre theorem is
prored' . r^-^- fi\"or" G.1? I,etur, uz, ..., un be any n linearly,'
t'' be rn linearly independent lndependent vectois in a vector sPace V. Then any (n + l)
ttcorgm 6'15;;''' "" Vm
of vi' v2'
a ltrpar combination
Vm "" vectors y1,Y2,..., Vn+I, each of whiCh is a linear cornbination
vectors and a vector u is Ttren the
u cl1v1 * hvz +"' + clmvm where €t1 dfe scalars' of u1, u2, ..., un are llneally dependent, /
i.e. =
u is unique' Proof : We prove the resuft by inducton on n. If any of the
above representation of v,' s ls zero, then trivialty given (n + 1) vectors are linearly
{I}
Proof : Giveng=cl1v1 tCL1v2 "'+o(mvm
+
dependemt. So we suppose that none of the v1' s is zero. Now as
of u is not unique'
Suppose tl.at the representation v1 and v2 are both ltnear combinations of u1, :u2, ..', "', u' with
' Ttren let u = Frvr + P2v2 + "' + F-v- n = I, We $€t vl = a{rr ' vz =- Garrt with a1 * o' o'2 * o'
where Fr are scalars'
This gives,r, =*,*, =fi
(2) from (1)' we get
Nowby subtractin$
o=u-u = (crr-Fr)*ta, - Fzlvz*-'-'*(cr',,-FJv- or,' \d1-Y=ur
g-z -ur= o.
linearly independent'
are
But the,t"to*-', ' w"""vm or, vr - argi-l v2 =O
o' :"' oqn- F* = o
So that this implies or - 0t = Flence v1 and v2 are linearly dependent.
i. e, ol =Ft' "', cqrr= grn' To apply itxduction suppose that the result holds for an5r k
This proves that u = Glvl
* c,2Y2 + "' + c*vt is the unique linearly independent vectors rvhere k < n. We can now write
of v1' v2' ""' vrr'
of u as a lineai comblrration V1 =Ct11u1 +Cl.lzU'z +"'+0lnut
representation
the set {vr' vz' ':" vrn} is
lireearly
vz = GztUt +ePP2 +."' + 02run
Thcorem O'fe Supose ttrat
f
'r
vectors
II dependent' Then w is a
linear combinatign of the Vn+l = On+llUl * Ctn+tZU2 + ... + OQr+lnUn

fut sume sealars ary in F.

ii !t'Y2" "' vm
i
Llnear Algpbra-I7
t
F
 ,1, . r$l , t,

'. iri
zSE, COLLEGE LINEARAICEBRA
vEcToRSpACES 25g
I[qr1,:f o forevery i=1,2,..., n + I t]ren each of vl is allnear
combination of (n - 1) vectors u1,Ir2, ..., urr-t and the induction Hence there exlst scalars c,t, o.2,..., o. o, .., o not all o
hypothesis will yield that v1 , Y2, ..., vn. are also linearly (zero), cuchthatc,lvl * o,2Y2+...*orVr *ov111 +... + ov-=Q'
dependent and consequenflyVl , v2 ... , vn+l are also linearly Accordtngly, S ls dependent.
dependent Eccond portlon : kt T = {v1, v2, ..., v,,} be an independent
set then Prvt + Fzvz +... + pr,v- = O implies that
So we suppose tl:at at least one of a6 * o.
Irt q, + o, ttren for each I = 2, 3,.., n + I 0r=b=...=Br=O
vl - 0rr, 0irr-lv1 = (air - Cftrr(l1101r-l) u1 * Now let {vr, vz, ...,vr} k < m be a subset of T, then there exist
(0;2 - C[inC[,12gln-l) ttz * ... + (cti'rFr - 06C[1'n-1C[1rr-l) Un*l scalars 9r, fu,..., Pk whereeach p1=o, i= T,2,..., ksuchthat
prvr + hvz +... + fuv1 = Q the subset {vr, vz , ..., v1} is
So by induction h5rpothesis the vectors
lndependent.
wr = Vr - ornorn- lv1 (2<i <n + 1) are linearly dependent.
Conseguently, there gdst 92, fu, ..., Bn*r in F; not all zero, such OUT EXAMPI,ES
that fow2 + fuws + ... * p,r+twn*l = O i. e. Prove that the set ofvectors
rv1
fu2 (v2 -rlu2nalr,-lvr ) + Fr
(vg - d3ncllrr- )+
lQ, 1,4, @, t,-l), (4, 3, 3)) is linearly dependent.
. + &,*r (v,,+r - 0ea1'11C[1rr-lv1 ]
=Q Proof : First Procesa
i. e. - {fu20,.2notn-l + foo3rrcrlrr-l + ... + pnal crn'1'1o1rr-l) vr
Set a linear combination of the given vectors equal to zero
+ Fzvz +ftva + ... + p.,*r vn+t = O.
by using unknown scalars &y, z: .

This gives that v1 , Y2, ..., Vn.'1 ore linearly dependent' x(2, 1,2) + y (O, l, - 1) + z(4,3,3) = (O, O, O) , .

Hence the theorem is Proved. or, (2x, x. %d + @, y, * y) + (42, 32,32) = (0, O, O)

Theorem 6.18 Every set of vectors containing a dependent
or, (2x+ O + 42, x+y + 32, 2x-y + 3zl = (O, O, O)
Equating corresponding components and forming the
subset is dependent and every subset of an independent set is
linear system, we get
independent. 2x+O+42=O) ",!
4
Proof : Eirst Portion x+y+{"=6 I
2x-y +32=O
trl
Suppose that the set S = {vr. vz, ....v-} )

constains a dependent subset' say {vi, v2.. ..., vr} Reduce the system to echelon form by the elementary
transformations. Interchange first and second equations.
Since {vr, vz, ...,vr} dependent, there exist
is linearly Then we get the equivalent system
scalars G.t, a'J,..., oq not all o, such that
x+y+32=O)
O(1V1 * UAVZ +.'. + O(V. =Q 2x+O+42=O
2x-y+32=O
I el
J
 26t
VECTORSPACES
from the third row'
coLLEGE LINEARAIcEBRA we subtract second row
2@ 12 I 21
from the
first
We multiply equation by 2 and then subtract -lo I -l
-16 o I

respectively. Ttren we
get the ol
second and third equations form and has a zero row:
equivalent sYstem Thls matrlx is tn row echelon
linearly deperrdent'
x+ hence the giverllectors are
--ivY+32=O I -zr=9 I
(3)
r.xatnPle 17. Show that ttre set
of vectors
-3i-32=o ) (3, o, 1, - 1)' Q, -l'o' 1)' (1' 1' -2))
1' is linearly dependent'
by-2 and-3 respecttvely' ID. U. S. 19841
Divide second and thlrd equations

Thenwe get the equivalent sYstem Proof : Ftrst lEocesg

to the
Set a linear combination
of the glven vectors equal
x+Y+32=O I
y+ ,=ol (4)
zero vector ,ltttg unknown
scalars x: y' z t
Y+ z=O ) Ll + z (l' L' l' -2)=
(O' O' O' O)
we can x(3, O,'1, - f) + y (2' - 1' O'
equatlons are identlcal' o' yl + (z'z'z'-2zl =(o' o'
o' o)
Since second and third or, (3x o' x -d + (2y'-y'
system
we have the equivalent x + O + z' - x + y - 2zl =
(O' O' O' O)
disergard one of tJ:em' Then or, (3x+ 2y + z,O - y + z'
x+y+rz=3 equations by equating the
y+ 1 (5)
Fornt the homogeneous linear
form and has only two n.orr-zero corresPondin$ comPonents'
This system ls in echelon
has non-zero 3x+2Y+z=Ol
in three unknowns' hence the system
*u"*n"
vectors are linqarly dependent'
-!+z=O L trt
solution. Thus the original x+b+z=o I

matrix whose rows are the -x+Y-22=O )

Sccond Proccss : Form tlte form by elementary
and reduce the mltr{ to row echelon form by Reduce the system to echelon
given vectors
transformations' Interchange
first and third equations'
Gfttg the elementary row operations'
12 | 21 Then we have the equivalent
sYstem
lo I -1
L; 3 3J
I
x+O+z--O)
-Y+z=q I el
the third 3x + 2Y+ z,= l)
. 2 and then subtract from
we multiply first row by
|

-x+Y.-22=O )
row. bY -1'
12 | 21 we multiPlY second equation ,
'
t.

l,

T
-lo II -r I
J
,tt Lo -1J
 263
262 COLLEGE LINEARAI,GEBRA VECTORSPACES
frorn
We multiply first equation by 3 and then subtract from the
We multiply flrst row
by 2 arrd 3 and then subtract
,l"i
third equation. We also add first equation with the fourth respectively'
the second and thtrd rows
,:i

equation. Then we get the equivalent system.

rr I I -21
,1,

-lo -3 -2 5l
y- z=O I
(3) Lo -3 -2 5J
iY
y- -22=o | from third row'
z=O ) We subtract second row
Again, divide third equation by 2.Then we get the
equlvalent system
x+0+ z=0 )
: ;-1,=|f
y- z=O
e, {n u..torc are linearlY dePendent'
(2' - l'4) (3' 6' 2) and
) 18. Show ttrat the vectors
' Since second, thtrd and fourth equations are identical, we ir, *,:4) are linearlY indePendent'
can disregard any two of them. Thus the system (4) reduces to Proof : First ltocesg to the
of the glven vectors equal
*. Set a linear combination
9: z:31 (s)
zero vector usin$ unknown
scalars )c'y' z "
10' - 4) = (O' O' O)
This system is in echelon form and has only two non-zero x(2,-1, 4) + y (3' 6' 2l + z(2' (0' o' o)
zyl + t2z' ltz' - 42) =
equaUons in three unknowns ; hence the system has a non- or, @x - x. +$ +(3y' 6y'
(O' O' 0)
zero solution. Thus the original vectors are linearly oy,(2x+ W + Zz'-
x+ 6y + LOz' 4x+ 2y -4zJ =
of linear equations equating
Form a homogeneous system
dependent.
Sccond Process : Form the matrix whose rows are the tJre corresPonding comPonents
:

glven vectors and reduce the matrix to row echelon form by 2x+3Y+ 2z=O I '-
usirlg elementary row oPerations - x+6Y+ loz=0 | (1)
:
4x+fu- 4z=O )
13 0 I -lt
lz -l o rl Reduce the systenr
to echelon form by the elementary
Lt I I -2) transfromations. Interchange first and second
equations'

Interchange lirst and third rows' Then we have the equivalent

sYstem
l-1 I I -21 - -x+6Y+1Oz=Ol
-lz -1 0 1l ' Zx+5v + 2z=O I
{21
t
:t
Ls oI -ll 4x+ iY - 4z=O )

{,
264 COLLEGE LTNEARATIEBIA VECTORSPACES 265
We multiply first equation by -l and we divide third We multtply flrst row by 3 and 2 and then subtract fi.orn
equation by 2. Then we have the equiValent system
the second and thtrd rows respectively.
x-6y- loz=O )
rl -2]' 5
2x+3y+22=Ol (3)
-lo -e 8l
2x+y - 2z=O )
Lo -lr 8_J
We multiply
first equation by 2 and then subtract from the We multiply second row by $ and then subtract from the
second and third equations. Then the system reduces to third row.
' x- 6y-loz=Ol "[rO -95 -2 1
t5y +222=0 | t4) - | 9^ lwhich is in row echeton form.
- l3y+l8z=O J
1
I
Lo o -;t -l
We multiply second equation by |f .ra then subtract I
)1
Since the echelon matrix has no zero-row, the veetors are
from the third equation. Then we have tfre equivalent system {
linearly independent. fi
x-6y-l0z=Ol Exanple 19. Let rf v ana w are independent vectors, Show
,ur.*
?r:=
o^l (5)
1

.!

ti
that u + v, u - v, u - 2v + w are also independent.
-16z=O) i p. u. s, 198(), rsgl
i
Proof : Set a linear combination of the given vectors equal
which is in echelon form. I
1l to tlre zero vector using three unknown scalars x, y, z:
In echelon form there are exactly three equations in flrree
{ x(u + v) +y (u -v) + z (u-2v + w) = e
unknowns; hence the system has only the zero solutJon x = O, t
or,,rr.r + x/ + yu -)n/ + zt - ?,nr + zut = O
y = O, z = O. Accordingly, the vectors are linearty independent.
or, (x+ y + z) u + (x-y- 2z)v + ant =A (l)
Second Pnocess
Sfuece u, v and w are linearly independent, the co-efflcients
Form the matrix whose rows are the given vectors and
in the above relation (l) are each O (znro), tlrat is,
reduce the matrix to row echelon
_form by elementar5r row x+y+ z=O )
operations x-.y-22=O I
f2 41
ls -l6 2l z=O )
Lz lo -4) The only solution to the above system is x = O, y = O, z O.
=
Hence the given vectors u + v, u - v and u - 2v + w are
We divide third row by 2 and then interchAnge with the
independent.
first row.
F=rrnplG 20. Test the dependency of the following sets :
rI 5 -21
-ls 6 2l (r) (r, 2. - U, r, 6. - rl))
3), (2, O, -
Lz -r 4) (ii) {(2; 0, -1), (1, 1, o), (o, I, l)}
- ID. U. P. 19841
 VECTORSPACES 267
266 COLLEGE LINEARAI,GEBRA
(ii) Set a linear comblnatlon of the given vectors equal to
Solution : (i) Set a linear combination of the glven vectors
equal to zero vector using three unknown scalars )c y, z the zero vector using unknown scalars x, y, z :
1

{.L,2, -3) + y (2, O, -t) + z (7,6, -11) = (O, O, O) /i2,O,- l) + y(1, l. 0) + zl0 - t, 1) = (O' O' 0)
or, (x 2x - 3,{ + {2y, O,-y) + {72,6z,, - llz) = 19, 6, 6; or, (2x 0, -,S + (y, y, O) + (0' -2, zl = (O' O' O) ',
or, (x+ 2y + 72,2x+ A + 62, -3x-y - llzl = (O, O, O) or, (2x+Y + O, O +Y - z,-x+ O + z) = ( O' O' O)

Equattng the corresponding components and forming tJ:e Equattng corresponding components, and forming the
linear system, we get linear system we get
x+Zy +72=O ) 2x+Y+O=O I
2x+ O+ 6z=0 I (t) O+y- z=O I (I)
3x- y-llz=O ) -x+O+z=O )
Reduce the system to echelon forrn by the elementqrlr Reduce the system to echelon form by the elementary
operations. We multiply llrst equaflon by 2 and then subract operations. We multiply third equation by - 1 and then
from tJ:e second equation. We also multiply tfre flrst equaflon interchange with the first equation. Then we get the
by 3 and then add with the third equation. Then we have the equivalent system
equivalent system x+O-z=O I
O+y-z=O l (21
x+2y +72=O 1 2x+Y +O=O J
-4y- 8z=O I @)
tlle
5y + LOz=O ) We multiply flrst equationby 2 and then subtract from
We divide second equation by - 4 and the ttrird equation by
third equation. Then we get the equivalent system
5. then we have tlle equivalent system
x+O- z=O l
y_ z=O | (S)
x+2y +72=O ) Y +22=O )
y +22=O I (3)
y+22= O J r We subtract second equation from the third equation'
Since second and third equations are ldentical, we can Then the system (3) reduces to
disregard one of them, Then the system (3) reduces to
x.'{iU:8 ,;"=31
x+0-z=O1
(4)

I (4)

The system, in echelon fornt, has only two non-zero

equations in the three unknowns; hence the system has a
non-zero solution. Thus the original vectors are linearly
dependent.
From.tlte third equation we get z = O.
Putting z = 0 is the second and lirst equations we get y -- O.
x = 0 respectively. Thus x= O, Y = O, z=O, Hence the given
vectors are linearly independent.
 268 COLI,EGE LINEARALGEBRA
rx-mple 21. I-et V be the vector
vEcroR$PACps 269.
space of all 2 x 3 matrices
We rnultiply 2nd equation bV i 6th equation by -1.
over the real lield IR. ShowthatA, B, C eV: "tr.a

il'"= fi -l -;l
*n Then we have the equlvalent system

"= [; x+Y+32=O ) :

y-22=O I
y-22=O L
,.,a c =
[! fr -T I *" rnearly a.p"r,a".,t. y-22=O t
[D.U.H.T. 19S61 y-22=O I
hoo,f : IrtxA+yB
Y-A=O )
+ zC = Owhere xy, ze 8..
*.",[i -'^il.r[i -l -tl.,,E;3 -l]=[333]
Now 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th & 6th equations are identical, we
can disregard any four of thegr.

." [rx -X'x] . [d u{ 1'rr] Thus we have the equivalent

flstem
x+y+32=OI
.l3z;i: -'z] = [B B BJ y-22=O I
-T; {r; ?& 'i: t{ :':
.This system is in echelon, fgrnr lraviag two equations in
",,lrXl -I I 7, I = IS S S I three unknonrns. So the syslem has 3 - 2 ='I.free variable
.Equating corresponding components and forming the which is z. Thus the system has non-z€rci:Bolutions.
linear system, we get Letz= l,theny =2artdx=-5. 'r

x+ y+ 3z=O l .'.-5A+28+C=0
2x+ 4y + 2z=O I
2x- y- 8z=O L Henethe$lvenmatrices A" B and'C are tinearly dependent.
4x+ 5y +lbz= O I
3x+ 4y + 7z=O I fampte 22. ,etP(t) be the vector of all polynornials
x-2y- z=O ) "*".
Reduce the system to echelon form by the elementary
of degree < 3 over. the realtfi.Id m.. Determine whether the
operations. We muiUply lst equation,by 2, - 2,4, 3 and,,l and followlng polynomials in P[t) are linearly dependent or
then subtract from 2nd, 3rd';'4th sth and 6th equations independent:
respectlvely. Then we have the iquivalent system.
u=f + 4t2 -2t+3, y=13 a61z 1L+'4and ''
x+ y+32=O'1
2y -42=O I
w= 3ts +8€ * 8t+7.
Solution : Set a linear combination of the gjven
{:"2=3 I polynomials u, v and w equal to the zero polynomial using the
-{;3:=3 J
rrnknown scalars x y and z: thatis, xr + yv + zttr = O.

, -,1..:*:
 VECTORSPACES 27t
27O COLLEGE LINEARAI-CEBRA This system le ln echelon form harring two equations in
three unknowns. So the system has 3 - ) = I frree variable
Thus xl1+4t2-2t+ 3) +y (ts+6t2-t + 4l +z {3t9+
8t2-8t+Z) = O
+ 4y + 3zts + 8zt2 whlch ls z.
or, xt3 + 4xt2 -2t +3x+yts + 6yP -fr
-8zL+72=O Hcnce the system has non -zcro solutions' that ls'
+ t + 3x + 4y +72 = O ru + )w + zN,t =O does not imply that x= Y = z = O'
or, (x+y+32) 1s'1 (zlx+6y+ 8zl t2 l-2x-y-&zl
Thus the given polynomials u, v and w are llnearly
Setting the coefllcients of the powers
of t each equal to 0
dependent.
(zerol,*Jg.i the following homogeneous llnear system
:
PXERCISESB(B}'
x+ Y+32=O l l. (l' O, O)' (O, 1' 0) and (1' 1' 0) in
Show that the vectors
4x+6Y +82=O L
Vs (IR) a2\earlV dependent' ID'U'P' 19801
-7.; *\;?',=3 3
- Z. rttticn of the following sets of vectors in lR are linearly
J

loar"" this system to echelon form by the elementary rnffindent?

(1, O, 1), (-3, 2.6),14,5' -2)l
operatlons. We multipty lst equation by 4' -2 and 3 and then (i)
(ii)(1,4,2),(3,-5, LI,p,7,8), (-1' 1' 1)l
subtractfrom2nd,3idand4thequationsrespectively'Then -/'
nnsrf : (i) Independent (ii) Dependent'
we have the equivalent sYstem ./
.,{Vrou. that'the followlng sets of vectors in Rs are
x+ Y+32=Ol
2Y-42=Ol llnearly independent;
^4
Y -22=O I (i) (1, O, 2). (-r,1, O), (O,2, 3D
.
Y-22=O ) r (ii)(l, 1, 1), (o, l, o, 1)l 1,) (0,
:

Then we have the

Interchange 2nd and 4th equatlons' 4. (i) Prove tl:at the set of vectors (2' 1, 1); (3, - 4' 6)
equivalent sYstem and (4, -9, 11) is linearly dependent in m'3' tD' U' S' I#tl
x+ Y+32=O I (ll) Test the set {1, O, 1)r (O' 2,2), (,3,7, 1)} for linear
Y-22=O L
Y-22=O I rk'lrcnclence on IR3.
2Y-42=O )
arrd then subtract
Anewer : (ii) the set is linearly independent'
We multiply 2nd equatiolt by 1 and
2
Then we have the Sl:ow that the set of vectors
!-r.
from the Srd & 4th equations respectively' 1)lr" R1 is linearlv
ri = l(1, o, O), (O, 1,0), (o, o, 1)' (1' 1'
equivalent sYstem
-i;*Bl=
x+Y+32=O I
".Ily=Bl
rlr.;rt.rrtlcnt brrl that any set of three of thern is linearly
Inr ['llcnrlt'trt.
O+ O= 0 J
4l* ,:,*S,;::C
 ,{ VECTORSPACES ZZs
272-oA**r"*er COLLEGE I,INEAR AI,GEBRA 12. Determlnc whether each of the following sets are
lndependent :
ttre foltowir4g sets are rinearry ilncarly depenrlent or linearly independent :
" -tuuo, o, 1), (1, r.-21 p' a' lD 0l l(0, r, o, 1) (r,2,3, -u(8, 4,3,21. (o, 3, 2, O)l
(iil t(l, -1, s'(1' 4, r,l' @ -3'nl' (u)(1.3,2), (1, -7,-8), (2, 1, -l)l D. U. Pr,ql" 19831
p'U'A' 1S1' &g' P' 1S1l
(tB ttlA-1)' (1' 2' 3)' (4' 5' -3$ (i)
AnasGrs: vectors are linearly independent.
({iif'dependent'
;};, (0 lrdependent (ii) Independent
fotlowing two
nZ/Wrrrine the llnear dependence of the 13. (l) Show that the set {(4, 4, O, O), (0, O, 6, 6) (-5, O, S, S)} is
Ilnearly independent in IRa. ';
----n R3:(1, O; ts3' 2' 61' (4' 5' -2)l
"udasof (ii)kove that the set {(1, O,2,41. (0, l. 9, 2), (-5,2, 8, ,.1,0}
til's = -L),
' (1' r', 0)l tD'u' P' 1s8l
G0T = (1, r'rt' io o' o)' . is linearly dependent tn IR4.
. 14. Determine whether the following sets of vectors in IRa
els;Grs : (fl S is linearly independent'
(ii) T is linearlY dePendent' are linearly independent :
8. (8 Decide wt*ttee* s = i(r'
4' 21' (3' -5' 1)' (-1' 1' 1)l is a (i)fi3, o,4, l), (6, 2,-r,2), (-1, s, 5, l), (-3, 7.8,3))
of IRa
p'U'P' 19&n (ii) (4 - 4,8, O), {2,2,4, O), (6, O, O, 2), (6, 3, - 3; O)l
lineaely independent subset
2}' (1' :7' -81(2' 1' -1)} of
IRs'
(il} Conrsrder tlte subset {(l' 3' Angwers : (i)The set ls linearly independent.
subset' tD'U' P' 19?91
Test the &Pendu,r€e of8rc (ii) The set is Unearly independent.
Aocrctt : (il'S is lbaedt' rndepcmdent' . , ' A5. Show that the followlng sets of vectors in II{3 are
($"The subeet ls linearly dependent' dependent :
u'= (6' 2' g' 4l'v = (O' 5' -3'
1) ffiury (i)
9. $ftrow ** L veetors i {(1, l, -r), {1,2. sI, {3, 5, -3)} i ID.u q. rfflll
and w = (O o, 7, -?tare
llnear{y independerrL ID'u'
s..198o i'
prove that r, l), (3, -4, 6) (4, - e, l l)}
(ii) {(2, tD. u. s. re83l
v2' v5} is indeperrdent
IO. If'ffre vector set {tr,
:

vt + v3) is independent 16.,Show that the lbllowing sets of vectclrs irr [R3'arre
(a) the set tvr +vl-2trs' vr -Y2 -v3' linearly independent
+ 3u2 - vg' vz + v3} is dependent'
:

a$d (b) therct {v1 + v2 - 3vs' v1 (1, -r,

'/ P' u' P' 1s4l (l) 4,5), {2, --3,7)}
3), (1, lD. v.H. Lg/,4ll
vectors in IR3 (ii) lu. -2. Ll.(2. t. -t),(7 4. ri) lc. u. P. 19731
'*t/ru,t'*ine whether or not the following
17. Detennine whether the f<tlkrwing sets ol vectors in IR3
or hdependent :
are hnearly dependent
(2' 1' -1)' vs = ff ' 4' Ll [C'U'P'
19731 rure linearly depenclerlt or inclcpendent :
(i) vr = $, - 2'1)' vz = (0 {(r, -2, 1). (2, 1, -Ll.t7, -4, 1)}
(3' -9:t-3* rc. u. P. L97SI
u = $,-2'4' 1)' v ={2' l'O''3} dndw= (ii) {(--1, l, l), (1, ',i,2) (3, -5, l)}
(fl)
19781 lD.u. P. 1982I
Ic"U'P' Ansrpers : (i) Lineirrll' rlc:pt'rrtlcrrt
Ailtr€rg: G) vectors are linearly dependent (ii) I.irrcrrrly intleperrdent.
(ii) vectors are linearly independent'
[.lnear Algebra- lI3
 27.4 . CoLLEGE UNEARAT-GEtsRA
r 'koverthatithe following set of vectors in &.3 is linearly
',18. YECTORSPACES
275
24. Show that the vectors i i'r"-' u
dependent:
(1. |,2. 4). (2,
o,'-a),r(-r; l, D, @.2,-2),(2, t, t)}.
{(s, -t, -5,2). (1, _1, _4, O) and (2, t, l, 6)
19. Which"of"Ihe following sets of vectors in IR3 is linearly
25. L€t V be the vector space of all 2 x
2 matrleeso$s;the
roal flcrd IR. show that the n'-ratriees
(r l(2, -I, 4) (3, 6, 2t, Q, t0, -4)l A, B, c e V are rtnearly
ln<lependent where
(u) (1, 3, 3), (o, l, 4), (5, 6, 3), (7, 2, -\l
Aadwcrs : (i) Linearly independent (ii) Lirrearly dependent
o= [i i],r= [d ?l *"= [ ;l
R.u.M.sc.p. reesl
2O. Determine whether the following sets of vectors in IRa 26.|n vector space V (IR) of all2 x 2
matftces determine
whether the following matrices are
are linearly dependent or independent :
(, {{1, 2, t, -2), p, -2,-2, O) (o, 2, s, 1), (3, O, -3, 6)}
(CI {(3, O,4, l), (6, 2, -1, 21, F1,3, 5; 1), (=3, 7, 8,3)}
tJ ?l,tS -jJ
Anewcr: Linearly dependent
*t' linearty,depeitdCriti:."-.-,". , i
rSI
;. _ ,,., :.
,,

Ansmcrs: 27' ,.etv(IR) be the vector space of an 2 xs

matrices over .

fouowing qatrisq.s in v(rR)

(i) Linearly independent (ii) Ltinearly. independent. 1,,::::l]
llnearly i.:1j::1:-jprhe ase
2I. For which real values of l. do the following vectors
A=W lJ,
II , =l-;; -SI andc =Ii :l
za. tq{v, (IR) be th_e
Zl
the vector space of a, polynomials
".;; ar all n^r.-^-r-r of

Ansmur: )'=-2, It2 +t+ + t, 3t2 + 2t + 2] of polynor.ntals

;,. , ),'=1. is ltnearly
p. u. P. rs8?l
22. Show l-hat the set of vectors in IRa V(IR) be the vector space of all
<3. Determine Rolypopiah or
(3, -2,4. 5), (-1, 3,2,6), t4,2,5.12)) is linearly whether the following polynoriithls
llrrnrly dependent or Independent : are
(t) t3 +Zt2 +4t:1, Zts_t2_3t+E, _4t2
rd w are linearly independenl vectors ina (tt) t3 - 3t2 _ 2t + 3, 2t3 _ 5t2 _ 5t + 7,ts _ +A+S
t3 2t2_3t + 3
then show that the vectors Aarpcrc: (i) Linearly tndependent
\,.i \tr, w+u
{ril ll -'1r, ll - 2v + rv
I-I -1'\r, C.ft Brdl d dnenen darcctorryccc
a,c lrlr;r.r linearlv independenl . Dr0altloa : l,et V be a vector spaee and
{v1, V2 , ..., \,,,j
lnllr ect of vectors ln V.

L
276 COLLEGE LINEARAI.CEBRA
VECTOR SPACES 277
We call [vr, vz, .... vn] I basle for V lf and only if hod: lct v1. v2, .... v,n be any generating system of V. Let r
(i) lvr ,y2, ..., v,rf ls linearly indepe4d-ent. be the ltrclterl number of llnearly lndependent vectors that
(ii) {vr ,y2, ..., vrr} spansv. ,ii :1, ",.., ean bc ch<rcn from v1, v2, ..., v-. Then we may assume that
. De0nitlon I let e1 = (1,0, 0, ,.., O), 6, = (O; l, O, ..., O), ..., vr,Vl, ..,, vr are llnearty independent but that v1 .y2, ..., v1, v11j
erc llnearly dependent forl = 1,2, 3,..., m - r, Hence we have a
;.rgn Fr(O, O, .,.,.O, U. Then {e1 ,r,2,..., en} ts'a ltnearly
tron-lrlvlal relatlon o1v1 + ezvz +... + okvr + o!.dvr*J = O ... (l) in
independent set tn IRn. Since any vector v = (vr , !2, ..., vr'! ln
whlch cr+; # O, since othetwlse the above equaUon (l) would be
ffipq4,be-$fiSt€Las v. = v1Q1 + rt1az t ... + v,re,r, {e1, e2', ..., es} a non-trlval relatlon between vt, ve, ..., vr contrary to t&e
sp.qs, IRn Ther-e{ore, {e1 , e4, .... qJ is a basis. It is called the llnear lndependence of these vectors. Henee the, above
.,
stsndard basls or usual basls for g1n. equation (t) deftnes vsay os a llnear combination of v1 , v2, ..., v.y
Dcflnltlon : A non-zero vector sp3ce V ls called flalte forJ = l, 2, ..., m - r. Therefore, lt follows that v1., v2, ..., v1, is
dtmcaslonal if it contains flnite set of vectors [v1, v2i...., vn] also a generailng system of V.
Now any set of more than r vectors of V is ltnearp''.depen-
whleh forr-ns a basls;for V. If no'such set exists, V ls called
dent. Since the dlrnenslon of V is n, V.eertalnly emrtains n
lnflnttc dlmenclond.
llnearly tndependent vectors. We must have n Sr. But elnbe V
D;Bnttlon g The dlrrFaclsn of a linite dirnensional vector eontains r linearly tndependent vectors ul, uz, ..., ur we also
f:. 1- i
i.
spaceris the nudrber of vebtors in any basis of it. have r sn. Hence r = rr dnd th? theorem ts proved.
. . ;.'
Or, equivalently, the dlmcnslon of a vector space is equal' Theorem 6.20 lf V ts a vector space of dimenslcin n,.erery
to.,{he, maximum nurnber of linearly lndependent vectors basls of V eontalns exactly n Hnearly lndopendent vec.to,rsl;
conhrred Dt It. conversely. any n llnearly lndependent vectors of v consutute'
n basis of V.
".Difinltloir :'If v1 , v2, ...,'vrare vectors of a vector sPace
'r...
,,';].: :
Proof : Since every basis is a generafing systern.: It
V such that every vector v e V,ean be written in the form
contains n but,not more than n linearly independent vectors.
v = olVl:*, Qv2 +.,... * OnVp where'ot are sealars, then vg, v2, Slnce the vectors of a basis are llnearly independent,
..., v. b called a gcneratlng system of tlte vector space V. llrcrefore, it contains exactly n vectors tn all.
Theorem 6.19 If V is a vector sBace of dir,lrension I1, every Conversely, let v1..v2, ..., v, be any n linearly indepe.nflent
generating system:pfeV.'epr1{airas'o;.1: bt{t; r.ho$r:61616]"{-hdir ver:lors of V and let v be any other vector of V. Slnce n is the
"tr,
linearlyindepender(.ypctors. i :".i i::i:'i';r.1-:-- '
rllrrrcnsion of V, the (n + I) vectors vr, Vz, ..., vn, v are linearly
rlrpcrrdent and there exist a non-trival ielation of the form
 ,, 1J \
II
278 CoLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA ,..d
iI

prvl + azYz + ... t dnvr, + cv = O. Moreover 0, * 0.. Since

i4l
..tlr
Proof : Sihce {vr, vz; ..., vr} is a basis of V, any vector
otherwise we would have a non-trival relation among ,il
r1 v e V can be wrltten as a linear combination of the vectors
vr, vz, ..., vn. Hence we have
Vt, vz, .... vn i. e, v = cllvl + oevz + ... + cr,vo where cq are. scalars.
,, = -# ", -*y2 -
...-f * Therefore. we have only to show that the co-efficients d,1. cr,2,

It follows that every vector veV is a linear combination of ..., c,n are uniquely determined by v. Suppose that
vt, yz, ..., vn and hence these n vectors form a generating v = CllVr + %vz*. ., * OkrVn = p1v1 + fov2 + ... +- P"h
system. StncC they.are linearly independent, tfrey also form a Then (crr - 0r) vr + @e-fizl vz + ... + (oQ, - 0.,) v, =O
basis of V. Hence the theorem is proved. Since Vr, Vz. .... , vn are linearly independent, it follows
Theorem 6.21 Let V be a vector space of dimenslon n and that a1 -gr = O. w2-fu =O, ot -gn= 0, thatis, G, = Ft, az =P2, ...,
let v1, v2, ...,'v1, (r <n) be any r linearly independent vectors of 0. = F.,. Hence the theorem is proved,
V. Then there exist n - rvectors v...1, v1a2, ..., Vn of V which Theorem 6.23 l.et W be a subspace of an n-dimenslonal
together with v1 ,y2, ..., v, constitute a bAsts of V. 'rector space V. Then dim W <" n, [n particular, if dim W = n
' Proof : Slnce r < n. the vectors vy, v2,..., v. do not generate then W = V.
Proof : Since V is of dimension n, any n + 1 or more
the whole space V. Hence there exists a vector V111, of V that ts
vectors are linearly dependent. t
not In the space genereted by v1 ,v2 , . ,vr.The vectors v1 ,V2 , .. . v1, Furthermore, since a basis of W eonsists of linearly
ve..1 zlr€ therefore linearly independent, for tf independent vectors, it can not contain more than n elements.
0,1V1 * bVZ +... * Ofvr * OfalVsal =O. Accordingly dim W S n. In particular;'if {w1 ,w2, ..., w,} is a
W'e must have d,r*1 = O, Slnce otherwlse vr;1 would belong basis of W, then slnee it is an independent set with n elernents,
to ttre space generated by vr, y2, ...;.., v,. Ttlen tt follorvs that it is also a basis of V. Thus W = V, whendim W = n. Hence the
theorenr is proved.
dr - &z = ... of = 0 sirrce vr, vz. ..., vr are linearly independent.
Theorgm 6.24 lf S and T are subspaces of a finite
Now if r + I <n, we can repeat this argument to obtain a
dimensional vector space V over the field F then
vector v1.,2 such that v1 , v2, ..., v1 , v1a1. V.12 or€'ltriearly clim (S + 1) = dim S + dim T- dim (Sn11
independent and so on until we have n linearly independent Proof : kt dim S = s, dim T = t and dim (Sffi) = r.
vectors vi, vz, ..., v., Vr*1 , yr+2,..., vn. These n vectors constitute L,et {u1. u2, ..., ur} be a basis of SfiT. Slnce SOT is a subspace
a basis of V. Hence the theorem is pioved. of S, We can extend the above basis to a basis of S, say {ur, uz, ,
u", vr, ... , Vs- . }. Thls basis has s elements since dim S = s
Similarly, we can extend the basis {ur , uz .... uJ to a basis of t;
V, then every vector ve V can ,be expressed uniquely in the
say (ur, u2, ..., u,-, w1 ,wz, ..., wt *)
form v = CIIVI + Aevz + .,. + Otnvn,
lrtA = {us, tr2, ..., u. v1 , ..., V"_1, w1 ; ..., wt_o}.
;280 COLLEGE UNEARAI-GEBRA VECToRSPACES Zgl
Clearly, A has exactly s + t - r elements. Thus the theorem Corollery : If S and T are two subspaces of a flnite
ls proved if we can show that A is a basis of S + T. Since {ur, rt} dlmenslonal vector space V such that SflT = l0l then
generates S and {ui, wkl generates T, the union A = {ur, vl, wr,} dkt, (S + T) = dim S + dim T,
generates S + T. Now we have only to show that A ls ltnearly Pr:oof :
Since St..lT = {O}, dim (SnT) = g
independent. Thus dim (S + n = dfin S + dtm T-dim (SnT) implies that
Suppose that orul + oery + ... + ohur + grul + ... + fi*r.v"-r. dim (S + T) = dirn S + dtm T, Hence the corollary is proved.
+ Yrwr + ... + Yt-, Wr-u = O. (l) 6.16 Quofrcrtspsec
Definltlon : Lrt W be any subspace ofa vector space V over
where ca, F:, Tr are scalars iu F.
the lield F. I.et v be any element of V. Then the set W + v lru + v
=
Letv=cl1u1 *...+o!.ur+prvr +...+p"* v"-, l2l rlgfit ccet of W in V generated by v.
: o€rM is called a
Then form (l) we get Obviously, W + v and v + W are both subsets of V. Slnce
I v = - ylwr - lzwz yt-r wt-r, (3) addition tn V ls commutative. therefore, we have W + v = v * W.
Since ve S by (2) and Hence we shall call lv + v as simply a coset of w in v generated
{u1, r1}e S,
byv. '
Since {wu} cT, veT, W (3}
Pnopcrtiec : (i) aV=+W+o=W
Accordingly veSflT. (it) oleW=+W*to=W
Now since lurl is a basts of SnT, there exlst scalirrs 6r, ..., 6, (fll) IfW arrdW+v2 are two.cosets of
+ v1
such that v = 6r ur + &uz + ... + 6rur. Thus by (3), we have W inV. thenW+v1 =W+v2 *vr -v2eW
6rur + oary+... +$u, + ylwr + ... + Tt-,. wt-, =O, fhcorcm€.Z5 If W is any subspace of a vector space V over
But is a basis of T and so is independent: Hence the the field F, then the set V/W of all cosets W + v1 where v1 ls any
{uy, w1}
above equation forces Yr = O. ..., Tt-r = O. Substitufing thts into
arbitrary element of V, is a vector space over F for the vector
(l), we get o.i ul + ... + ohur + ptvr + ... + fu,. vs-r = O.
addition and scalar mulilplication composttions deflned as

But {u;, is a basis of S and so is independent. Henc,e the

vr}
(W +vr) + [W+vz) =W+ (v1 +v2) for every vr. v2 eV.
ab6ve equation forces Gr = O. ...i o(r = O, 0l = O, ..., Fr- = 0.
and q fW + vr) - W + c.u1 where ae. F and v, eV.
So the equation (l) implies that q, 01 and ft are all O (zero),
Prloof : Let v1 . v2 eV then v1 + v2e V and also
So A = {u;, vJ,wr} is linearly independent and form a basis of
ne F, vt e V =+ cnzl eV. Therefore, W + (v1 +.v2) e V/W and also
S+T.
W + crvl eVlW.
'flrus dinr (S + n =s * t - r = dirn S + dimT- dim (SnT. Thus V/W is closed with respect to addjlion of cosets and
IIence the theorem ls proved. scalar lnultiplt"cation as defined above.
 VECT0RqPACES
:282 CoLLEGE LINEARAIEEBRA i, Zgg
(lll) Hstcnce of additlve ldgqtty-
, ktW+v1 ='W+vt'wherevl ,v1 '€V : j :{',r.j: :. r,,
and W *Y2 =W +v2'where v2,v2'€Y'
If O is the zero vector of V, then ,:

NowwehaveW+vl =W*v1 ':1v1 -v1 '€W W+ O = WeV/W IfW + vr is aqy element ofv /W,
and W * Y2 =W+v2' I Y2 -v2'€W.
... W + O = W is the additive identity;
Since W ts a subspace of V, we have
(iv) Hbtence of addidve lnvcree.
vr -Vr'eW,v2-v2'eW 9vr - V1tY2-v2'€W If W + v1 is any element of V/W, then
==+
(vl + vz) - fur' + v2]ew W + (-v1) - W - v1 dVlw. Also we have
+W + (vr + vz) = W + (vr' + vzJ [W + vr) + [W -vr) =W+ (vr-vr ) =W+ O =W.
= W +vr) + (W I v2) =(W+ vr') + (W + v2') W-v1 is the addiflve inverse of W + v1.
.'.

Therefore, addltlon of coeets in V/W is well-defined. Thus V/W is an abellan group wtth respect to addition
A.gain, PeF, v1 - v1'eW =+ pfur - v1')eW composition.
Further for scalar multiplication. we observe that if
a, pe FandlV+v1,W+v2eVl[ then
+W+gvr =W+pvr'- ;
(v) o ltw+ v1) + (W+vz)l s
= [W+ (Vr + v2]l
Therefore,'scatar multlpltcatlon in V/W.'ie, also-.well
= W+ c (v1 + v2) Sir:ce crW =W
defined.
=W+(mr, +av2)
(0 Addftfon b conmutatbe =(W+ffir)+(W+avz)
I.et W + v1, W + v2 be any two ebments of V/W. =a(W+v1)+o(lV+v2).
Then W+vr)+[W+rr) =Y_* fur *vr) ' (vi) (q + $ (w + vr) = w+ (ct +
Flvr
1v1]=W+'tvj
=(W+v2 )+(W+vr) =W+(crv1 +6r,;
. (tttlAddtttoo ts Gsoclatlve , = (W+anrr)+ 0M+ pvr)
,

=0{W+v1)+9(W+v,;
l,et W + v1, W + v2 and W + v3 fe any'"tnree elements of V/W. (vii) a0 [W + v,; = W + (oB)v, = W + o(pv1)
Then [W + v1) + [(W + vz] + (W + vs]l
= o, (W + pvr) = c{p(W +
v,)l
=(W+vr)+[W+(v2 +v3]l {viil) 1(W+vr)=W+ lv1 =1ry+v1 where I e F.
=W + [v1 + fu2 +v3]l
1

Thus v/w is a vector space over the lield F fcrr the addition
=W+[(vr +v2)+v3l 'f cosets and scalar murtiprication. The vector space V/lV
is
ctrlled the $uotieat space of V relative to W.
= [W + (v1 + v2)] + (!V +,v3)
'ftre coset W + O W is tlre zero
= fiW + v,) + (W+ v2)l + (W + v3) = veetor of this vector space.
 LINEARAIiCEBRA YECTOR SPACES 285
284 COLLEGE
,.: whert w - ylwr + yzwz + ... + y,nw.eW.
6.17 Dtmendm of gsoticnt $Pacc.
Theorem6^26lfWisasubspaceofafinitedimensional *lW + v.W + (w+61v1 +6,vz +... + 6.v.|
vector space V over the lleld F' then drm V/W = dim V - drn W'
= (W + w,| + 61v1 + q2"vz + ..., + 6.v.
Proof:lrtmbethedimensionofthesubspaceWofthe
=W+61v1 + 62v2 +... + 6.v,
vector space V. l€t S = {wr ,}r2, ...,wJ be a basis of W' Slnce S is
linearly lndependent subset of V, therefore. tt can be extended SinceweW ...W+w=W
to a basis of V. = (lV + 61v1) + (W +
&vz) + .:. + (W + ev.)
IJt S' = fi r, w2, ..., wn1 . v1 'Y2. ...,vrl be a basis of V' = (6, (tV+ vr) + & (W+vz) + ... + 6" (W+v,)
ThendtmV=fll*r.
fhus any element W + v ofv /w can be expressed as linear
.'. dimV - dhn W = (m * rt - m = r.
combination of 31 = {W+v1, W+ v2, ...,W +vr}
So we have to Pr6/e thatdim VII/= r.
Now we claim that the set of r cosets : v/w=L(Sr)
Sr = {W + v1, W tY2, .-,W + v.} is a basls of V/W' So Sl is a basis ofv /w
frrst we have to shorr that Slls llnearly tndependent' Thus dlm Y
=r V- dim 1ry'
/W = dtm
'Ihe r.ero vector of V/W ts W- '
Hence the theorem is proved.
kt vr) + ob (W + v2) + ... + o.r (W + vr) =\fi
cr1 (W +

=* (W + crlv1) + (W + nzvz) + ... +

(W + orvr)=W 6.18 Coodlnatcs of rvectsrelative to ebasls ,

=+ W + (cr1vl + %vz +..- + ot'vr) =\[ Let [v1 , y2, ..., vr,] be a basis of an n dimensional vector
:*(}1V1 +%vz+"'+OtvreW space V over the field F. Then any vector veV can Ue expressea
:* o1v1 + (hvz + ... + ckvr = ptwt +fuwl + "' + $rtl1'tn
Since {wr , wz, ..., w-} ts a basls of W'
where xr €F' (fSi <n) and (-r1 , x2, ...,xn) are called the
:+ (11v1 t oavz + ... + oq-vr - Flwl- Frwz - "' - Bnlw'n= O
co-oldiaateg of v relative to the given basis. There is clearly
:* (I1 = O, 02 = O, ..., U, =O
Since the vectors vr, V2, ..., v, wt, wz, "', wm are linearly ve| apd orlered
independetrt. 'lJrrrs the set Sl = [W + v1, W * vz' "" W + v'] is rr-tuples (xt, x2,..., ,6) with elements in F'.

linearly indePendent. Oqe

,cjt! easily vertfy thart if v, w h4ve co ordinates
Now we have to shorv thal l, (Sr) =VIw'i'e 51 spansvftar' (rr, xz. .,.d,Ur,,yZ, ..., y,,) rcspr:c:tively and oe I,',thenv+w
Ir1 W + v be at1' clelrtent of
v/w''Ihen veV catr be expressed as
Iras co-ordinateg (xr + yr ,x2 * yr^ ..., x,, + yr) and sv has
y = 111V1 * 12w2* .:. + Y,nWrr * 61v1 +lbvz + "' +0'v, <'o-ordinates {ux1 , u.rc2, ..., a.4j.
=w *6rvl +&vz + ... +6,-v,
 VECTOR SPACES 287
186 COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA ud dlmcnrloa for thG Spnctal solutloa of a
of a homogcncous system of
llaear l5a} rrtt.ltL
6.19 solutiotr specc
rquatlons
ht W dcnote the fletternl solutlon of a homogeneous linear
nyalcm, 'ltte ttrtn zertt solutlon vcctors ut, u2, ..', us'are sald to
Sttxt + atzXz + ... + 8tr,&, = Oo
+ a{zi + ... + tznxn= (1) lbrm r |rrlr of W lf every solution vector oe W can be
?:'"' rxprrrncd rrttlrluely as a linear combination of u1, u2', ..., u".
4mlXt * A1y,X2 + "'+ a-rr:6 =O 'llrc rrrrnrber s of such basls vectors is called the dlmenslon of
m linear equations in n W. wrlttcn as dim W = s. UfW - {O}, we define dim W = Ol
is a hotnogcneous systcm of
IR ' Ttie solution set W of
(1) 6.21 Procedure of findtag the basls a1{ dirnelslon of the
unknowns over the'ieat iieta
and this subsPace is called
the rolutlm Blrac.e of e homogpnm llncar EIEtcm.
constitutes a subspace of IBf Let W be the general solution of a homogeneous linear
equatlons'
solutlon sPacc of the system of linear nynlcm and suppose an echelon form of the system has s free
As for examPles
: ae IR) of x- vrrrlables. kt u1, u2, ..., u" be the solutions obtained by setting
(i)The solution set W = l(Za' a) ? =' rnrr <rf the free variables equal to one (or any non-zero
is a solution space and W is a
subspace of IRz :

lrrrrst:rnt) and the remalning free variables equal to zero.

(ii) The solution (2a' -a' 4)' 'a q IRI of the linear
set W = 't'hen dim W = s and u1, uz, ..., u" form a basis of W.
I
solution 'space ard w is Theorem 6.26 The dimension of the solution space W of
system of equafiion , * -tr i l:3}.'" "
llrc homogeneous'systeql of linear equations AX = O.ds, p-r
e: subsPace of lR3 ' wlrrrc n is the number cif unknowns and r is the rank of the
the non-homogeneous
Rcmart : The solution set W of loelllclr:nt matrix A:
n Proof : Supposeul, u2, ..., u, lbrm a basis for the eolumn
(i 1' 2' "" m) Q)'
linear system il.uu n = bi = rlnr('(' of A (There are r such vectors since rank of A is r). By
a sttbspace of EP ' lltrrrrtrrr 6.27, each system AX = ui has a solulJon say v,. Hence
o'er,n" ,"'i, o"ld lRdoes not constitute
A\rr =tli, Av2 =t)2, ...,Av, =u, (l)
: t6orcm O.ZZ (Imthout Fod) :,l rl)l)osc dim W = $ zDd w1 . w2. .... w. fotttl a l;;rsis of W.
are equivalent :
The follorvingithree statements lll ll - {tr1 . V2. ..., Vy, W1 , W2, ..., Ur"}
equations AX = B has a solutlon
{i) The system of linear \\ r claim that B is a trasis of lR" .
' (it) B'ls a linear combination of the columns of A llrrrs nc lrr:ed to prove that B spans JR" arid that B is
augmented matrix
(iii) The'coefflcient matrix A and thc [ntru lt' lrrrle;rndent.
(A, B) have the same rank
288 COLLBGE UNEARAIJGEBRA VECTORSPACES 289
(0 Proof of 'B.strnns- El:' However, wr. wt, ..., wr are llnearly lnclependent. Thus
Suppose ve IRr and Av = u. Then u = Av belongs, to the each 61 ' 0. Therefore, B rc rrnearly tndependent. Accordi,gly,
column space of A and hence Av ls a linear cornbination of the B lsa borlrof lR' , strree [t has r + g elements. we have
r + s = n.
o"zq+.,. +okur {2)
ur, sayAv = clrur + Conroquenlly dlrn W - g - n - r. Hence the theorem is proved.
l-etf =v - o1v1 - %vz - ... -: ohvr. Then using (l) artd P) Dnnpio 23. prove that the vectors (1, 2, O), (0, b, Z) ana
we have A(r/) = A (v - GrVr - hvz -... - okur) (* I, l, 3) form a basls fo.IR,

Proof : The glven vectors will be a basis of IRs if and

=il-;;';*yti ;*,fr.*' lf they are linearly lndependent and every vector tn
only
IRs can be .
=Av-Av=O urrltten as a llnear combtnation of (1, 2, O) (0. E, 7)
ana (_1, l,gl.
Thus y' belongs to the solutiqn spaee W and hence'f'ls 4,n
I{rst wc ctrail pove that thc rtctors arc lincerly indepcndcrt.
linear combination of w,, saY For arbitrar5l scalars x, y, z.let
s ,,,1
y'= 0rwr +\zwz + ... + F=w, =X Ftwt. d.1,2, O) +y (O, S,V +Z {-1, t,S) (0, O, O)
= ., .:
or. {x 2x o) + (O, Sy, Zyl + (-2, z,3z) g,
= 19. 6,
Grvr = i-Ji.;.-u,*, or, (x- z,2x + 5y + z, Zy + 3z) (O, O, O).
i=[. i=l J=l
=
Equating corresponding components and formihg
Thus v ls a linear combtnation of the elements ln B and linear
.system, we have
hence B spans IF .
x _z=o1
(ll) Proof of 'B le llnearly lndelrndeaf,'
. 2x*_Sy*^r=91
(t)
Suppose Yrvr + ^lzvz +." * Trv. + 61w1+ Qw2+ ... + 6"w" = $ 7y+32=O )
Reduce the system to echelon form by the
elernentary
since w; w' each Aw1 = o' usin8lthis fact and transformations. we murtipry ,rst equation
e
by 2 and then
(l) and (3), we get subtract from the second equation.
1ls Thus we get the equtvalent system
O=A(O)=Al I y,v,+ ) o,*,)= i ,v, er, * un*,
\i=l J=l i, x-z=O
5y+32=o
I
I el
rs 7y +32=O l
= I yr u1 + I E1O = y, u1 |2u2 + ... + Yrur.
-t-

i=I j=l or, we can write

Since ur, uz, .... ur are linearly independent. each Yr = O x-z=Ot
Subst.itutingi this in (3), we get 6l wr * ... * 6uw" = O' 132+_5y=O | {Bl
'
:
3z+7y=g )
lJnear Algebra-lg
 VECTORSPACES 29I
2gA' '' ; , '; CoLLEGE LINqAR ALGEBRA
I.i'orl the third equation, we have y = | {" -b + 2a)
We subtract second equation from the third equation'
Then we get the equivalent sYstem '
:
Sr-rbstituting the value of y in the second equation
' ',..1 'iiil;'.';16- Z =0.1, weget r=f,va-5c- t4a)
::' 3z*r?==oo
i @)
Again substitutin gz = L (7b - 5c - L4a.) in the first equation,
wr.gr:l -] 1zu - 5c - Ba)
This systqm is in echelon form and has exactly three "=
jrcrefore, v = (a, b, r:) =
-l 't
W* ft:-Ba) (1,2,O)
L
eouations in the three unkno#ns; hehce the system has only
are * j rc-u +2al(o,b,v+it a-sc- r4a) (-"I, r,3)
the zero solution i. e. x = O, y = .O, z = O' So the given veotors
Thus every vector in IR3 can be expressed as a linear
linearlv independent.
that the combination of the vectors (1,2, Ot, (O, 5, 7) and (-1, 1, 3). Hence
tBy the application of rnalnces we can also show lhe vectors (1, 2, O), (O,5,7) and (-1, l, 3) form a basis of IR3 .
*given vectors are linearly independentl
i) Extend o.l). (1, I, 1)l to t
To shqqr that the given vectors slna R9' we must show that ,lQ, T":_u. "jT1^^.
P;19(**l
lD.
an arbitrary vector v'= (h; b, c) can expressed as a. linear xtend the set 11'3., Z, I), (O, l, l)l to a basis of IR3 .
(-f 1' 3)
combinatiorr, = (]: b, c-) = x{1,2, O) + y (O, 5, n + z ' lD.u.s. 19ffi
Then formingf liney sYstert'r, g"i Solution : (i) First we have to show that the given:jI of hro
""
vcctors is linearly independent. Set a linear combinatiorf.of
';. il;,i::\ (s)

Reduce this system to echelon folm by this elementary

tlre two given vectors equa!,to zero by using unknown scalars
,rimd y: I .,,
' ,42: O,r) + y (1, I, t) = (0, O; O)
operations
or, (2x O,-rd + $,y, y) = (0, O. O}
.Wemultiplyfirstequationby2andthensubtractfrom.the ..:

: or, (2x+ y, y. x+ y) = (O, O. 0)

second equation. Thus we have the equivalent system
x-z=al Iiquating corresponding components and forming the
i.: 5y +32=b-2a | (6) llrrrlrr system, we get
7y +32=c , )' 2x+Y=O1 *
-,r*'
**.rvc have x'= o'Y: o'
We subtract second equation liom the third equation' x.*I:3 i
Then wc get the equivalenl sYstem llcrrt't: the given two vectors i3. ffP' are linearly
x - z=a l Ittrlt'3rcrrrlcrrl. So {(2, O, l), (1, I, l)},is a part of the basis of
5y +32=b-2a I A
lH'rrrrrl lrt'lrcc we can extend them to a basis of lR3 . Now we
 292 COIJLEGE I.:INEAR AI,GEBRA
/ VECTORSPACES 293
seek tJxree:independent vectors in'Ih3 which include the given Solutlon : The given linear system is
twovrctors. Thus we can easily veri$r that (2, O' l!, (1' I' l)' x-ry+ z=0'l
tO. I, O) ar,e linearly independent. So they form a basis of 2x-6iy +22=O I (1)
3x-9Y +32=O I
,'fu.3 which ts an extenslon of the given set of vectors to a basls
Reduce the system to echelon form by the elementary
of mf 3 and
transformations- We multiply lirst equatton by 2 andby
(ii) First we have to show that the given set of the vectors is then gubtract from the second and the third equations

linearly tndependent, Set a linear combinatlon of the two respectlvely.Thgn we have the equlvalent system
x-3Y' *z=O l i
given vectorsequal to zeto by.using unknown sca-lars xand y t | +x-$l+z=O
'
O=O
x(3,2, 1) +Y (O' I' l) ={O' O' 0) O=o J

or,, .(3x. bq $.+ (O, y' y) = (0' 0' 0) Thls system ts in eehelon form and has o:tly one non-zem
equatton in three unknourns' So the systern has 3 - =
I 2 free
or. Y,x* } = (0, O' O}
{3rq Lu+ of the
variables which are y and z, Henee the dtmenslon
';;l&quntfixg corresponding components and forming the solutlon sPace is 2 [two)'
Iinear systGm,.we get set (t) y = I, z = o llllY = 0, z = I toobtain !h9 respective
.- 3x =O'l solutions v1 = (3, I' O). v2 = Fl' 0' l)'
2x+y
=O Thuswehavex=O, Y=0. Hence the set l(3' l' O)' (-1, 0, 1)I is a basts'of thdSohrttsn
x+y=0 I J
, \ soaca,
Hence the given two vectors in IR3 are linearly ltffinmplc 26. Ftnd the sotution space W of the fogov{ptg
/ homogeneous system of linear equatlons :
independent. so the gtven set of vectors ls a part of the basts of
x+zy- z+ 4t-O ) I '

.; i IR' and hence we can extend them

to a basls of R3' Now we 2x- y+Bz+qt=9 [ p.u.H.T.tg8q
,. seek three independent vectors ln IRs which lnclude the given
4x+ Y+32+S=9 f iJ-u.H. 19881
v- z+t=O I -
vgctors. Thus we can easlly veri& that {3, 2, l, (o, I, I), (1, o, o} 2x+t$- z+7L=O )
ii,'.
,l_ are hgarty independent. So they form a basts of IRs which is Bolutlon : Reduee the given system to echeld'iiffi'tiy tt.
arf extenslon of the glven set of vectors to a basts of IR3 ' cletttcntary operaUons. Wemulttply lst eqtiatlcr WZ'4 andz
and thcn subtract from 2nd, Snd and 5t}t' eguatlqus
28. Determtne a basis and the dtmension for the rerpecllvely. Then we have the equtvalent system
dhd**
t x+2Y- z+4t=O I
i dlution space of the followlng homogerrcous system: - 5y + 5z-51=O I
II :' '
I

x-Sy+
x-SY+ z=O1 z=O I -7y+72-7t=O t
,
i
2.tc- 6y + ?.2=O l {2) Y- z+ t=O t
3x-9Y+9l2=O ) - y+ 2- t=O J
 295
294 COLLEGELINEARALGEBRA
T VEgfOR SPACES
The free variables are x z andt,.Pfi!,,, i..-.,.',,...,..,;(i-,,r
f]',./i: 'r'i
ll :

We multiply 2nd, 3rd and 5th equations by - i,- + and {-l) i.iulc.l'luir'r 'i'\'
i i[ti'- '1 "''"t :':li' t-t.r,

1'il ilI,..il r,;rrto*rtrIa) x=l,z=Q,{=O

tft

';11''i
respectively. Then we have the equivalent system (b) x= O,z= l't=O'
-z+ 4t=A solutions
. x+2Y
y-z+ t=O ) (c) x = O, z = O,t = I' to obtain the respective
I
u1 =(1,O,O'O)ru2 =(O'2' l'O)'us =(O'
t'0' t)
Y-z+ t=O I '
Y-z+ t=O I The set {ur . trz, u3} is a basis
of S and dim S = 3'
. Y-z+t=O ) (li) We seek a basis of the set of solutions
(x' y' z't) of the

Since 2nd, Srd, 4th & 5th equations are-identical, we can equatlons
disregard any three of them. Then we have the equivalent ; -2i:3 )
'llre freevarlables atezandt' Set (a)z= 1' t=
O' (b) z=O'
system
u1 = (tO' 2' 1' O) and
* t = I to obtain the respeCtive solutions
i.L
" '{ -'r:-t:8 | u2 = (I, O, O' 1). The set {ur' uz}
is a basis of T and dim T = 2'
which qtisff
(iii) SnT consists of those vectors lx' y' z' t)
t,,.,

This system is in echelon forrn having two equaUons in 4

all conditions given in S and in
T' i' e'
qnknowns. So the system has 4 - 2 = 2 free variables which
Y-22+t=9'l
x_t=o I
are z and t and hence it has non-zero solutions' l*t z = a and
y-22 =O J

t ='b where a and b are arbitrary reaf numbers' Puttingz -- a

an{ t = b tn the 2nd equaHon we get Y = a- b' A$airt putting the x t- 9 I srutt""t second equation
values of y, z and t'in the lst equati<in' we $et x ='- a - 2b' or, Y- the third equation'
.v- 't, *
I
,==uo Irrom
the.r.equi@ solutlon sPaee is x-t=bl
ry (-a- Then we have y|2z = o I wtrictr is in echelon form'
W= 2b, a -b,a, U : 4 b e IRl. t=OJ
@"-rr. 27. Iet s and r be ttre following
subspaces of IRa :
The free variable is z. Set 7 =
| to obtain the solution
s - lbcY'z'g lY- 2z+t=al u = (O,2, I' O).
(SO'IJ = 1'
T= {(x V, z, tl I x-t = O, }, -22 = Oll Thus (ul ls a basis of SnT and dim
of IR3 teanryl
find abmis and tlre dircnstron of (il S (iil T (iiil SnT' erampte za. (i) I€t U be the subspace
(O' - 1' O) and Q' A' 21' nnd a
(generated) by the vectors (I' 2' I)'
tBof,utrm ; {i} we seek a basis of the set of respective
basis and the dimension of U'
{x,y. z, t)of ttre'equafony -22 + t = O'
$rrfi*,
 a

296 COLLEGELINEARALGEBRA vEc'l.oR SPACES 297

;:
(lil l,et w be tfre qub"f.". of tRs spanned u)r'tn. ,g"ior" Redr,rcethts matrix to row echelon form by the elementary
. ,,
|t, - 2, O, O, 3), 12, - 5, * 3. -2,6), (o, 5, 15, lO. O) and (2. 6' 18, 8,6). row operations.
l'ind a basis and the dirnension of W. we multiply Ilrst row by 2 and then subtract from the
Solutioa : (i) Form the matrix whose rows are given second and fourth nows respectlvely.
vectors and reduce the matrix to row-echelon form by the rl -2 0 0 3l
elementary row operations. lo -l5 -B
-lo -z ol
15 lo ol
fl -6
'z, I I
*. multiply first row b1r 2 and then LoloIs 8oJ
L; i J ""utt'ct from the third row' We multiply second rour by 5 and then add \lrith the thtrd

-
fl ? L l *. multiply second row by 4 and
from the third rour'
row.
L; J 5 J ""utt""t
rt -2 0 0 3'l
? I I *. multiply
fl -6 second row by 2 and lo -l -3 -z ol
-lo
-
L; add with the rlrst row'
.iL o o o ol
6 Jtt"" Loro l88oJ
': rl -lo Oll
-lO lrvemultiptysecondrowby-l
-------'r-J
Lo o oJ Interchange third and fourth rows
rl o I1 rr -2 0 0 3l
-lo ro I lo -r -s -2 o
-lo I
Lo o oJ ro ls 8 ol
This matrlx ls ln fow-ecttelon form and the non-zero Lo o o o oJ
rows in the matrix are (1, O. l) and (O, I, Ol. These non-zero We rnultply second row by lO and then add with the thtrd
rows form a basis of the row space and consequently a basts row.
I, 0)l and dim U = 2. rr -2 0 0 3l
t.:
of U; that ls, Basis of U = l(1, O, U, (O,
Io -r -3 -2 oo
-lo o -tz I

'' (ii) Form the matrlx whose rows are the given vectors and -t2
Lo o o o oJ
I

reduce the matrix to row-echelon form by the elementary rorv

We -I and divide thlrd row by -12,
multiply second iow by
-20 o 3l rl -2 0 0 31
-5 -3 -261 lo r s 2 ol
-lo
515 10 0l o l r ol
li 618 I 6J Lo o o o oJ
 VECTOR SPACES 299
clol'l-ltcll t',lNltAlt Al-cDI']ltA
298 This matrix is in row echelon;forrn having two nonzets .'
ir
..'llhe'arbovt'trri'rlrixisitrrtlrvcc;ht:lotrlbrttl"lhctror*atlifor't::ir'rt
(O: '}'l}i2r':O}3 ' rows (coordinate vectors) (1, 2, -2, t151i6'1191:;1''tll"3)it'"hitfiuiill'I:
tttittrix'ittt'tr'{1;;+21''O.:iOl;3}:
Ir:ot\rsitgte{ots}:in tllt'trbovc f,orm a basis of the vector space generated by the coordinate
lbr thc row
llol]-zcl'o rorvs lirrtlr lr basis
arrrcl (0. 0' l' l ' O)''l-tr-sc vectors and so the set of corresponding polynomials is
birsis of W' 'lhtrs belsis tt will forrn the basis of W'
spilce trtrd cotrseqtrt'nth' -ar 1ts + 2t2 2t + t, t2 + t + 3l whtch
\ *
uncl climW = 3'
(1. -2. 0.0'3). tO' f ' S' 2' O)' (O' O' l' i' O))
= by the ThusdimW=2.
Example 29' t't't W bc tltc sttbspircc llcncrirtcd *lr-rn$le 30. L€t U and w be the subspaces of ts.4 generated
. 2t + l'
polyrronrials p1(t) = trt +212 - by the set of rrectors
^ +t2 -71-7'
pz (t) =t3 +3t2 -t +4turdprr tt) =2t1t (1, I, O, -1), (1,2, 3, O), (2. 3, 3, -l)l and
ol W'
tiinci a basis aucl the climc.irsion
is tl subspacc of the 1'1'6tor
space V (F) 1O,2,2. -21, Q.3,2, -3)' (1' 3' 4' -3)l respectively'
: W
Solution Clcarlr''
1' 1z' 1s} is Find (il dim (U+W) and {ii} dirn runW. D. U.H. rgffil
itl t olclcgrct: 5 3' Tlrus the set 51 = {l'
ol polylrotnitlls
Sof,rrtloa : (0 U + W is subspace spanned (or generated) by
. basis of V (Ir)' (t)' Pz (t) a.d
the coorclitratcs ol the givettI ncctors pr all given six vectors. Hence form the matrix whose rows are
Now (l' 3' -I' 4) and
p3 (t) relatirre to the basis
51 arc (l '2' -2' I)' the given six vectors and then reduce this matrix to row
l. echelon form by the elementarSr row operations :
12. -7 . -7) resPectivelY'
the irbove coordinate r1 I O -1 -1
F'orurin-g the rrratrlr rvltose rows eu'e
lr 2 B ol
lz s s -I I
vcctors. rvc $et
rr 2 -2 4Il lr 2 2-2 I

lr 3 -I -7) Ie
Li B z -s I

lz | -7
I
s 4 -sl
the elernerrtary Reduce tjhis naablx to rsqr-echelon forrtr by the elementary
rorv echelcltr lbnn by
Recluce this nrirtrix to row op€sdions.
,or,.Up"rotioirs' We rrrultiply
lst rorv by I ancl 2 irrrd tlien We subtract lst row from z!rd, 4th and 6th rows' Also we
respectivel]''
sttbtrilct ltonr 2rrcl & 3rcl rows multiply Lc* rorr by 2 and ttsr subtract from 3rd and Sth
fr 2 -2 ll
3l
-lo -3I -3I -$l
rows.
1 0 -l-r
Lo l3 tl
3 arrcl t.hcn irdcl rvitlr tlre
llrcl raw 13 ll
Wc nurltiplv 2trcl torv br' '.{
2 -ll
tl 2 -2 ll t2-rl *zJ
-lo oI I 3l 2 4
Lo o oJ
 VECTCIRSPACES 301
3OO COLLEGE LINEAR AI,GEBRA and then subtract from 2nd
We mrdttply l"st row by 1 and 2
Also we
We subtract Znd row from 3rd' 4th & sth ro\f,rs' and 3rd rows respectivetY.
multiplY 2nd roul by 2 and then subtract from
6th rour' rt 1 0
rl r o -l-1 -lo l s -I1
t I

lo l B tl Lo I 3 tJ
-lrlo o o ol We subtract 2nd row frorn third row. i
o -l -zl 11 I O -1 -'l
o -l -2 I
-lo rs r
Lo o -z -+J Lo o o oJ
I

We multlply 4th row by I and Z and then subtract frtrn sth This matri:r is ln row-echelon form having two non-zero
and 6th rows nesPecfivelY' rows tl; l, 0, -1) ard (O. 1, 3. l) which will forrn a basis of U.
rl I O
-l-'l Thusdlm U =2.
lo I s t
l"oo
-lo o ol I
Again form the matrix whose rows are the generators of W
o -lo -2o and then reduce the matrix to row-echelon form by the
lo o
Lo o o oJ
I
I elementary row operations.
11 22-21
We interchange Srd and 4th ron's' lz s 2 -s I

rl r o -1 Lt s 4 -3J
lo I B I We rnultiply lst row by 2 and I and then subtract from 2nd
lo o
-lo -l -2 and 3rd lows nespectivelY.
o o o
r1 2 2
lo o o o
-rt -z
-21
I
Loo o o -lo
Lo z -rJ
I

This matrix is ln row-echelon forrr havtn$ thee

nolr-zeno
We adtl 2nd rowwith 3td tow.
(1, l, O. -l), (O,l' 3, I) and (O' O''l' -2) whtchwill form 2 2
a basls
t-l -21
-lo -lo -2 I
ofU+W.ThusdimU+W)=3' Lo o oJ
I

(til l,et us flrst ftnd the dirn U a4d the dtm W' Forrn the This matrlx is in row-echelon form havlng two non-lrero
inatrixwhose ro\ils are the generators of u
andtlr@redtreetbe rows which will form a basis of W' Thus dtm W = 2.
matrix to row-echelon form by the elementary rtrnr Now by theorem we have
rltm (U + W) = dtrn U + dlm w - dtm runw)
operations
rrr, dlm runW = dlm U + dim W- dtm (U +ril =2 + 2- 3 + t'
rl I o -l
1
lr 2 3 ol .'. dim {UnW1o I (one).
Lz 3 s -lJ
3O2 COLLEGE LINEARALGEBRA VECTORSPACES 303
Exanple 31. Ift V be the vector space of 2 x 2 rnatrices over Interchange 3rd and 4th rows.
.the real field lR Find a basis and the dimension of the [1 2
-] 3t
. lo I
-lo o 3 -rl
subspace W ofV sPanned bY z -18
Lo o o ol
I

o= [-i'r],"= [? -i I, "= F'? tr *u"=[-, gl This matrix is in row-echelon form having three non-zero
Solution : The coordinate vectors of the given matrices rows (1, 2, -1,3). (O, L.3, -T) and (0, O. 7, -lB) which are
relative to the usual basis of V are as follows :
linearly independent.
lAl = (1, 2,-r,}l,tBl = (2, 5' 1,-1). [C] = (5, 12, 1, I]and
ID I = @,4'-2,5). Hence the corresponcling matrices
[_] 3 I tS _] I *o
Form a matrix whose rows are the coordinate vectors and
E -rB I form a basis ofw and dim w = 3.
then reduce this matrix to row-echelon form by the
Example 3.2. Let V be the vector space of 2 x2 matrices over
elementary row operations and join successive matrices by
the equivalence sign - :
the real field lR- Find a basis and the,dimeflsion of .the
strbspace W of V spartned by the matrices
T1 2 -r 3l
lz b r -rI
ls 12 l ll "
= U tl "= [-i iJ," [-; fl.*o, = = [_u,
-il
Ls 4 -2 sJ solution : The coorcrirate vectors of the given matrices
' We multiply 1st row by 2, 5 & 3 and then subtract from n'lirlive to the usual birsis of V are as lbllorvs :

2nd, 3rd and 4th rows respectivety. [A]=(l.,;5,1.2).tB]=(1,1.-1.5).tC]=t2'4._5,.7)

T1 2 -1 3l :urct [DJ= (1. -7. -5. 1)
3 -7 1
lo 2I .6
, -lo -I4
; .

Iiornr a lnirtrix.rr4rose rot\l$ arcl the goorclinatq riectors,4nd

Lo -2 | -4J
I

llrt'rr rt-dtrce .tltis. rltatri-r to r.or,l,-echqlorr ..form.,.l:y , the

r'l('ulcltti'r11: l'()\\' opcrations irrrrl
..rs
Wemultiply2ndrowby2anrl_2and'then*strbtractfrom -ioin succqssjt,e t4a{ficgs b1,
8rd and 4th rorvs resPectivetY llrt't'rlrrir-irlt-I-tt.c siett - : :, .. . ,.,,..j ,ii I
it
tl -T
2.. 3l rl -5 -l 2rl ',
r _.t s.li'
-loo 3
l'o I
o ol1
-7 's lr
12 + T
-'5 I

Lo o z -rBl i r -r -r--, I _l
 VECToRSPACDS " 3O5
304 COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA
Equattng correspondlng components and forming the
We multiply lst row by l' 2' and I and then subtract from
llnear system, we get
2nd. 3rd and 4th rows respectively' xl - rcz =Ol
TI -5 4 21 2x, =O |
x2 + (1)
lo 6 3
-lo
3l 2x1+3x3=91
6 3 3l
i.
Lo -2 -L -lJ Reduce the system to echelon form by elementary transfor
I - | and then subtract from matlons. We mulUply ftrst equation by 2 and then subtract
We multiply 2rrd row by and

3rd & 4th rows resPectivelY from the thlrd equation.'Thus the above system reduces to
rl -5 4 21 xr-xz =Ol
lo 6 3 3l
-lo o oo ol xz +2x. =g; l2l
2x2+3x"=61
Lo o oJ Again we multiply second equation by 2 and ttren subtract
two non-zero
Thts matrlx is in row-echelon form having
are ltnearly from the thtrd equation. Then we get the equivalent system'
rows (1, -5, - 4. 2l and (O' 6' 3' 3) whleh
independent. Hence the corresponding
matr{ces xr-x2 -Ol
x2+2xs=O1 (3) :

basis or\M and dim

lsr = 2' - xs =O
l-i fI *o tS S I to'- a
J

This system is in echelon form and has exactly three

ErmPle 3& Pr<rrethatthevectorl i u1 = (1' O' 2)'
(O' 2' 3) fornr a basls of lR3and find
equations in thrie unknowns, hence the system has only the
u2 = (-l' 1, O) and u3 =
(l -1. l) and w = {-1'8' 'tU zero solution i. e. x = O, y = O, z = O. According[y' the vectors are
the co-ordtnates of the vectors v =
linearly independent.
relative to this basis'
Proof : Flrst Portlon To show that u1, u2 and u3 span IR', *. must show that an
IR3if and only if they
The given vectors will be a basis of arbitrary vector v = (a, b, c) can be expressed as a linear
are linearly independent and every vector
in lR3can be
combination v = xlur +l0r& +x.gus
u3' Flrst we shall
wrltten as a linear combination of u' ' u2 "rnd
linearly independent' or, v: (a, b, c) = xr (1, 0, 2) + & (-1, 1, 0) + xs (0' 2' 3)
prove that the veetors ut' uz and u'' ar ''
For arbitrary scal rrs X1 ' x3 tmd x3 Forming the linear sYstem. lve get
letx1 u1 +t81u2lJQU3=:$ xt'xz -a I
)02 + 2'k =b I
or, x1 {1. o' 2l f 4 (-l l' Ol + re {O' 2' 3} = O' ol
(o'
2x'1 + j
?*. =o
of, {xr -lQ'x2+''1x3"'2xr +Sxs) *{O'OQ Linear Algebra-20
 VECTORSPACES .3O7
COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA
3oo Solvlng the system, we get xt =2, h = l. xs= - l.
echelon form by the elementary
Reduce this siystem to 'lhus v = (1, -1, l) = 2ur + lu2 + (-1) us.
transforrnations' from the
by 2 and then subtract So the vector v has co-ordinates (2, 1, -l).
We multiply first eqrration
the equivalent system
third equation, Thus we have Similarly, let w = (-1, 8, 11) = 1l1u1 +Y1uz + Ysue
xr-xz
^I =a ) (5) or, (-1, 8, 11) = yr (1, O,2l +Yz FI, I, O) + Ys (O, 2, 3).
ii,+zxs=;^ |
2;2 + 3xs = c-2a )
Forming linear system, we have
from
second equation by 2 and then subtract Yr-Yz --t I
We multiply
Then we get the equivalent
system Yz+2Ys= 8| (8)
*" *t i ;t*n-on' 2Yr +35rs =lIJ
xr-X2 '-a
^r I
ii*zxs=\ ^ ^Li tot
SoMng the system, we get Yr = 1, Yz = Z,ys =3
- xs =c-2a-2b ) I
we have xs =?a+2b-e' Thus w = (-1, 8, 11) - lur + 2u2 + 3u3
From ttre third equation' we get
the value o{x3 in the second equatlon' So the vector w has co-ordinates (1, 2. 3).
Substituung
x2 =-4a-3b+2c' we Bsarnple 34. Given the vectors (2, l, l), (1, 3, 2), (1, 3, -l)
substituting the value of x2 in the first equation'
Again, and (1, -2, 3). Test whether they are lineaily independent by
3b + 2c' Therefore'
$et x1 = - 3a - (% +2b-c) u3
+ 4a- 3b+ 2*) uz + Srreep out method.
v = (- 3a- 3b + 2c) ur F
+ 2c) Fl' f ' O)
- 3b + 2c) (1'O' 2l + (4a-3b
or, (a, b' c) = F3a
-
+ (%.+ 2bc) (O' 2' 3) Solutlon : [,et o1 (2, l, 1) + o2 (1, 3,2) + os (1, 3, -1)
as a linear * d+ (1, -2, 3) = O = (0, 0, O),
in x-3can be expressed
Thus every vector
(1' O' 2)' Fl' 1' 0) and (0' 2' 3)' where clr, da, cL3 and o4 are scalars. then
'u'combinatlon of the vectors
HenceU"""ttoolft'u2andu3formabasisof=x-r' (2o.1 +de +os +oQ, or +3a2+3o.3-2a+,u1 +2ru2 - crg + 3&)
+ )c2W + x3u3
pordon : Irtv = (1. -1, 1) = xtut
Second = (0, O, 0). Equating corresponding components from both
(1'' 0' 2l + n(-1' 1' 0) + xs (0' 2' 3)'
or, (1, -1, 1) = xl sldes and forming linear system, we get
we have
Forming linear sYstem' 2a1 + o"2 + 0,e+ oa=Ol
1l
*t - 0,1 + 302 +3a3-2o"a'Ol
X] * 2*"-= _'l I t7)
a1 + 2a'2 - 0s *3uo =6J
2xr +3x3= l,l
308 COLLEGE UNEARAItrEBRA
ctg
VECTORSPACES 309
21 ll O-+Rr Equating corresponding components from both sides and
13 3-2 O-+Rz formtng the linear system, we get
t2 -1 3 O-+Rs 2a1 +2o"2 + tlas =O)
o ^f tst pivotal ro\r, a1 +4or2- 9as =O.l
O-+R+= a1 +7a,2 + llq =QJ
Ol O"2
O+Rs= Rz-Rl
O-+Ro= Rs- R* 224 o-rRr
t4-g O-+Rz
pivotal row I 7 ll O-+Ra
o-+Rz=$z"a
2
O-+R+= lst pivotal row
O-+Rs = Re-8 Rz
O+Rs= Rz
o _!3 o+Rs= S sta Pivotal row O-+Re= Re

From the pivotal rows, we have O-)Rz=f Z"O ptvotal row

lll
ar +icLz+;s3+; a4 =O (i)
O+Ri = Re -6Rz
o,z+%- qa=O (lr)
cr. -i an =O (rii) o O-+Rg=
fr sra pivotal row
This system is Ir echelon form and has three equations in
From the pivotal rows, we have
4 unknowns and hence 4 - 3 = I free variable which is aa.
cr +(& + ?aa=Q (i)
Thus the system has an inftnite number of non-zero o, -* as =O (ii)
solutions.
0g =O (iii)
kt o4 = t, where t is a scalar. Therefore, the svstem has zero solution i. e o,1 =az =o,a = O.
Then cr3 =tt,or=-it.and0,1 =-1
Hence the given vectors are linearly independent.
Slnce all o's are not zero, so tJre given vectors are linearly
F-orlrlllc 36. FIxd the rank and the basis of a given set of
dependent. l
raectors {2, -1,5, 4, (O, t, Z, gl, (4, O, 6, U, (O, - 2, 4, n
rr'*.lrr[fu 8li. ArE these vectors (2, 1, U, @, 4, n, (4, -9, l1) by usingSwccp out mcthod.
dependent ?. Test by Swecp out method.
Solutlon : Rank of a glven set of vectors is the number of
Solution:Irta1 (2, t, 1) +oq(i,4,V+43(4,-9, 11)=(O,0,O)
linearly independent vectors of that set and these linear
Or, (2q + 2a,2+ 4a4, a1 + Aoe- 9cr3, a1+ 7a2+ llo3) = (O, O, O)
independent -vectors form a basis of thqt set.
3to COLLEGE LINEARALGEBRA
VEC'TOR SPACES 3Il
2-rb4 _Rr (ii) Extend {(1, 2, 0, 3), (2, *I, O, O) to
orz3 _rRz a basis of IRa.
406l _eRs Answers: (, (1, S, _t, O), (2, O, 0, _t), (0, O,
l, O), (0, O, O, l)l
o-247 -+ Ra (ii) {(1, 2, o. 3), (2. _1.0, o), (o,
o, I, O), (0, o, o, t)}
4. Decide whelher S = (2, t, l), (t, 0, O), (S,
o --+Rs = t", pivotal row I, t)I is a linearty
! dependent subset of IR3. what is the
dimension of the
123 -eRo = subspace spanned by S?
*Rz = &-
o ORu
ID. U. S. r9g2l
o 2-4-7 Rs- 1Rs Answer : s'is linearry dependent and aimension
o *247 -eRe=Ra-ORs subspace ls 2.
of the
5. The subspace U of IR{is spanned
by the r,,ectors (I, O, 2,
-*n Y 2nd pivotal row *d (O, l,:1, 2) and the subspace
Vof IRais spanned by
S)

-8 -13 -eRro= R7 -2Re (l,2,3,4), (-1, *1, 5, o)md (0, o, o, r).

813 +Rrr = Rs +2Rs Find the dimension of U, V, UOV and
U + V.
Ansnret$ : dim U = 2. dim V= 3.
+Rrz= sta pivotal row dim (UnU = I, dim (U + V;
-$e =4.
6' Find a basis for the subspace of lRaspanned
-+ &g= Rrr- SRrz by the given
vectors: '
Now the rank of the given set of vectors is equal to the (l) (1, l, -4, -3), (2, O, 2. -2),
(2.-1, 3, 2)
. number of pivotal rows = 3. A basis of the given set of vectors (ri) (t, 1, o, o), (0" o, l, l), {1, 0,2,21 (o,_3,
is {(1, - i,lorl,@, r,z,s), (0, o, t,#)} O, 3),
*1**: (r) (1, r, -4, -3), (o, l,-5, -2t, @,0, t, -))
Since cr, (t, -i, i,Z) * oa(o,lp,B) + os (O, O, t,i3)= (O, O, O, O) (U) (1' 1,0, O), (0,
I, I, U, (O, O, l, l), (O, O, O,t)}.
implies dt = &z = ct€ = O, (7aro solution). 7. Pind the dtmenston of the subspace
generated by the set
{(1, 2, l), (3, l, 2) {1, -S, a)} of Vs
ETRCISES - 6 (C) GR). tD. U. p. r9z9l
l. Prove that ttre vectors (1, 1) and (t, O) form a basis of IR2.
Ansrer: The dimension of the subSpace is S.
2. (i) prove that {(2, - i. tl, E, 2, l), (O, t, l)} is a basis of IR3. 8. Let W be the subspace generated
by the polynomials
1" -[s -2P + 4t+ l.vz
(ii)Provethat{(1, I, l, l), (0, l, t, I), (O, O, I, t).(O, O, O, r}}is =2t3 -3t2 +ft_ I,
of lRr. vs = f3 + 6t- 5, va 2ts St2 + Tt+
a basis = - S.
Find the basis and dimension of
3. (i) Extend lQ, O,O, -l), (1, 3, -I, O)l to a basis for IRa. W.
ID.U.S. 1e84t IGU. P. 19ZI),,86;.L U. H. 19g6l
Answer: Basis: {ts *!12 +4t+ l, t2 + i
t_S}and dimW= 2.
312 COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA
IfECTOR SPACES 3T3

' (ii) P."i" qf UnW = {(1, 4, -3,4,211

9. F-ind a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of P(t)
spanned by the PolYnomials dim flJnw) = 1'
14. I.et S and T be the folloulng subspaces of gla :
(i) Pr (t) = t3 + 2t2 -3t+2,pt (t) = ts +2P -2t + 3, and
Ps (t) = 2F + 3t2 -5t - 5' S=[(xY,z,t)lY+z+t=o]
-Pr (t) (t) = 2F + t2 + t - 4, and T={(x y,z,t) lx+y= O,z=2t}
{ii) = ts + t2 - 3t + 2, P2
(t)=4ts+3t2-5tt2. Fired the basts and the dimension of
Pg
' '{r}
s.,liil T (tu} snt
Ansnrers: (0 BasisofW= {ts+ lfz -3t+2;t2 -t+9, t+ U'
dimW = 3
{al, o, o, o), (o, -t, I. o), (o, -1, o. I)}, dim s = 3.
(ti) Basis ofW = {t3 + f2 -3t + 2' P -7t+ 8, 2}
(li) Basis : {F1, t, O, O)' (O' O' 2, l}, dimT= 2:
dlmW = 3 : (lti) gasls : {(3,'3, 2, lU, aliri tSnT) = l.
1O. Determine whether the given set of vectors is a basls
15. LetW = (a, b, d la, b, ceRand 2a +b + 2* = Ol
for gl3over IR:(0(f. I'O)'(l'O, 1),(o, 1. 1)l
(li) (-1, L,21,(2' -3' U!.(10' -14'O)l Flnd a basis and.dlrnension of W. ID. U. Prcl" rgEgl
Answeis : (r) Set of vectors ie abaQis for m.3 .
Ansrer : {{I, l, -U; (-1, 2. O)} is a basis of W and dim W.= 2;
(ii) Set of vectors ls not'h b$is for m,' 16. Frovethatin Uf tfr.vectors (1, -1, O)' (O. l, -1) forma
-: ,,
basis for the subspace U = {(x Y, zl ets3 l x+ y + z = Ol-
11. I.et {vr, va . vs} be Uasts foi a vector space V' Show that
17, Ffnd Uasis of eat!of.thefollorrrtngsubsPaces.of nR3 :
{ur , uz. u2} is also a basis, tilt = vl,
', =
'1
+ v2 and
"
us = vt * v2 * v3' (t) U = {(x Yr z) 11' z=Ol ",' , i-
'

12. LetW be the subspace of g1o generated by the ve<:tors (tt)V= llXy,zl l'x=O,andy+z=Ol ':: 'i ' '
(3; 8, -8, -5), Itnd a basls and the Ariwerlg : (i) (2, l, 9r, (i, O, f)l it a basis of U. :' .
lL, -2,5, -3), (2. 3, l, -4) and
lD.u.s. rpssl (ii) {(O, -1. 1), (0, 1, -1)} is a basis of V.
dimenslon of W.
Answer: Basls lll,-2,5, -3J. P. 7, *S' 2)), dimW = 2' 18. I€t V be the vector space of all 2 x2 matrices orrcrlhe
13. Consider the following subspaces of IRs: real field F. Prove that V has dimension 4 by exhiblting a
U = span {(1, 3, -2, 2, 3}, U, 4, -3,4,21' (2,3, -l' -2' 9)} basis for V which has four elements.
W = span (1, 3, O, 2,.U' (1, 5, 4, 6, 3)' (2' 5. 3' 2' 1)l 19. I.et V be the vector space of 2 x2 matrices over the real
fteld IR; Find a basls and the dirmenslon of the subspace W of V
Find a basis and the dtmeusion of
(i)U+W (iD Unw.
lD.u.H. 19S71
' rices"=[i 31,"=
spanned by the matrices qr3i J* ";
":.lrgl;": E I and u = [S
[3 ? I
eniwers : (i) Basis of U + W
-2,2.31. (0, I, -1, 2, -1)'
= {(1, 3,
(O' O. 2' O, -2}}
AEEscfs: Basisoflf,r= tll 31, I-? l]}
dlm(U+W)=3. dimW=2.
 314 COLLEGE LINEAR ALGEBRA 315

20. lr:tV be the vectorspace of 2 x 2 matrlces over the real space

for the following homogeneous linear equations
field IR. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace w of V :

spanned by the matrices x1 +2x2 -xs *4rq =0')

2x1-x2+3x3+3x+=01
o= [-l 3l,r= [?-? I*o .=l-3 t I 4x1+x2+Sxs+9xn=O7
x2-x3+xa1Ol
ID.U. P. 1S4l
2x1+ 3x2 - xs * 7x4 =O ) '
Answers : Basis
"* = t[-l 3l tB -il [? i,l] Ansnrer: Basis : {(*1, I, t, O), {-2, -1, O, f}}
dimW=3. 'L dimension = 2.
2L,l*tV be the vector space of 2 x 2 matiices over the real WU. orri_a basis and the dimension of the solution space
field IR. Detennine r.vhether for the following homogeneous linear.system
x+2y- z+3s-4t=O I
o=[lll,u=H l],"=[? ?l*r=[3 ?l 2x+4y-22- s+5t=O I lRU.r{. r9B5l
2x+4y-22+4s-2t=O )
form a basis for V.
Answer : They form a basisforV.
Basis: l@,-t, O,0, O), (1, O, I, O, O))

p''l'
tt ai*.rrsion = 2.
.6\d- 22. Find the dimension and a basis of the solution space W
t of the following sYstem 26. Find a basis and the dimension of the following
system of linear equations :
ID.U.S. lSOl x1 +2x2-2xs+2xn-.6=O1
H.
x1 +2x2 - xa + 34 -2x" =Ql I D. U. 19881
2x1+4x2-7xs+ &+&=OJ lR u. H. 1988 |
: dimW= 3"
Ansrers : Basis : {(-2, I, O, 0, O); (-4, O, -f , 1, 0), (3, O, f , O, l)}
dimension = 3.
27. Prove that the vectors u1 = (1, 2, | -2),
2x1 + 2xz - X3 +.,cs = O'l u2 = (0, -2, -2, O), u3 = (o, 2, 3, 1) and ue = (3, O, -3, 6)
-X1 -x2+2xs-3xa+rE=O I form a basis of tRo and find the coordinates of the vectors
* -Tr* ;,t;3,[
xr *,
* v = (5, O, - 8, -1) and w = (-9, 20, g4, - 25) relative to this
lrirsls.
ID.U.P. 19841
Ansrrcr : Basis : {(-f ,1,0,0'0), (*l' O' -1' O' 1)l
Answer : v and w have coordinates
I
12, - l,- 3. 1l and
13, -2,5. -41 respectively. \
dimension = 2.
z
3T6 COLLEGE LINEARAI'GEBRA
prove that the following set of
28. Usin$ Swccp out mcthod
vectors is linearlY indePendent :
(-3' -l' -4}}'
{1, g,21, (1,-7, -8),
zg.F]ndtherarrkarrdthebasisofagivensetofvectors

AnsEGr: Rank is 3 -, - q
Basrs = (1, 1,5.P, l, -r\(0, o' 1)l'
O}' (1' I' O)' (l' I' l}} is a basis
3O. Shour ttrat the set S = {(l' O'
the vector (a' b' c) with
of IRs and hence find the coordinates of
respect to the above b:asls'
.AoErtr : (a-b'b - e' c)'
31. Shonr that if {u' v, w} is a basts
of IRs ' t}ren

a set of veltors
32. IfWl ls a subspace of IRa generated by
' Sr (1, 1' O, -l)' (1, 2' 3' O)' A' g'g'-lD andWz !s a subsPace
=
of IRa generated by the set of vectors
Sz = ((1,2, 2,-21.@'g'2'-3)'
(l' 3' 4' -3))'
(Wr nW2)'
flnd (i) dtrn (Wr +Wd (it) dim
(Wr oW2) = 1'
Anglrlre : (f) dim (Wr +Wd = 3' dtm
(ii)
(1' 2' Ol' vz = (O' 5' 7)' and
33. Prove that the vectors v1 =
find the coordinates of
v3 = (-1, 1,3) form abasis of IR3and
the vector v = (2' 3, 1)'
['' U'Ia 1990' 9U
Aosrtr: M = [O. l,-21.
94. LetS be the following basis
of the vector syf ! W of
2x2ralsYmmetric matrlces : -
ili';l Ii ll l-; -?D
Find the coordinate vector of ttre
matrix AeW relative to
-: lL '^l
the above o""o *r'.rJr;='1 I ; (b)A =
'"0
Ansrlr: (a) [2. -r, U O) [3' r' -21'