RADIOGRAPHIC FILM

INTERPRETATION

BECHTEL

MATERIALS AND QUALITY SERVICES

&
SUPPLIER QUALITY DEPARTMENT

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA

Rev. 0 - April 1993
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Radiography is a nondestructive examination method used for inspection of components and

assemblies that is based on differential absorption of penetrating radiation into the part or test
piece being examined. Radiographic testing usually requires exposing film to X- or gamma rays
that have penetrated a specimen, processing the exposed film, and interpreting the resultant
radiographic. There are many variables in these procedures and successful completion of any
test is dependent upon understanding and control of variables.

2.0 USES OF RADIOGRAPHY

Radiography is used to detect areas of a component or assembly that exhibit a difference in

thickness or physical density, (such as internal flaws) as compared to the surrounding material.

Most metals are produced as a casting at some point in their processing. Other metals are
worked and or shaped into desirable forms by some type of forging, usually at high
temperatures. During this heating and shaping process, stresses are often set-up by the
contraction and expansion of the metal. This expansion and contraction of metal can result in
cracks or tears at various points in the metal. During this early stage of metal fabrication,
radiography can be used to help locate and resolve these problems.

In todays world of welding, radiography is the most common nondestructive examination

specified for weld inspection. Radiography is used as a supplement to other nondestructive
examination methods to detect and confirm internal and external flaws or indications.

3.0 APPLICABILITY

Radiography is most often associated with the medical profession. However, radiographic
examinations are applied to both organic and inorganic materials, solids, liquids and even gases.

Radiographic examination serves industry through its ability to detect rejectable flaws prior to
expensive machining or fabrication operations, as a check on manufacturing techniques and as a
means of verifying quality.

3.1 LIMITATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHY

Sensitivity of radiography to various types of flaws depends on many factors including type of
flaw, material, thickness and product form. Items to be radiographed must allow access to both
sides. Geometric exposure requirements make it impracticable to use radiography on
specimens of complex geometry.

Compared to other nondestructive methods, radiography is more costly. This primarily due to the
radiation safety regulations and time required for processing the film prior to interpretation of the
results. It is most economical when it is used to input easily handled material of simple geometry
with high rates of production testing. It becomes expensive when it is used to examine thick
specimens that require equipment of high energy potential.

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 Certain types of indications are difficult to detect by radiography. Relatively tight cracks cannot
be detected unless they are essentially normal to the radiation beam. Shallow tight cracks in
thick sections usually cannot be detected at all, even when properly oriented. Laminations are
nearly impossible to detect with radiography due to their unfavorable orientation and because
they do not yield sufficient differences in radiation absorption as compared to surrounding
material. The greatest dimension of the suspected discontinuity must be parallel to the radiation
beam.

Personnel protection is of major importance. The safety requirements impose both economic and
operational restrictions on the use of radiography.

4.0 PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHY

4.1 THREE BASIC ELEMENTS OF RADIOGRAPHY

4.1.1 Radiation or Electron Source

a). X-Radiation: Electromagnetic radiation that is electronically produced in a vacuum
tube. By placing a positive charge on the anode of an x-ray tube and a negative
charge on the cathode, free electrons are speeded from the cathode to anode.

b). Gamma Rays: Short wave lunar electromagnetic radiation emitted during the decay
of unstable nuclei in atoms of certain elements. Gamma rays are produced by the
nuclei of isotopes which are undergoing disintegration because of their base
instability. Isotopes are varieties of the same chemical element having different
atomic weights. A parent element and its isotopes all have an identical number of
protons in their nuclei but a different number of neutrons. Among the known
elements there are more than 800 isotopes of which more than 500 are radioactive.

c). Throughout the spectrum X and gamma rays have the same characteristics, and X-
and gamma rays of the same wave length have identical properties.

d). Particulate Emission: Particle emission such as Alpha, Beta, Electron and Neutron.
Note: The penetrating power of alpha and bata particles is relatively negligible, it is
the gamma rays that are of use to the radiographer.

4.1.2 The object being evaluated on electron target. X-rays are generated whenever high
velocity electrons collide with any form of matter, whether it be solid, liquid, or gas.
Since the atomic number of an element indicates its density, the higher the atomic
number of the chosen target material the grater the efficiency of X-ray generation. The
greater the density of the material the grater the number of X-ray generating collisions.

4.1.3 Recording medium

a). X-Ray film: Transparent or tinted base coated on both sides with an emulsion
containing silver crystals.
b). Photographic Paper: Paper base coated on one side with an emulsion containing
silver crystals.

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4.2 OTHER RADIOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES

4.2.1 Amplification: In other methods of NDE, electronic amplification is used. For

radiography, the amplification occurs in the film development and also in the use of lead
intensifying screens.

4.2.2 Interpretation: Ability to interpret radiographs to various codes and customer

specifications along with appropriate reference radiographs.

4.2.3 Disposition: After completion of an examination, a decision must be made as to

acceptability or other disposition, i.e., reject, repair or scrap.

5.O SOURCES OF RADIATION

X and gamma radiation energies used in radiographic examination is a small portion of the
Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum. X and gamma energies are contained within the ultra high
frequency and extremely short wavelength end of the spectrum. It is this high frequency and
short wavelength that allows radiation to penetrate matter, even that which is opaque to visible
light. Although it can penetrate opaque matter, electromagnetic radiation still follows most of the
laws applied to visible light. Radiographic non-destructive examination is based on the following
characteristics of X and gamma rays.

a. They are electromagnetic with energy indirectly proportional to their wavelength.

b. They have no electrical charge and no mass.

c. They travel in straight lines at the velocity of light.

d. They can penetrate matter, the depth of penetration being dependent upon the energy of the
rays.

e. They are absorbed by matter, the percentage of absorption being directly proportional to
matter density and thickness, and indirectly proportional to ray energy.

f. They are scattered by matter, the amount of scatter being directly proportional to matter
density, and indirectly proportional to ray energy.

g. They can ionize matter.

h. They can expose film by ionization.

i. They can produce florescence in certain materials.

j. They are invisible and incapable of detection by any of the senses.

Particulate emission is not electromagnetic radiation, but emission of particles such as alpha,
beta, electron or neutrons. Alpha and beta particles are of concern to the radiation health
physics, but are not useful for radiographic examination. Electron and neutron emissions are
utilized in industrial radiography in the following ways:

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 a). Electrons provide intensification action when using lead screens in contact with the film,
decreasing exposure time and improving radiographic definition.

b). Neutrons are used in Neutron Radiography of explosives, nuclear fuel and nuclear
components.Gamma rays are similar in characteristic to x-rays, but are distinguished from x-
rays by their origin rather than by their nature. The quality of gamma radiation in terms of
wavelength and penetrating capabilities cannot be controlled by the operator. Some gamma
ray isotopes are natural sources such as radium, whereas, Cobalt 60 and Iridium 192 are
artificially produced. Artificial isotopes are used almost exclusively as sources of gamma
radiation for industrial radiography.

6.0 GEOMETRY OF EXPOSURE

To produce a radiograph there must be a source of radiation, a specimen to be examined, and

film. Figure 1 is a diagram of a radiographic exposure showing basic geometric relationships
between the radiation source, the object under examination (specimen), and the film upon which
the specimen image is recorded. These relationships are caused by X- and gamma rays obeying
the laws of light. The enlargement of the image is caused by the film not being in contact with
the specimen. The ratio of the specimen diameter (Do) to the image diameter (Df) is equal to the
ratio of the source-to-specimen distance (do) to the source-to-film distance (df). For the
radiographic image to be the same size as the specimen, the film is placed close to the
specimen and the radiation source is place as far from the film as is practical.

7.0 PRINCIPLES OF SHADOW FORMATION

The image formed on a radiograph is similar

to a shadow cast on a screen by an opaque
object placed in a beam of light. Although
radiation used in radiography penetrates
opaque objects, the geometric laws of shadow
formation remain basically the same. X,
gamma and light rays all travel in straight
lines. Straight line propagation is the chief
characteristic of radiation that enables
formation of a sharply discernible shadow.
The geometric relationships of source, object
and screen to each other controls the three
main characteristics of the shadow imaged on
the film.

7.1 Subject Enlargement

The amount of subject enlargement depends Figure 1 Image Enlargement

upon the distance of the object from the
source as well as the distance from the film to
the object.

7.2 Distortion

When the true shape of an object is altered in the radiographic image it is known as radiographic
distortion. If the plane of the object and the plane of the film are not parallel, image distortion

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 will result, as it will if the radiation beam is not directed perpendicular to the plane of the film.
Whenever distortion of the film image is unavoidable, as a result of physical limitation, it must be
recommended that all parts of the image are distorted; otherwise, an incorrect interpretation of
the film may be made.

Figure 2. Image Sharpness, Penumbral Shadow

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7.3 Unsharpness

Fuzzy boundaries around the edges of an object or a specific feature of an object on a

radiograph are known as the penumbral effect. When this effect is caused by the configuration
of focal spot-specimen-film relationship it is called geometric unsharpness (Ug). The maximum
unsharpness that cannot be recognized by the human eye is approximately 0.02 inches based on
this capability of the eye, the following equation is used to determine a minimum acceptable
source-to-film distance.

D= Txd *T
0.020

Where D = Source to film distance

T= Distance from upper surface of the specimen to the film (specimen

thickness when the film is immediately adjacent to the specimen).

d= Diameter of the source (focal spot) in inches.

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 The following is an example of Ug limits: You must not exceed a geometric unsharpness of .020
for material up to 4" in thickness and a geometric unsharpness of .050 for material thickness
over 4". In no case will an unsharpness greater than .070 be acceptable. The formula for
calculating geometric unsharpness is:

Ug = Ft Where
D

F = Effective source size, inches; the maximum effective dimension (diagonal)

of the radiating source (or focal point).

D = Distance in inches from source of radiation to area of interest of object

being radiographed.

t = Thickness in inches of the area of interest of the object being radiographed

assuming the film is against the object. Otherwise, it is the thickness of the
object plus the space between the film and the object.

8.O ESSENTIAL VARIABLES OF EXPOSURE

The radiographic image is dependent upon the amount of radiation absorbed by the emulsion of
the film. The amount of radiation absorbed by the emulsion of the film determines the degree of
blackening of the film after processing or the density of the radiograph. The amount of radiation
available for absorption by the film is dependent on the total amount of radiation emitted by the
source of radiation during exposure and the amount of radiation reaching the specimen and
passing through it.

8.1 Generation of X-Rays

8.1.1 Three factors determine the amount of radiation

emitted by an x-ray tube.
a). Milliamperes (MA)

b). Kilovoltage Kv)

c). Time (t)

The intensity of an x-ray beam is proportional to the milliamperage. Changes in MA are reflected
in proportionate changes in intensity. Intensity when used in reference to MA defines the quantity
of x-rays produced. Higher MA increases the quantity of x-rays than can be generated by a given
x-ray unit in a given amount of time.

Kilovoltage controls the penetrating power of an x-ray unit. The higher the KV the shorter the
wavelength of the x-rays generated and the greater the penetration.

The total amount of radiation produced by an x-ray tube operating at a given kilovoltage and
milliamperage is directly proportional to the time the x-ray tube is energized. The application of
MA, Kv plus time is referred to as exposure.

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8.2 Gamma Rays

For a specific radioactive isotope, the intensity of the radiation is proportional to the curie of the
source. In comparison to x-ray tubes, source activity is not adjustable nor is it a constant. The
total amount of radiation generated from a gamma source depends upon its intensity and the
time of the exposure. As in x-ray, the gamma ray output varies directly with both source
activity(intensity) and time. Gamma ray exposures may be specified in curie-minutes or curie-
hours.

If a SO curie source of Ir 192 produces an acceptable radiograph with an exposure time of two
minutes, a 25 curie Ir 192 source will produce an acceptable radiograph with an exposure time of
four minutes with all other variables remaining the same.

There is no variable in gamma radiography to correspond to the kilovoltage of an x-ray tube. The
gamma ray energy, or penetrating factor is determined by the nature of a given isotope. For
thicker specimens or specimens which are radiographically more dense, isotopes with more
penetrating power may be required.

Radiography performed with isotopes has the advantages of simplicity of the apparatus used, a
compact radiation source and independence from outside power requirements. These
advantages allow for the examination of pipe, pressure vessels and other assemblies with
difficult access.

8.3 Inverse Square Law

Gamma rays and x-rays have identical propagation characteristics because they both conform to
the laws of light. When the output of radiation emanating from a small area is constant, the
intensity of the radiation varies inversely with the square of the distance at any point in the beam
of radiation.The reason for this is the beam divergence, or beam spread, as the distance from
the source of radiation is increased. The Inverse Square Law can be expressed mathematically
by the following equation:

I = Intensity
D= Distance
I
1 D22
I 2
2 Dl

The Inverse Square Law is of critical importance when used to establish radiation safety barriers
at levels considered acceptable by Federal and State regulations.

8.4 RADIOGRAPHIC SCREENS

When X- or gamma ray beam comes in contact with film, less than one percent of the radiation
energy available is absorbed by the film in the producing an image through photographic effect.
To convert the unused energy into a form that can be absorbed radiographic screens are used.

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 Types of screens that can be used:

a). Fluorescent Screens

b). Lead Screens
c). Composite Screens
d). Copper Screens

When using fluorescent screens, X or gamma rays cause the screen to emit visible light which
assists in exposing the film. Fluorescent screens are rarely used since they tend to decrease the
sensitivity of the radiographic technique.

Lead and lead oxide screens are usually constructed of an antimony and lead alloy that is stiffer,
harder, and more wear resistant than pure lead. The screens are used in pairs, on each side of,
and in close contact with, the film. Depending upon the specimen and the energy of radiation,
the screens may be of varying thicknesses. The front screen in most application is thinner than
the back screen. Front screens 0.005 inch thick and back screens 0.010 inch thick are
commonly used. Lead screens are particularly efficient because of their ability to absorb
scattered radiation (soft radiation) in addition to increasing the photographic effect on the film.
The increased photographic effect is a result of the release of electrons from the lead atoms
when acted upon by high energy radiation. Energy from the released electrons is readily
absorbed by the film emulsion, and intensifies film response.

(1) The intensification factor of lead screens is much lower than that of fluorescent screens.
Underexposure to low energy radiation it is possible for the front screen absorption
effect to be of such magnitude that required exposure is greater than that without
screens. However, due to their capability for reducing the effects of scattered radiation
and the resultant better contrast and definition of the radiographic image, lead screens
are used wherever practicable. They are used in almost all gamma ray applications.

9.0 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM CHARACTERISTICS

Radiographic (photographic) density is defined as the degree of darkening of the film. Film
density is measured by the percentage of visible light that can be transmitted through the film.
The instrument used to measure density is the densitometer. Two types are available, visual
and electronic. Accuracy is a desirable characteristic, but more important is consistency. A
good densitometer under similar conditions, will give similar readings each time used.

Photographic density is expressed by the equation

D = Log Io
I

D = Density
Io = Light intensity on the light side of the film I = Light intensity on the reader side of the
film

D = Log Io
I x lOO

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 PERCENT OF LIGHT THAT IS TRANSMITTED
DENSITY

0 100%

.3 50%

.6 25%

1.0 1O%

2.0 1%

3.0 0.1%

4.0 0.01%

9.1 Radiographic Contrast

Radiographic contrast is defined as the difference of the various densities apparent on

developed film. It is a combination of subject contrast and film contrast and, for any particular
specimen, depends upon: radiation energy applied (penetrating quality): film contrast
characteristics: exposure (the product of radiation intensity and time): use of screens; film
processing; and scattered radiation.

9.2 Subject Contrast

Subject contrast is the ratio of radiation intensities transmitted through any two selected areas of
the object under examination. Subject contrast is dependent on thickness difference in the
object, the radiation quality, (lower Kv= higher contrast/ higher Kv= lower contrast) and scattered
radiation. The more scattered radiation the lower the contrast.

9.3 Film Contrast

Film contrast refers to he slope(steepness) of the characteristic curve of the film. Film contrast depends on
the type of film, the processing it receives(manual/automatic) and the density. The film contrast values of
any particular film are usually expressed as a relationship between film exposure and the resulting film
density.

9.4 Speed of Radiographic Film

Industrial radiographic film is commercially available from various manufactures. Each type and

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 brand of film has its own speed factor which in general terms indicates the exposure required to
produce a given density. High speed films need only low exposure while slow speed film
requires more exposure to attain the same film density. Radiographic films are divided into the
following four classifications:

RADIOGRAPHIC FILM CLASSIFICATIONS

Type I - Extra fine grain, slow speed and very high contrast.

Type II - Fine grain, medium speed and high contrast.

Type III - Coarse grain, fast speed, medium contrast.

Type IV - Very Coarse grain, very fast, low contrast.

9.5 Latitude

Latitude is the overall range of thickness(densities) that can be recorded on a radiograph within
the useful density reading range. A high contrast film is considered to have less latitude than a
low contrast film.

10.0 SCATTERED RADIATION

Scattered radiation is a factor which must be dealt with in most radiography. When a beam of x-
rays or gamma rays strikes any object, some of the radiation is absorbed, some is scattered and
some passes through the object. The wavelengths of the scattered radiation are lengthened and
therefore the scatter radiation is always softer or less penetrating than the primary radiation. Any
material, whether specimen, cassette, table top, walls or floor that is struck by the primary
radiation is a source of scattered radiation.

As a rule, the largest portion of the scattered radiation affecting the film is generated from the
object being examined. The most common methods for reducing scatter are:

l.) Lead screens

2.) Masks and diaphragms
3.) Filters

11.0 RADIOGRAPHIC DEFINITION

Radiographic definition can be defined as the sharpness of the image outlined. If the change in
densities between two areas on the film is gradual with no sharp lines,low definition is evident.
Sharp, well defined images on a radiograph equal higher definition.

Definition is affected by various factors which determine the ease with which the images can be
seen on a radiograph.

11.l Geometric Factors

a) Focal spot size for x-ray or physical size of the gamma ray source. Focal spot size
should be as small as possible for better definition.

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 b) Film Focal Distance(FFD), Source Focal Distance(SFD) should be as far as practical.

c) Object to film distance should be as close as possible.

d) Beam of radiation perpendicular to the film.

11.2 Film Graininess and Screen Mottle

a) Graininess is the visible evidence of the grouping into clumps of the minute silver
particles (grains) that from the image on radiographic film. It affects film contract and
image definition, and all film is subject to it. The degree of graininess of any film is
dependent upon:

(1) The fine or coarse grain structure of the film emulsion.

(2) The quality of the radiation to which the film is exposed, since an increase in the
penetrating quality of the radiation will cause an increase in graininess.
(3) Film processing, because graininess is directly related to the development process.
Under normal conditions of development any increase in development time is
accompanied by an increase in film graininess.
(4) The use of fluorescent screens which cause increased graininess with increase in
radiation energy.

b) Certain types of intensifying screens can produce mottle on the film. Lead screens are
not known to produce mottle whereas fluorescent screens do. Mottle is characteristic in
appearance, being larger in scale and softer in outline than film graininess.

12.0 SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

12.1 Multiple film radiography is the use of more than one film loaded in the same cassette for
the same exposure. The films may be of the same speed or of different speeds. Films may be
viewed singly or superimposed as a composite radiograph. Each radiograph shall exhibit the
required radiographic density and quality level. In the context of multiple film radiography, each
exposure may consist of more than one radiograph.

12.2 Duplicate Film Radiography or the use of two films of the same speed in one cassette is done
for the following reasons:

a) To determine if an indication in a radiograph is a real defect or a film artifact.

b) To permit the use of the second film as the acceptance radiograph if the first film has a
rejectable artifact.

c) Each film may be used as a separate radiographic record so that the manufacturer
retains a film and the customer retains a film.

d) The two films may be superimposed and read as a composite radiograph.

NOTE: The radiographs (single or superimposed) shall exhibit the required radiographic
quality level and be within the specified density range as well as any other requirements
of the applicable procedure.

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12.3 Double loading two film in cassettes, each of different speeds can also be done. This
technique is commonly used when radiographing objects with major differences in thickness.
The faster speed film will result in acceptable densities for the thicker areas of the object, and
the slower speed film will result in acceptable densities for the thinner sections.

12.4 Depth Localization of Defects

Two general methods are used to determine the depth of a defect from the surface of a
specimen being radiographed.

a) Stereoradiography is a method requiring two separate exposures on two separate films and a
stereo viewer. This method is not normally used in industrial: radiography.

b) Double Exposure/Triangulation (Parallax) Method: This technique requires two exposures on

the same film. The first exposure is taken with the source centered over the area of the
specimen containing the defect. The second exposure is made with the source shifted
laterally or at a right angle to the length of the defect. The shift should be sufficient enough to
separate the two defect images. Generally, a shift of four to six inches is sufficient.

The following data should be recorded for use later in making calculations:

1) Source shift distance

2) Source to film distance
3) Specimen thickness

The following formula will give the distance of the defect from the film plane:

d = bT a = Source shift in inches

a+b b = Change in position of defect image
d = Distance of defect above film plane
T = Source to film distance

The total exposure of the specimen should be as follows:

1st exposure 3/5ths of total exposure time.

2nd exposure 2/5ths of total exposure time.

13.0 ELEMENTS OF RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION

Depending on the technical controls applied in performing radiography determines the amount of
and quality of information that can be obtained from a radiograph. In general all specimens
contain discontinuities to some degree. The judgement as to whether a discontinuity is serious
enough to be classified as a defect which could affect the usefulness of the part is called
radiographic interpretation. Judgement varies from person to person and is based upon the
knowledge, experience and visual acuity of an individual.

Radiographic interpretation is comprised of many variables such as type, degree, severity and
location of discontinuities. All of these factors can vary due to differences in materials. Other
variables include the method of manufacture such as cast, wrought or forged and the method of

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 joining, such as, welding, soldering or brazing. Applicable codes, specifications and standards must
also be considered.

Generally, the reason for performing radiographic examination of a weld or brazed joint is to check
the integrity and quality of the work and material. Other methods of quality control used prior to
nondestructive examination to assist film interpreters who do not always see the weld are:

a) Qualification of welding procedures

b) Qualification/certification of welders
c) Visual Weld Inspection

With these QC methods preceding the radiographic examination, the film interpreter is assured, for
the most part, that surface irregularities have been corrected and will not interfere with interpretation.

14.0 VIEWING RADIOGRAPHS

The evaluation of finished radiographs should be made under conditions that favor the best
visibility for detail and provides maximum comfort for the interpreter.

To be satisfactory for use in viewing radiographs, film viewers (illuminator) must meet two basic
requirements; It must provide light of an intensity that will illuminate the areas of interest in the
radiograph and it must diffuse the light evenly over the entire viewing area.

A viewer which is capable of illuminating densities of 4.0 and contains a rheostat is especially
useful for the examination of radiographs having a wide range of densities.

The contrast sensitivity of the human eye, which is the ability to distinguish small brightness
differences is greatest when surroundings are of about the same brightness as the area of
interest. Thus, to see the finest detail in a radiograph, the illuminator must be masked to avoid
glare from the bright light at the edges of the radiograph or by that light transmitted from low
density areas of the radiograph. Subdued lighting rather than total room darkness is preferred in
the viewing room. Room illumination should be arranged so that there are no troublesome
reflections from the surface of the radiograph.

15.0 PENETRAMETERS

Radiographs must contain the image of a penetrameter or image quality indicator as a

verification of the radiographic technique.

The penetrameter image on a radiograph is permanent evidence that the radiographic

examination was conducted under proper conditions. This is a feature unique to radiography in
comparison to other nondestructive examination methods.

Generally, the penetrameter is placed on the source side of the specimen. In some cases,
placement of the penetrameter on the source side is not possible such as when radiographing a
circumferential weld in a long tubular structure. Under circumstances such as this, the
penetrameter may be placed on the film side of the object being examined.

In some instances, the geometry of the test specimen precludes placing the penetrameter
directly on it. When this occurs, the penetrameter may be placed on a block of radiographically

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 similar material. The block and the penetrameter should be placed as close as possible to the
specimen with the penetrameter to film distance the same as the source side of the object to film
distance.

The ability to see a specified penetrameter hole on a radiograph does not indicate that a
discontinuity of equivalent diameter and thickness will also be discernable. Penetrameter holes
having sharp boundaries result in abrupt changes in metal thickness and consequently film
density whereas a discontinuity can have more or less rounded sides causing a more gradual
change in film density. As a result, the image of the penetrameter hole is generally sharper and
more easily seen in the radiograph than is the image of a discontinuity. Similarly, a fine crack
may be of considerable extent, but if the x or gamma rays pass from the source to the film along
the thickness of the crack, its image on the film may not be visible due to very gradual transitions
of density. Thus, a penetrameter is used to indicate the quality of the radiographic technique and
not to measure the size of discontinuities.

Penetrameter sensitivity is usually expressed in terms of penetrameter thickness (as a

percentage of test piece thickness) and resolution is determined by the smallest hole size visible
in the radiograph. For example, an image quality level of 2-2T indicates that the thickness of the
penetrameter equals 2% of the material thickness (2) and the 2T is the penetrameter hole having
a diameter twice the penetrameter thickness. The quality level of 2-2T is the most common level
generally specified in industrial radiography. Other radiographic quality levels are 1-2T, 1-IT, 2-
4T and 4-4T.

15.1 Identification and Orientation Markers

To permit correct interpretation of the finished radiograph, the specimen and the radiograph must
be so marked that the specimen and its orientation can be identified with the radiograph. This is
accomplished by affixing lead numbers or letters to, or adjacent to, the specimen during
exposure, and marking the specimen in identical fashion with a marking pen, or by scribing. The
lead numbers or letters, which are attached with masking tape, appear on the radiograph.
Comparison of the radiograph with the marked specimen eliminates any possibility of wrong
identification. Also, proper film identification should include sub-numbers, serial numbers, etc.,
and date.

15.2 Cleanliness

Cleanliness is of great importance during the entire radiographic process. Film should be
handled with care, and white gloves used during loading and unloading of film holders, and
mounting of film in processing hangers. Film holders, film, and screens should be handled only
in clean surroundings. Images of dirt, lead chips, scratched or nicked screens, handling crimps,
scratches and nicks on the film result in a worthless radiograph. Similarly, chemical stains and
streaks ruin a radiograph. The film process area must be kept immaculately clean, and access
limited to those who work in the area. Chemical contamination of the area can result in the ruin
of film, so it is advisable to store chemicals in a separate area until they are used. Floors must
be kept clean and preferably damp to hold down dust. High humidity assists in preventing static
electricity and static marks on film. Nylon and other fabrics, which encourage static electricity,
should be avoided by the radiographer.

16.0 SPECIFICATION AND CODES

Most radiography is performed in accordance with the provisions of specifications and codes.

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 These may be in-house documents, purchase specifications set by the customer or National
Codes such as the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes.

Codes and specifications can establish certain factors for the radiographic technique such as;
The Kv range or the use of a particular isotope, allowable geometric unsharpness, type of film,
minimum/maximum densities, 100% or partial examination, and if partial examination, the extent
or limits. Without exception, all codes and specifications place requirements on the type, number
and placement of penetrameters in addition to stipulating the radiographic quality level that will
be accepted. Most important, Codes and Specifications establish the accept/reject criteria for
discontinuities that are revealed through radiography. Many codes/ specifications refer to
reference radiographs produced by the American Society for Testing Materials,(ASTM).

The ASTM reference radiographs do not in themselves set acceptable levels for discontinuities
but they do provide a yardstick by which the severity of a discontinuity can be measured or
classified. It is up to the purchaser and the seller to agree to acceptance levels for radiographic
examination as evaluated by comparison to the reference radiographs.

It is essential that the requirements of specifications and codes be followed closely. Production
radiographs can be rejected regardless of quality if they do not carry the proper identification or if
the proper penetrameters are not used. Such rejections cause lost time, expense and the
confusion of re-radiography.

17.0 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

It is of particular value for the radiographic interpreter to have knowledge of the manufacturing
process which produced the specimen from which radiographs are to be reviewed.

In radiographic interpretation of weldments, different welding processes such as MIG, TIG and
SMAW lend themselves to characteristic indications on weld radiographs.

18.0 TYPICAL WELDING DEFECTS AND CONDITIONS

Some of the discontinuities that can be present in welds are: cracks and voids in the weld metal,
inclusions which can be more or less dense than the surrounding weld metal. Radiographs may
show both external and internal discontinuities in welds. It is important to note that not all
discontinuities that appear on a radiograph are cause for rejection of a weld.

The welding processes requires that heat be carefully controlled to produce fusion to the parent
metal and adequate penetration. Too much heat can cause porosity, cracks and undercutting;
too little heat can cause incomplete penetration and incomplete fusion. Stresses that are
introduced in the metal by welding but are not accompanied by a physical separation of material
will not be detected by radiography.

18.1 Gas Holes and Porosity

Gas is sometimes formed during fusion welding due to poor control of arc current, improper
technique, electrodes or as a result of the quality of the parent metal. The term "porosity" is used
to describe gas inclusions that occur as a spherical cavity in the weld metal. Gas inclusions may
also occur as a tube-like cavity sometimes referred to as worm holes. Porosity may occur as
single cavities in clusters or as randomly scattered cavities. Linear porosity may be associated
with incomplete penetration as a series of cavities distributed along a line that runs lengthwise

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 with the weld.

In a radiograph, porosity appears as round dark spots with rather sharp contours and can be of
varying sizes and distribution. Worm holes appear as dark rectangles if the axis of the cylinder is
perpendicular to the radiation beam,and has two concentric circles, one darker than the other if
the axis is parallel to the radiation beam. Linear porosity is indicated on radiographs as a series
of round dark spots in line with the weld.

18.2 Weld Slag Inclusions

Slags contain oxides produced during arc welding. Slag can be trapped in the weld metal if it
fails to remain molten long enough for the slag to rise to the surface. In welds requiring multiple
passes, slag may be left on early passes unless properly cleaned. Slag inclusions can be located
along the edges of the weld deposits and run in a line the length of the weld.

Since the oxides making up slag are usually less dense than the actual weld metal, it appears as
dark irregular shapes on a radiograph. Slag inclusions can occur singly, in clusters or scattered
randomly throughout the weld. In some cases, slag may also occur in a linear distribution. Slag
inclusions generally have sharp pointed ends and can be of variable density radiographically.

Slag lines may appear along the edge of a weld as an irregular or continuous dark line on the
radiograph caused by insufficient cleaning between weld passes. Voids left between passes by
irregular deposits of metal can cause lines that have a similar radiographic appearance to slag.

18.3 Cracks

Cracks in welds are usually produced by internal stresses caused by cooling of the weld metal.
Cracks may be along the weld seam or they may be across the weld seam. Transverse cracks
can extend into the parent metal. Cracks are generally characterized by wavy lines and may
have fine hairline cracks branching off from the main crack.

The radiographic image of a crack defect is a dark narrow line that is usually irregular. If the
plane of the crack is in line with the radiation beam, its image will be fairly defined. If the plane is
not exactly in line with the radiation beam, a faint dark linear shadow may result. In this case,
additional radiographs should be taken at other angles for accurate interpretation.

Since cracks constitute a serious weld defect, additional radiographs should be made when there
is doubt. Finer grain films may be used, the angle of the radiation beam should be changed or
other methods of nondestructive examination may be used to supplement the radiography.

18.4 Incomplete Penetration

Incomplete penetration occurs at the root of the weld groove or at the center of the weld for
double-v-groove welds. Incomplete penetration is caused by failure of the root pass to fuse
properly with the parent metal at the root. Root opening is used to permit penetration and fusion
at the bottom of the weld opening or grove.When the root opening is too small for the weld rod
and insufficient current is used, incomplete penetration may result.

The radiographic image of lack of penetration appears as a straight dark line in the center of the
weld. The width may vary from a thin sharp line to a broad line. Slag inclusions and gas holes
may be found in connection with a lack of penetration causing enlargement of the primary dark

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 line making it appear broad and irregular.

A dark narrow line depicting lack of penetration on a radiograph may be caused due to the
movement of plates as they are welded together. This cause of lack of penetration appears as
very distinct on a radiograph.

18.5 Tungsten Inclusions

When using tungsten electrode for arc welding, some small particles of the tungsten can become
trapped in the metal that is deposited. Due to tungstens high melting point, fusion does not
occur. Tungsten also has a higher atomic weight than the other weld material resulting in a
higher radiation absorption. As a result of being more dense, tungsten inclusions appear on
radiograph as light areas instead of dark.

Tungsten inclusions may appear as single light spots or in clusters of small spots, usually
irregular in shape.

18.6 External Discontinuities

Various types of surface irregularities can result in density variations on a radiograph. As an aid
in interpretation, surface irregularities can be removed prior to radiography being performed.
When it is not feasible to remove surface irregularities, they should be considered during
interpretation to separate them from images of internal discontinuities.

Types of External Discontinuities

a) Incompletely filled weld grooves

b) Concavity at the root of the weld
c) Excessive reinforcement
d) Overlap
e) Excessive penetration
f) Longitudinal grooves
g) Undercut
h) Out-of-line weld beads
i) Change of electrodes
j) Grinding marks
k) Excessive spatter
l) Burn through
m) Machine marks

18.7 Undercutting

Undercutting appears in the radiograph as a dark line of some width at the junction of the' weld
and the base material. A fine line in this darker area may indicate a crack at the fusion line and
should be further investigated.

18.8 Spatter

Spatter on the weld bead or on the material next to it will appear on the radiograph as light spots.
Although not a defect in itself, spatter may cover more serious defects.

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18.9 Arc Strikes

Arc strikes result from carelessness on the part of the welder when striking an arc on the side of
the weld groove. Such tracks are easily recognized on the radiograph and in some cases a
burned spot may show a small star or line radiating from the center which indicates cracks in the
base material.

18.10 Burn Through

Burn through appears on the radiograph as a relatively large round or oblong area in the root of
the weld. When such an area is indicated by merely a circle with a light area in the center, the
second pass has filled the original defect. When a dark area appears, the interpreter can be sure
that a void of some magnitude exists. Frequently the area will appear only slightly darker than
the weld density but will contain a very black line in the center indicating that a second pass filled
the original hole in the root pass and a shrinkage crack has developed. Such a shrinkage crack
can extend entirely through the second pass creating a potential stress point.

8.11 Offset Cover Bead

When a cover bead is not placed directly over the remainder of the weld, the radiograph will
show the relative positions of the cover and the root beads. In severe cases, these two beads
may be side by side instead of superimposed. Such a condition often weakens the weld
structure. This offset may also appear on a radiograph due to improper positioning of the source
during exposure.

19.0 CONCLUSION

The ultimate purpose of radiography is to provide visual information upon which judgements can be
based concerning the disposition of a specimen. Accurate interpretation cannot be made from
inadequate information presented in the image of the radiograph.

Since the radiographic interpreters decisions, directly or indirectly, determine the acceptance of
welds, he must be able to meet the demands. His ability to make quick decisions is an asset to
production and essential to product assurance. The interpreter has an overall responsibility for the
evaluation of radiographic evidence of internal discontinuities in weldments that are critical to the
function of a product or facility.

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 GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN RADIOGRAPHY

absorption - The process whereby the particles or quanta (see photon) in a beam of radiation are
reduced in number or energy as they pass through some medium. The particles lose energy by
interaction with either the nucleus (core) or electrons (shell) of the atoms of the medium.

activity - A measure of how radioactive a particular radiostope is. Activity is calculated by the number of
atoms disintegrating per unit of time. Its unit of measUrement is the curie.

anode (target) - The positive terminal of an x-ray tube. It is a high melting point element and receives
the electron bombardment from the cathode or negative terminal.

artifact - A mechanically produced, indication, a scratch, smudge, etc., on a radiograph that may be
interpreted erroneously as a discontinuity.

atom - The smallest part of an element. It consists of a nucleus composed (with the exception of
hydrogen) of a number of protons and neutrons. Included also is portion composed of electrons equal in
number to the protons. The hydrogen atom includes a nucleus of one proton and one electron.

attenuation (radiographic) - Decrease of radiation caused by passage through material.

background radiation - The radiation of man's natural environment, consisting of that which comes
from cosmic rays and from the naturally radioactive elements of he earth, including that from within
man's body. The term may also mean radiation extraneous to an experiment.

backscatter - Radiation scattered from the floor, walls, equipment and other items n the area of a
radiation source.

barium clay - A molding clay blocking material containing barium compounds placed round a specimen
to eliminate or reduce the amount of scattered or secondary radiation reaching the film.

blister - A discontinuity in metal, on or near the surface, resulting from the expansion of gas in a
subsurface zone. Very small blisters are called "pinheads" r "pepper blisters."

blowhole - A hole in a casting or a weld caused by gas entrapped during solidification.

burst - Fissure or rupture caused by rolling or forging improperly or at improper temperatures. They do
not have a spongy appearance and therefore are distinguishable rom pipe, even if they should occur at
the center.

calcium tungstate - A fluorescent chemical compound which emits visible blue violet light when
activated by either x- or gamma radiation.

cassette - A lightproof container used for holding the radiographic films in position during the
radiographic exposure. It may or may not contain intensifying screens.

cast structure - The internal physical structure of a casting evidenced by shape, orientation of grains
and segregation of impurities.

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casting shrinkage - (l) "liquid shrinkage" - the reduction in volume of liquid metal as it cools to the
liquids; (2) "solidification shrinkage" - the reduction in volume of metal from the beginning to ending of
solidification; (3) "solid shrinkage" - the reduction in volume of metal from the solidus to room
temperature; (4) :'total shrinkage" - the sum of the shrinkage in (l), (2) and (3).

cathode - A negative electrode, as in an x-ray machine.

cesium 137 - A radioactive isotope of the element cesium having a halflife of 30 years, plus or minus
three years.

chatter - In machining or grinding, (l) a vibration of the tool, wheel or workpiece producing a wavy
surface on the work; (2) the finish produced by such vibration.

checks (check marks) - Numerous, very small cracks in metal or other material caused in processing.

chipping - (l) Removing surface defects in metals manually with chisel or gouge or by a continuous
machining, before further processing: (2) similarly, removing excessive, though not defective, metal.

cobalt 60 - A radioisotope of the element cobalt having a half life of approximately 5.3 years.

cold cracks - Appear as a straight line usually continuous throughout its length and generally exist
singly. These cracks start at the surface.

cold shut - (l) A discontinuity that appears on the surface of cast metal as a result o two streams of
liquid meeting and failing to unite; (2) a portion of the surface of a forging that is separated, in part, from
the main body of metal by oxide.

collimator - A device, made of lead, tungsten or spent uranium, used to surround a radiation source.

contrast (radiographic) - The measure of difference in the film blackening resulting from various x-ray
intensities transmitted by the object and recorded as density differences in the image. Thus, difference
in film blackening from one area to another is contrast.

contrast ratio - The relative amount of light emitted or reflected as between an indication and its
background.

contrast, subject - The ratio of radiation intensities passing through selected portions of a specimen.

controlled area - A defined area in which the occupational exposure of personnel to radiation or to
radioactive material is under the supervision of an individual in charge of radiation protection. (This
implies that a controlled area is one that requires control of access, occupancy and working conditions
for radiation protection purposes.)

crack - A discontinuity which has a relatively large cross-section in one direction and a small or
negligible cross-section when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the first.

crater - (l) in machining, a depression in a cutting tool face eroded by chip contact; (2) in arc welding, a
depression at the termination of a bead or in the weld pool beneath the electrode.

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dark adaptation - The adjustment of the pupils of the eyes and internal eye changes when one passes
from a bright to a darkened space. This adjustment permits maximum seeing in the dim area. A
minimum of five minutes must be spent in a darkened viewing room prior to interpreting radiographs.

decay (Radioactive) - The spontaneous change of a nucleus and emission of a particle or a photon. For
the definite quantity of a nuclide, the rate of decay is usually expressed in terms of halflife.

defect - A discontinuity the size, shape, orientation or location of which makes it detrimental to the useful
service of the part in which it occurs.

definition - Sharpness of the outline of the image on a radiograph.

densitometer - Instrument utilizing the photoelectric principle to determine the degree of darkening of
developed photographic film.

density - The degree of blackening of a film is density. Film blackening or density i usually expressed in
terms of the H & D curve (Hurter & Driffield) which is defined as the logarithm of the reciprocal of the
transparency of the film. Blackening equals
Log l/T. CT = Light Transmission). :

detail <radiographic) - The degree of sharpness of outline of the image. If the radio- graph does not
show a clear definition of the object or a discontinuity in the object, it is of little value although it may
have sufficient contrast and density.

developer (radiographic) - A chemical solution which reduces exposed silver halide crystals to metallic
silver.

diffraction mottling - A diffuse diffraction pattern on a radiograph resulting from x-raying thin sections
of crystalline material.

discontinuity - Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part, such as
cracks, laps, seams, inclusions or porosity. A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of a
part.

dose - The amount of ionizing radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of irradiated material at a
specific location, such as a part of the human body. Measured in reps, rems, and rads.

dose rate - The radiation dose delivered per unit time and measured, for instance, in rems peer hour
(see also dose)

dosimeter - A device that measures radiation dose, such as a film badge or ionization chamber.

electromagnetic radiation - Radiation consisting of electric and magnetic waves that travel at the
speed of light. Examples: light, radio waves, gamma rays, x-rays. All can be transmitted through a
vacuum.

emulsion (radiographic) - A gelatin and silver bromide crystal mixture coated onto a transparent film
base.

evaluation - The process of deciding as to the severity of the condition after the indication has been

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interpreted. Evaluation leads to the decision as to whether the part must be rejected, salvaged or
accepted for use.

exposure, film - Intensity multiplied by time.

external discontinuities - Surface irregularities which cause density variations on a radiograph. These
are observable with the naked eye.

false indication - In nondestructive examination, an indication that may be interpreted erroneously as a

discontinuity.

fast film - Radiographic film which has inherent graininess characteristics of a coarse nature intended to
increase the relative film speed.

film badge - A package of photographic film worn like a badge to measure exposure to ionizing
radiation. The absorbed dose can be calculated by the degree of film darkening caused by the
irradiation.

film holder - A light tight carrier for films and screens.

film speed - Relative exposure required to attain a specified density.

filter - A layer of absorptive material that is placed in the beam of radiation for the purpose of absorbing
rays of certain wavelengths and thus controlling the quality of the radiograph.

filtration (inherent) - The filtration exhibited by the container and other materials o radiation source
through which the radiation must pass before it is utilized.

fine crack - A discontinuity in a solid material with a very fine opening to the surface but possessing
length and depth greater than the width of this opening: usually depth s many times the width.

fixer - A chemical solution which dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals from developed film
emulsions.

fluorescence <radiographic) - The emission of electromagnetic radiation by a substance as the result

of the absorption of electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation having greater unit energy than that of the
fluorescent radiation. Fluorescence is characterized by the fact that it occurs only so long as the
stimulus responsible for it is maintained. The characteristic x-radiation emitted as a result of absorption
of x-rays focal-film distance (ffd) - The distance in inches between the focal spot of the x-ray tube, or the
radiation source, and the film.

fog - A darkening of the film resulting from chemical action of the developer, aging, scattered secondary
radiation, pre-exposure to radiation or exposure to visible light.

forward scatter - Radiation scattered in approximately the same direction as the primary beam.

gamma rays - High-energy, short wavelength electromagnetic radiation emitted by a nucleus. Energies
of gamma rays are usually between 0.010 and 10 mev. X-rays also occur in this energy range, but are of
nonnuclear origin. Gamma radiation usually accompanies alpha and beta emissions and always
accompanies fission. Gamma rays are very penetrating and are best attenuated by dense materials like
lead and depleted uranium.

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gas holes - Holes created by a gas escaping from molten metal.

gas holes (on radiograph) - Appear as round or elongated, smooth-edged dark spots, occurring individually, in
clusters or distributed throughout the casting..

gas porosity - Refers to porous sections in metal that appear as round or elongated dark spots corresponding to
minute voids usually distributed through the entire casting.

graininess - A film characteristic resulting from the grouping or clumping together of the countless small silver
grains into relatively large masses visible to the naked eye or with slight magnification.

grinding cracks - Shallow cracks formed in the surface of relatively hard materials because of excessive grinding
heat or the high sensitivity of the material.

gross porosity - In weld metal or in casting, pores, gas holes or globular voids that are larger and in greater
number than obtained in good practice.

halflife - The time in which half the atoms in a radioactive substance disintegrate. Halflives vary from millionths of a
second to billions of years.

half value layer - The thickness of a material which stops 50 percent of the radiation which strikes it.

"hard" x-rays - A term used to express the quality or penetrating power of x-radiation. Hard x-rays are very
penetrating.

high radiation area - Any area, accessible to personnel, in which there exists radiation at such levels that a major
portion of the body could receive in any one hour a dose in excess of lOO millirems.

holes - Any void remaining in a specimen as a result of improper manufacturing processing. Often called gas
holes, cavities, or air locks.

hot cracks - Appear as ragged dark lines of variable width any numerous branches. They have no definite line of
continuity and may exist in groups. They may originate internally or at the surface.

hot tear - A fracture formed in a metal during solidification because of hindered contraction.

icicles (drop through) - Metal which protrudes beyond the root of the weld.

inclusion - Any foreign matter contained in welds or castings.

incomplete fusion - Failure of weld metal to fuse completely with the base metal or preceding weld bead.

incomplete penetration - Root penetration which is less than complete or failure of a root pass and a backing pass
to fuse with each other.

indication - In nondestructive examination, a response or evidence of a response, that requires interpretation to

determine its significance.

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induced radioactivity - Radioactivity that is created by bombarding a substance with neutrons in a reactor or with
charged particles produced by particle accelerators.

inherent defects - Discontinuities which are normal in the material at the time it originally solidifies from the molten
state.

intensifying screen - A layer of material placed in contact with the film to increase the effect of the radiation, thus
shortening the exposure.

intensity - The amount of rays or particles emitted per unit of time.

inverse square law - At a distance from a point source of radiation, the intensity of energy received varies as the
invere square of the distance from the source.

iridium 192 - A radioactive isotope of the element Iridium which has a halflife of 75 days. It is used extensively as
a source of gamma radiation in industrial radiography.

irradiation - Exposure to radiation, as in a nuclear reactor.

isotope - Atoms with the same atomic number (same chemical element) but different atomic weights. An
equivalent statement is that the nuclei have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

joint penetration - The distance weld metal and fusion extend into a joint.

kev - 1,000 ev (see electron volt)

kilovolt (kv) - Unit of electromotive force or potential equal to 1000 volts.

lack of fusion - Discontinuity due to lack of union between weld metal and parent metals

laminations - Metal defects with separation or weakness generally aligned parallel to the worked surface of the
metal. May be the result of pipe, blisters, seams, inclusion or segregation elongated and made directional by
working. Lamination defects may also occur in metal-powder compacts.

lap - A surface defect, appearing as a seam, caused by folding over hot metal or sharp corners and then rolling or
forging them into the surface, but not welding them.

latitude (radiographic) - The range of thickness of material that can be recorded with the useful reading range of
film density. A high contrast film has little latitude and conversely a low contrast film has great latitude.

macroshrinkage - A casting defect, detectable at magnifications not exceeding ten diameters, consisting of voids
in the form of stringers shorter than shrinkage cracks. This defect results from contraction during solidification where
there is not an adequate opportunity to supply filler material to compensate for the shrinkage. It is usually
associated with abrupt changes in section size.

mev - One million electron volts.

macroshrinkage - A casting defect, not detectable at magnifications lower than ten diameters, consisting of
interdendritic voids. This defect results from contraction during solidification where there is not an adequate
opportunity to supply filler material to compensate for shrinkage. Alloys with a wide range in solidification

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temperature are particularly susceptible.

macroshrinkage (on radiograph> - Appears as dark feathery streaks or irregular patches that indicate cavities in
the grain boundaries.

milli - A prefix that divides a basic unit by one thousand.

milliampere - Unit of electric current equal to one thousandth of an ampere.

milliroentgen (mr) - One-thousandth of a roentgen.

penetrameter - A strip of metal the same composition as that of the metal being tested, representing a percentage
of object thickness and provided with a combination of steps, holes or slots. When placed in the path of the rays, its
image provides a check on the radiographic technique employed.

personnel monitoring equipment - Devices designed to be worn or carried by an individual for the purpose of
measuring the dose received (e.g., film badges, pocket chambers, pocket dosimeters, film rings, etc.).

pig - A container usually made of lead or U 238 used to shield radioactive sources when not in use.

pipe - (l) The central cavity formed by contraction in metal, especially ingots, during solidification: (2> the defect in
wrought or cast products resulting from such a cavity (3) &n extrusion defect due to the oxidized surface of the billet
flowing toward the center of the rod at the back end.

pitting - Forming small sharp cavities in a metal surface by nonuniform electro-deposition or by corrosion.

pores - Small voids in the body of a metal.

porosity - Fine holes or pores within a metal.

primary radiation - Radiation arising directly from the target of an x-ray tube or from a radioactive source.

rad - radiation absorbed dose - The basic unit of absorbed dose of ionizing radiation. One rad is equal to the
absorption of 100 ergs of radiation energy per gram of matter.

radiation - The propagation of energy through matter or space in the form of waves. In atomic physics the term has
been extended to include fast-moving particles (alpha and beta rays, free neutrons, etc.) Gamma rays and x-rays, of
particular interest in atomic physics, are electromagnetic radiation in which energy is propagated in packets called
photons.

radiation area - Any area, accessible to personnel, in which there exists radiation, at such levels that a major
portion of the body could receive in any one hour a dose in excess of five millirems, or in any seven consecutive
days, a dose in excess of 100 millirems.

radiation safety officer - An individual engaged in the practices of providing radiation protection. He is the
representative appointed by the licensee for liaison with the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.

radioactive - Atoms which are energetically unstable and decay to a stable condition by emitting radiation are said
to be radioactive.

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radioactive contamination - Deposition of any radioactive material in any place where i is not desired, particularly
where it may be harmful.

radioactive material - Natural or manmade material which emits alpha, beta or gamma radiation. i.e. radium,
iridium 192, cobalt 60.

radioactivity - Spontaneous nuclear disintegration with emission of corpuscular or electromagnetic radiations. The
principal types of radioactivity are alpha disintegration, beta decay (electron emission, positron emission, and
electron capture) and isomeric transition.

radiographer - Any individual who performs or who, in attendance at the site where the sealed source or sources
are being used, personally supervises radiographic operations and who is responsible to the licensee for assuring
compliance with the requirements of these regulations and the conditions of the licenses.

radiographic code - A code for specifying minimum standards related to radio- graphic practices.

radiographic exposure device - Any instrument containing a sealed source fastened or contained therein, in which
the sealed source or shielding thereof may be moved, or otherwise changed, from a shielded to unshielded position
for purposes of making a radiographic exposure.

radiographic interpretation - The determination of the cause and significance of subsurface discontinuities
indicated on the radiograph. The evaluation as to the acceptability or resectability of the material is based upon the
Judicious application of the radiographic specifications and standards governing the material.

radiographic screens - Metallic or fluorescent sheets used to intensify the radiation effect on films.

radiography - The use of radiant energy in the form of x-rays or gamma rays for nondestructive examination of
opaque objects, in order to produce graphical records on sensitized films which indicate the comparative soundness
of the object being tested.

radioisotope - An unstable isotope of an element that decays or disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radiation.
More than 1300 natural and artificial radiostopes have been identified.

RBE Dose - Relative biological effectiveness. An RBE dose is the dose measured in rems.

reference radiographs - A group of radiographs containing images of discontinuities. These can be used as
comparison "standards" for acceptability of materials.

reinforcement of weld - (l) In a butt Joint, weld metal on the face of the weld that extends out beyond a surface
plane common to the members being welded; (2) in a fillet weld, weld metal that contributes to convexity; (3) in a
flash, upset or gas- pressure weld, the original diameter or thickness.

REM - Roentgen equivalent in man. A unit of absorbed radiation dose in biological matter. It is equal to the
absorbed dose in rads multiplied by the relative biological effectiveness of the radiation.

roentgen - A unit of exposure dose of ionizing radiation. It is that amount of gamma or x-rays required to produce
ions carrying l electrostatic unit of electrical charge in l cubic centimeter of dry air under standard conditions.

root crack - A crack in either the weld or heat-affected zone at the root of a weld.

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root penetration - The depth to which weld metal extends into the root of a joint.

safelight - A special lamp used in the darkroom to provide working visibility without affecting the photosensitive
emulsion of the radiographic film.

segregation (radiographic) -Variation in film density which can be explained by segregation of elements of atomic
numbers different from that of the matrix.

sensitivity (radiographic) - The percent ratio of the thickness of the smallest detectable defect to the thickness of
the specimen being examined. It is a measure of the capability to detect a small discontinuity.

shallow discontinuity - A discontinuity open to the surface of a solid object which possesses little depth in
proportion to the width of this opening. A scratch or nick may be a "shallow discontinuity" in this sense.

shield - A layer or mass of material used to reduce the passage of ionizing radiation.

shrinkage cavities - Cavities in castings caused by lack of sufficient molten metal as the casting cools.

shrinkage cavity <on radiograph) - A small bubble in metal that appears as a dendritic, filamentary, or jagged
darkened area on a radiograph film.

shrinkage cracks - Hot tears associated with shrinkage cavities.

shrinkage porosity or sponge <nonferrous alloys, radiographic) - A localized lacy, or honeycombed, darkened
area on a film that indicates porous metal.

slag inclusions - Nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld metal and base metal.

slag lines - Elongated cavities containing slag or other foreign matter.

soft x-rays - The quality or penetrating power of x-radiation; their penetrating power is relatively slight.

solidification shrinkage - the decrease in volume of a metal during solidification.

source - The origin of radiation: an x-ray tube or a radioisotope.

source-film distance - The distance between the focal spot of an x-ray tube or radiation source and the film;
generally expressed in inches.

stepped wedge - A device which is used with appropriate penetrameters on each step, for the inspection of parts
having great variations in thickness or a complex geometry. The stepped wedge must be made of material
radiographically similar to that being radiographed.

stress corrosion cracking - Failure by cracking under combined action of corrosion and stress, either external
(applied) or internal <residual). Cracking may be either intergranular or transgranular, depending on metal and
corrosive medium.

subsurface discontinuity - Any discontinuity which does not open onto the surface of the part in which it exists.
Not detectable by liquid penetrant inspection.

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survey meter - A portable instrument which measures dose rate of exposure or radiation intensity.

target - A material bombarded by any radiation, as the target is bombarded by

toe crack -A base-metal crack at the toe of the weld

toe of weld - The Junction between the face of a weld and the base metal.

tungsten inclusions - Inclusions in welds resulting from particles or splinters of tungsten welding electrodes.

two-film technique - A procedure wherein two films of different relative speeds are used simultaneously to
radiograph both the thick and the thin sections of an item.

2-2T Radiography - Quality level of radiography in which the finished radiograph displays a discernible image of a
penetrameter hole that has a diameter equal to twice the penetrameter thickness. The penetrameter thickness
equals two percent of the material thickness.

underbead crack - A subsurface crack in the base metal near the weld.

undercut - A depression or groove adjoining the toe of a weld in a metal object. Appears on a radiograph as a dark
area.

undercut (radiographic) - The excess blackening of the film within the image of any unblocked edge due to
radiation scattered, or passing around, not through, the object.

unsharpness, geometrical - The fuzziness or lack of definition in a radiographic

weld bead - A deposit of filler metal from a single welding pass.

weld crack - A crack in weld metal.

weld metal - That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.

worm holes <pipes) - Elongated or tubular cavities due to entrapped gas.

x-ray - Penetrating electromagnetic radiation emitted when the inner orbital electrons of an atom are excited and
release energy. Thus, the radiation is nonnuclear in origin and is generated in practice by bombarding a metallic
target with high-speed electrons.

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NOTES

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

1.0 INTRODUCTION l
2.0 USES OF RADIOGRAPHY l
3.0 APPLICABILITY l
4.0 PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHY 3
5.0 SOURCES OF RADIATION 4
6.0 GEOMETRY OF EXPOSURE 4
7.0 PRINCIPLES OF SHADOW FORMATION 5
8.0 ESSENTIAL VARIABLES OF EXPOSURE 8
9.0 RADIOGRAPHIC FILM CHARACTERISTICS 11
10.0 SCATTERED RADIATION 13
11.0 RADIOGRAPHIC DEFINITION 13
12.0 SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES 14
13.0 ELEMENTS OF RADIOGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION 17
14.0 VIEWING RADIOGRAPHS 17
15.0 PENETRAMETERS 18
16.0 SPECIFICATIONS AND CODES 21
17.0 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES 22
18.0 TYPICAL WELDING DEFECTS AND CONDITIONS 22
19.0 CONCLUSION 26
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 27
NOTES 38

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