LIQUID PENETRANT

EXAMINATION

BECHTEL

MATERIALS AND QUALITY SERVICES

&
SUPPLIER QUALITY DEPARTMENT

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA

Rev. 0 - April 1993
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO LIQUID PENETRANT EXAMINATION 1

1.1 History of Liquid Penetrant Examination 1

1.2 Purpose of Liquid Penetrant 1
1.3 Basic Principles of Liquid Penetrant Examination 1-2
1.4 Various Processes Available for Liquid Penetrant Examination 2-4
1.5 Chemical Properties 4-5

2.0 LIQUID PENETRANT EXAMINATION PROCESS 5

2.1 Surface Preparation of Parts Prior to Examining 5

2.2 Penetrant Application 5-10
2.3 Surface Penetrant Removal after Dwell Time 10-14
2.4 Developer Application 14-16
2.5 Post-Examination Cleaning 16-17

3.0 INTERPRETATION OF EXAMINATION RESULTS 18

3.1 Proper Lighting 18

3.2 Indications 18-19
3.3 Categories of True Indications 19-21
3.4 Common Terminology 21-23

4.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 23-24

5.0 GLOSSARY 24-27

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1.0 INTRODUCTION TO LIQUID PENETRANT EXAMINATION

1.1 History of Liquid Penetrant Examination

Prior to world war II, use of nondestructive examination was almost nonexistent. The early
examination methods were limited to destructive testing. Destructive testing was considered
necessary to provide data for use in design or to check the overall physical properties of the
material. These tests included: chemical analysis, tensile, compressive or impact test of steel
and other metals, and similar efforts intended to reassure the engineer, that he was getting the
properties that were assumed in the design. Large factors of safety were used in the design of
the equipment making it large and heavy. however, there was no way of knowing if the parts
contained internal defects which would increase their failure rates. bat was needed was a way to
test for defects in parts, without destroying the part under test.

Liquid penetrant examination will only detect those discontinuities which are open to the surface.
The first use of the liquid penetrant examination was that of "oil and whiting." The "oil and
whiting" method was used for' examining railroad parts, such as axles and couplings, about thirty
years ago.

1.2 Purpose of Liquid Penetrant

The liquid penetrant examination method is used for detecting discontinuities that are open to the
surface. It can be effectively used in the inspection of non- porous metallic materials, both
ferrous and nonferrous, and on nonporous nonmetallic materials such as ceramics, plastics, and
glass.

Surface discontinuities such as cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts, porosity, laminations, or lack of
bond can be detected using this method. Liquid penetrant examinations are applicable to
inprocess, (depending on temperature of the part), final and inservice examination.

It is important to reemphasize that a liquid penetrant examination will detect only those
discontinuities which are open to the surface. Figure 1-1 is shown here as a typical specimen.
The specimen has been cut to reveal a cross-section of the inside. There are two discontinuities -
but only one of these discontinuities would be detect-able with the liquid penetrant examination
before the cross-section was cut. The discontinuity on the left, the one open to the surface would
be detectable.

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1.3 Basic Principles of Liquid
Penetrant Examination

As mentioned before, the "oil and

whiting" method was used for
examining rail- road parts, such as
axles and couplings. First, the
surface was prepared for the test by
removing as much dirt, grease, rust
and scale, etc. as possible. Then the
part was soaked in kerosene long
enough for the kerosene to enter any
discontinuities which were open to the
surface. The article was then
removed from the kerosene and the
excess kerosene remaining on the
surface was wiped away. After this action, the only kerosene remaining was that which had
penetrated into the discontinuities. A thin coat of white powder was then applied to the entire
surface. The white powder served as a developer. Soon, if there were discontinuities, the
kerosene penetrant was drawn to the surface by the developer. The kerosene from the
discontinuity changed the color of the developer above and surrounding the discontinuities, and
in that way a visible image of the discontinuity was formed on the surface.

Liquid penetrant examination, a nondestructive means of locating and determining the severity
of surface discontinuities in materials, is based on capillary action. Capillary action, or capillary
attraction, is the action by which the surface of a liquid, where it is in contact with a solid, is
elevated or depressed. The materials, processes, and procedures used in liquid penetrant
examination are all designed to facilitate capillary action and to make the results of such action
visible and capable of interpretation.

The phenomenon of capillary action is one of the most important forces in nature. The rate and
extent of the action associated with it are dependent upon such (actors as forces of cohesion and
adhesion, surface tension and viscosity. Capillary action can be observed when a plastic straw
is inserted into a glass of water. Then the straw is inserted, the water molecules enter the straw
and begin to attract other nearby molecules, pulling them up the straw by cohesion. This
process continues as the water rises higher and higher. The water continues to rise until the pull
of the surface tension is equalized. Cohesive forces prevent the water from falling back down
the straw. Capillary action as applied in nondestructive examination is somewhat more complex,
since various surface conditions hindering or assisting the action are encountered. Liquid
penetrants used in nondestructive examinations have low tension and high capillarity. Capillary
action is illustrated in Figure 1-2.

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1.4 Various Processes Available for Liquid Penetrant
Examination

The liquid penetrants used in nondestructive

examination can be categorized by thy type of dye
they contain and method by which they are removed
from a specimen. Two types of penetrants are; those
which contain fluorescent dye, and those which
contain visible colored dye. These two types of
penetrants can be used by three methods: (1) process
using penetrants removable by water (water-
washable), (2) process using penetrants that require
emulsification prior to removal (post-emulsification),
and (3) process using penetrants that require removal
by a solvent (solvent removable).

1.4.1 Fluorescent and Visible Dye Penetrant

Basically, any liquid could be considered a penetrant.

The so-called "penetrating power" is gained from a
force in nature called "capillary action." This force is a
characteristic of most liquids. Capillary action is the
force that causes sap to rise in trees, oil to rise in a
lamp-wick, a paper towel to soak up water, and a
blotter to clean up spilled ink. The liquid penetrant
placed on a surface during an examination does not Figure 1-2 Capillary Action
merely seep into discontinuities, it is pulled into them
by capillary action. Penetrant does not depend upon
gravity. Capillary action is the reason the under surface of an item can be covered with a
penetrant and have it work its way upward into a discontinuity while working against gravity. For
liquid penetrant examination, however, a great deal more is required from "penetrants" than the
ability to capitalize upon capillary action. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-3 & 1-4.

The penetrant must have "fluidity" and good capillary action - so it will 'penetrate into the
smallest discontinuities and drain well. The penetrant must have viscosity because it must have
the body to stay on the surface during its application. A certain amount of volatility is desired
because it aids a penetrant's brilliance. And, of course, it must have the right combination of
"body" and wetability - a function of capillary action.

Fluorescent materials are those that will glow visibly as a brilliant yellow- green color when
exposed to "black light."

"Black light" is light with wave lengths that fall between visible and ultra-violet and is not visible
to the unaided human eyes. It is in no way injurious to humans. The inspection is conducted in
a darkened area with "black light" as the only illumination. The fluorescent materials have a
characteristic which causes them to absorb the "black light" and give off a glow which is visible
to the human eye.

The name visible-dye is used to indicate a dye which contrasts sharply with its background in
normal lighting such as daylight or incandescent light. No darkened area is required when it is
used. Just the opposite, a well-lighted area is required. This die is usually seen as a brilliant red

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 against a chalk-white background or there Visible-dye penetrants are not the most sensitive
materials and suffer by comparison with fluorescent penetrants, which are more visible and have
greater penetration and thus more likely to be seen by the examiner. However, visible
penetrants do not require viewing in a special dark area illuminated with black light.

Sufficient time is allowed for penetration of surface discontinuities. If the discontinuity is small or
narrow, as in a crack or pinhole, capillarity assists the penetration. When the opening is gross in
nature, such as a tear or core blow, the liquid may be trapped when poured over the specimen.

DISCONTINUITY
INDICATORS

After sufficient time has

passed for the penetrant to
enter the surface
discontinuities, it is removed.
The removal process clears
the surface of the specimen
but permits the penetrant in
the discontinuities to remain.
Capillary action is again
employed in the process. A
developer, which acts as a
blotter, is then applied to the
test surface. The blotting
action of the developer draws
the penetrant from the Figure 1-3 Penetration of Surface Discontinuities
discontinuity and the
penetrant appears on the
surface of the specimen as an indication.

1.4.2 Water Washable, Post

Emulsification and Solvent
Removable Penetrant

Water-washable penetrants
contain an emulsifying agent
which makes them easily
removable by a water rinse or
wash. The only difference
between fluorescent material
and visible dye water-
washable penetrants is that
the fluorescent material glows
yellow-green when exposed
to black light and the visible
dye, usually red, is easily
Figure 1-4 Reversed Capillary Action
seen under ordinary white
light.

Post-emulsification penetrants are highly penetrating oily materials which do not contain an

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 emulsifying agent and consequently are not soluble in water. These penetrants must be treated
with an emulsifier before they can be removed by a water rinse or wash.

Emulsifiers, when applied to a penetrant coated specimen, combine with the penetrant so as to
make the resultant mixture removable by water rinse or wash. The emulsifiers themselves have
low penetrant characteristics and do not penetrate into or remove indications from the specimen
surface discontinuities.

Solvent-removable penetrants are oily penetrants that do not contain an emulsifying agent and
differ from post-emulsifiable °penetrants in that they do not accept emulsification. They are
removable only by solvents specially desired for that purpose.

1.4.3 Types of Developers

Two types of developers are employed. One, a dry developer, consists of a dry, light, and fluffy
material that is usually white in color, and may have a tinting color added to aid in the color-
contrast of some parts. Dry developer is applied to the surface of the parts after removal of the
excess penetrant and drying of the part. Dry developer is applied; (1) by immersing the parts in a
tank containing powder, (2) powder is picked up with a scoop, and the powder is dropped onto
the part with the excess being shook or tapped off, (3) by lightly blowing the powder onto the
surface of the part with a rubber hand held spray bulb or by low pressure air spray gun. The
other type is wet developer and consists of powdered material suspended in a suitable liquid,
such as water or a volatile solvent. The use of the wet developers permits rapid coverage of a
large number of parts or of parts that have complicated shapes.

1.5 Chemical Properties

Contaminants such as sulfur or halogens can induce stress corrosion cracks which could be
detrimental to the useful life of the part. During the service life of the part or weld, these stress
corrosion cracks could propagate and cause a failure.

Liquid penetrant, (includes dye compounds, solvents, developer, etc., and excludes aerosol
propellants) have the following chemical requirements:

1. Total halogen (organic and inorganic) - shall not exceed 1.0 percent maximum by
weight.

2. Sulphur - shall not exceed 1.0 percent maximum by weight.

2.0 Liquid Penetrant Examination Process

2.1 Surface Preparation of Parts Prior to Examining

For any penetrant method, success depends on the flaws being open to the surface. Cleaning is
therefore one of the most important steps in liquid penetrant testing.

2.1.1 Removal of Surface Irregularities

To be adequately prepared for any liquid penetrant examination, the surface to be examined
shall be prepared by grinding or any other suitable mechanical means, only to the degree
necessary to remove surface irregularities that can otherwise make relevant indications. If the

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 surface has a coating such as paint or plating, it must also be removed by grinding or any other
suitable mechanical means.

Shot and sandblasting, are not recommended for removing surface coatings. The risk is that a
discontinuity, otherwise open to the surface, might be closed. If shot and sandblasting are used,
the discontinuities can be reopened with a chemical etching process.

Cleaning methods generally are classified as chemical, mechanical, solvent, or combinations

thereof, with the most common being the solvent method with the use of vapor de greasing.

2.1.2 Solvent Cleaning of Surface

Solvent removers, sometimes referred to as cleaners, differ from emulsifiers in that they remove
excess surface penetrant through direct solvent action. The penetrant is dissolved by the
solvent remover. There are two basic types of solvent removers: flammable and nonflammable.
Flammable cleaners are free of halogens, but are potential fire hazards. Nonflammable
cleaners usually contain halogenated solvents, which render them unsuitable for some
applications, usually because of their toxicity.

Excess surface penetrant is most often removed by wiping using cloths slightly moistened with
solvent remover(cleaner). Wiping is continued until traces of penetrant fall to appear on the
cloth. Solvent removers should never be sprayed directly onto the item being examined.

CAUTION: Solvent cleaners are toxic. Most are flammable. Avoid breathing
their fumes for long periods. Avoid skin contact with them, and
never smoke while handling them.

2.2 Penetrant Application

2.2.1 Methods

Dye penetrants, either fluorescent or visible can be applied by the same method. They can be
applied by either dipping, spraying, or brushing. Regardless of which technique is chosen, the
surface area to be examined must be adequately covered when applying the penetrant.
Minimum coverage should be as follows:

1. Penetrant must cover at least one-half inch on either side of weldments.

2. Cover all other surfaces at least one full inch around the area to be examined.

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 Figure 2-1. Sequence of Liquid Penetrant Tests

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 Figure 2-2 Fluorescent Penetrant Processes (Type 1)

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 Figure 2-3 Visible Penetrant Processes (Type II)

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 Figure 2-4 Typical Stationary Test Equipment

2.2.2 Sequence
The sequence of the examination procedure, although basically the same for all penetrant
examinations can be broken into seven main steps:

l. The surface to be examined is cleaned.

2. The penetrant is applied to the surface of the specimen.

3. After allowing time for the penetrant to seep into the opening, the penetrant remaining on
the surface is removed without removing penetrant from the discontinuity.

4. The developer is applied to aid in drawing the penetrant up or out to the surface.

5. The surface of the specimen is visually examined to locate penetrant indications which
have formed in the developer coating.

6. The developer coating, together with minute amounts of penetrant remaining in it, is
completely removed.

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2.2.3 Dwell Time

Sufficient time should be allowed for the penetrant to enter all the discontinuities so that capillary
action may do its job. This time is called the penetration time or "dwell" time which is in
accordance with specific procedures that will be covered in this manual.

There are other important' points to consider when using penetrant dwell times to specific
requirements of specification:

1. The minimum times recommended in the specifications are based on the assumption
that the penetrant will remain wet throughout the dwell time. This means that the
penetrant must initially be applied liberally to the test surface. Also, additional penetrant
may have to be applied during the dwell time if it appears that the initial coat is drying.
This will assure full penetration into discontinuities. If the dwell time exceeds 30
minutes, the penetrant will have to be reapplied to assure that the penetrant remains wet
during the entire dwell time.

2. While there is no maximum penetration time recommended, the penetrant must be

maintained wet prior to starting the next step. Because of this, once the minimum dwell
time is reached it is best to proceed immediately to the next step of the procedure while
the penetrant is still wet.

3. The penetrant should be used in "normal" temperatures. Normal temperature is that

temperature in which the penetrant will remain between 60°F and 125°F when it is
applied and during the dwell time.

2.2.4 Temperature

The low temperature limit of 60°F presents a problem, because it may be common practice in
some areas to apply penetrant outdoors at temperatures around freezing. Below 60°F, the
penetrant becomes sluggish and its capillary action is greatly reduced. In extremely low
temperatures, the penetrant may become so sluggish and its capillary action so reduced that it
will not enter discontinuities regardless of the time allowed. The upper limit presents a problem
in that the penetrant will dry out before the capillary action has taken place. In these cases,
extra attention must be maintained to keep the article(s) wet during its dwell time.

When it is not practical to perform a liquid penetrant examination within the temperature range
Of 60°F to 125°F, the examination procedure at the proposed temperature outside the range
requires further qualification. This shall be accomplished by producing quench cracks in an
aluminum block, which is designated as a "liquid penetrant comparator." One section of the block
shall be examined at the proposed temperature and the other section at a temperature in the
range of 60°F to 125°F for comparison of proper penetration.

2.3 Surface Penetrant Removal After Dwell Time

Excess penetrant is that penetrant which is still on the surface of an article that has not entered a
discontinuity during the penetration time. When removing excess penetrant, care must be taken
not to remove penetrant from discontinuity.

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2.3.1 Method For Removal

If the penetrant has dried it may pull out penetrant from the discontinuities. This is one reason for
having the penetrant wet prior to starting the removal. If the penetrant has dried on the surface,
it is not permissible to just wet the penetrant with a new application. The test piece must be
recleaned and the entire process repeated from the beginning.

The method of removing the excess penetrant depends upon the type of penetrant used. It has
previously been determined that there are two categories of penetrants - fluorescent and visible-
dye. For both categories there is a further breakdown. There are three types of penetrants: water
washable, post emulsification, and solvent removable.

Two of these are soluble with water, i.e., their excess can be removed with water. These types
of penetrant are: post-emulsification (PE) and water washable.

The third type of penetrant is not soluble in water and its excess cannot be removed with water.
A special solvent is required to remove it from the surface. This is the origin of the term "solvent
removable."

2.3.2 Materials

2.3.2.1 Solvent Removable Penetrant

Solvent removable penetrant is removed with a clean, dry, lint-free cloth or absorbent paper
towel as much as possible. The remainder is then removed with another clean, lint-free cloth
which is dampened, but not saturated, with a "penetrant remover."

Penetrant remover is a solvent cleaner produced by the manufacturer of the penetrant

specifically for the removal of his own type of penetrant. Only those penetrant removers
recommended by the manufacturer of the penetrant may be used. Flushing the surface or the
use of a saturated cloth with a penetrant remover may remove penetrants from the flaws, and is
therefore not permitted.

2.3.2.2 Water Washable Penetrant

Water washable penetrant has a built-in emulsifier. An emulsifier is a chemical that has been
added to the penetrant that makes the penetrant soluble in water. For the water-washable
system (as well as for the other systems), removing the penetrant from the work piece is
probably the most important step in obtaining reproducible results. If penetrant removal is
performed properly, penetrant will be stripped from the surface, but will remain in the
discontinuities. See Figure 2-5.

Penetrants can be removed directly from the work piece with a simple water rinse (spray or dip).
Effective rinsing can be accomplished using manual, semiautomatic or automatic spray, or
immersion. The degree and speed of removal depends on spray-nozzle characteristics, water
pressure and temperature, and on roughness of the work piece surface. When fluorescent
penetrant is used, rinsing should be done under "black light" so that it can be determined when
the excess surface penetrant has been adequately removed.

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 A. Fluorescent or dye penetrant seeps B. Water spray removes surface penetrant
into discontinuity

C. Developer is applied, drawing penetrant D. Indication is viewed under visible light

to surface or blacklight if Process A is used

Figure 2-5 Process A and C

Rinse time should be determined experimentally for specific workpieces; It usually varies from
15 seconds to two minutes. For spray rinsing, water pressure should be constant. A pressure of
30 psi is desirable and 50 psi is maximum; too much pressure may remove penetrant from the
flaws. A course spray is recommended and water temperature should be relatively constant.
Most penetrants can be removed effectively with water at 15°C to 40°C (about 60°F to 105°F).

2.3.2.3 Post-Emulsification Penetrant

Both water washable and post-emulsification penetrants can be removed with water. However,
one of the two types requires an extra step before it becomes water soluble. This penetrant is
the one called post-emulsification (PE) penetrant. The FE penetrant does not contain a "built-in"
emulsifier so emulsification must be accomplished by applying a chemical emulsifier prior to
washing that will break the penetrant down and make it water soluble. See Figure 2-6.

The emulsifier can be applied in the same way as was the penetrant with one exception; never
apply the emulsifier with a brush. Spraying is OK and so is dipping, but brushing is prohibited
because the bristles of a brush are apt to "brush away" penetrant from shallow discontinuities.

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 The most critical operation during the entire liquid penetrant examination process begins when
the emulsifier is applied to the penetrant. The critical factor is time. The emulsifier must be
allowed to remain on the surface until it has mixed with the surface penetrant but not long
enough for it to penetrate and mix with penetrant in the discontinuities. Emulsification time will
be in accordance with applicable procedures.

The requirements for the wash water are the same as for the water washable penetrant method.

A. Fluorescent penetrant seeps into B. Emulsifier applied to penetrant

discontinuity

C. Surface penetrant is emulsified D. Water spray removes emulsified

penetrant

E. Developer draws penetrant out of F. Black light causes indications to

Discontinuity fluoresce when viewed in dark

Figure 2-6 Process B

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2.3.2.4 Checking to Determine if Surface Penetrant is All Removed

When using visible dye penetrants, a check is made to assure that all excess penetrant has been
removed in the following manner: take another clean cloth and wipe it over the surface and if it
fails to show traces of the dye color, usually pink or red, the surface has been properly cleaned
of excess penetrant. when using fluorescent dyes, the excess penetrant is removed under a
"black light" as the operator can easily tell when the excess penetrant has been removed.

2.4. Developer Application

2.4.1 Preparation of Developer Prior to Application

Because penetrant commences to bleed out of discontinuities immediately following removal of

excess surface penetrant, the developer is applied to the specimen as soon as the penetrant
removal process is completed. Developer assists in the detection of penetrants retained in
discontinuities by aiding in the capillary bleed-out process (the developer acts as a blotting
agent), and by accentuating the presence of penetrant in a discontinuity. Developer accentuates
the presence of a discontinuity because it causes the penetrant from the discontinuity to spread
out over a greater area. It also serves as a color contrast background for the visIble dye used in
the visible dye processes and for the fluorescent material used in the fluorescent processes.
Developer is available in both dry and liquid forms and the selection of developer is in
accordance with the manufacturers' recommendation for the type penetrant used. when a dry or
nonaqueous developer is used, the specimen must be completely dry before the developer is
applied. when a wet developer Is used, it is applied immediately after the penetrant removal is
accomplished and the specimen is dried.

2.4.1.1 Dry Developer

Dry developer being a loose, fluffy talcum powder with high absorbent properties is applied to a
specimen by dusting, blowing, or dipping the specimen. The application is usually accomplished
in a booth with a blower or fan arrangement that removes loose powder from the atmosphere.
No preparation of the powder is necessary and the only requirement is that it be evenly
distributed over the test surface which must be completely dry. Developing time with dry powder
is approximately one-half of the dwell time of its companion penetrant. Dry developer is used
only with fluorescent dye penetrants.

2.4.1.2 Non-Aqueous Developer

Non-aqueous developer is a suspension of absorptive white powder in a solvent medium. It is

usually applied by spraying from a pressurized spray can or other spraying device such as a
paint spray gun. When used in bulk form, care must be exercised to keep the powder thoroughly
mixed in the solvent. The developer is applied so as to form a moist, thin, white coating on the
specimen which must be completely dry. When properly mixed and applied, nonaqueous
developer assures a high degree of penetrant visibility.

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2.4.1.3 Wet Developer

Wet developer is a suspension of absorptive white powder in water. The mixture is prepared in
accordance with manufacturers' directions and is mildly agitated prior to and during use so that
the powder remains evenly distributed throughout the water vehicle. After excess penetrant is
removed from the specimen, and while it is still wet, the developer is applied by either dip
(immersion) or flow-on technique. These fast and effective methods of application combined
with the time saved by applying developer to the wet specimen make wet developer well suited
for use in rapid, production line testing. wet developer is applied so as to form a smooth even
coating, and particular care is taken to avoid concentrations of developer in dished or hollowed
areas of the specimen. Such concentrations of developer mask penetrant indications and are to
be avoided. After the wet developer has been applied and the specimen is thoroughly dried, it is
ready for visual inspection.

2.4.1.4 Drying

*When dry or non-aqueous developer is used, the specimen is dried after removal of excess
penetrant and prior to application of the developer. When wet developer is used, the specimen
is dried after the developer has been applied. Any means of drying that does not interfere with
the test process by overheating or by contamination of materials is acceptable, however,
controlled drying at even regulated temperatures is preferred. A thermostat controlled drier with
a range up to 225°F is usually employed in stationary test installations. Required drying time is
determined by the size and shape of the specimen, and by the nature of its suspected
discontinuities. It is particularly necessary that the drying process used prior to application of dry
or non-aqueous developer be closely controlled. It should be of sufficient duration to dry the
surface of the specimen without affecting the penetrant in the discontinuities° The temperature of
the surface must not be raised above 125°F during the drying operation.

2.4.1.5 Developing

The blotting action of the developer is capillary action at work again. The dye penetrant is
actually drawn out of the discontinuity through the strong capillary action provided by the
developer. The developer acts as a blotter. It is used for one reason - to get the dye back to the
surface so that it will form an image of the discontinuity.

If the surface of the part is clean and dry, it is ready for dry developer. The dry powder should be
applied lightly and evenly over the entire surface. Not much powder adheres, but the amount
that does is sufficient to act to bring up indications when a correctly engineered developing
powder is used. Dipping, blowing or any other method of accomplishing this is satisfactory. Air-
borne clouds of dust in a cabinet are used on some automatic equipment, but the method is not
usable on all sizes or shapes of parts. Excess powder should be removed by shaking or tapping
the part or by blowing it off with a current (not a blast) of air. An air blast can easily remove too
much of the powder.

2.4.1.6 Non-Aqueous Developer

The white powder is held in suspension in a solvent (non-aqueous) base. This type of developer
is usually supplied in pressurized spray cans. After application, a short time is allowed for the
solvent to evaporate and leave the part thinly coated with a layer of powder. This non-aqueous
developer is generally used with solvent removable penetrants.

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 This type of developer is used almost exclusively for color-contrast penetrants in which the white
opaque background is essential. Application by spraying or brushing onto surfaces which have
been (usually) cleaned with solvents presents no particular problem.

When the developer is supplied in pressurized spray cans, heavy coatings of developer must be
avoided. Only enough developer shall be evenly applied to produce a thin uniform white layer
and to cover all traces of metallic luster.

2.4.1.7 Wet Developer

If a water-suspended wet developer is used, it is applied immediately after water-washing and

before drying. Wet developer is seldom used on a wipe-cleaned or a solvent-cleaned surface.
On such surfaces solvent-suspended wet developers are often used. They are usually applied
with pressure spray cans. wet developer (watersuspended) kept in an agitated tank, is applied by
dipping, flowing or spraying over the surface. The part is then dried in a controlled heat
recirculating air drier, care being taken that pools of developer are not trapped in fillets or other
irregularities in the part. It is important that drying time not be prolonged. With the film or
developer in place, developing action begins in the drier. Too much heating at this stage tends
to thicken the penetrant and retards its flow out of the defect before a maximum indication is
produced.

2.4.1.8 Developing Time Required (Minimum-Maximum)

Development requires minimum and maximum time. It must be long enough to assure that the
developer has had time to draw the penetrant from the discontinuity. If the article is inspected too
soon, the indications may not have reached their maximum intensity and therefore be
overlooked. If the development time is too long, then indications such as porosity may run
together and appear linear, like a crack. The development time is defined in codes, job
specifications, and standards the developing time in most cases, is from seven minutes
minimum to 30 minutes maximum. For typical dwell times on various materials see Table 1.

2.5 Post Examination Cleaning

Only those articles, surfaces, weldments, etc., that have been found discontinuity free are
directed to post-cleaning. This has been done to stress the point that when discontinuities are
discovered, they must be evaluated. Naturally, this would be done before removing the
indications with a post-cleaner.

After evaluation, post-cleaning could be eliminated entirely when evaluation determines that the
discontinuities present are such that the object inspected is no longer useful and must be
scrapped. When the test article turns up free of discontinuities, however, post-cleaning is
necessary. This post-cleaning is quite common and there are many ways it may be done. The
methods to be used on each individual job may vary depending upon what is required in the next
production activity.

The post-cleaning will be prescribed in the project specifications. In general, the same cleaning
methods employed for pre-cleaning will be used in postcleaning.

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 TYPES I & II TYPES I & II TYPES I & II
MATERIAL FORM TYPE OF PROCESS (A) PROCESS (B) PROCESS (C)
DISCONTINUITY WATER- POST- SOLVENT
WASHABLE EMULSIFIED REMOVABLE

PENETRATIO PENETRATIO PENETRATION

N N TIME*
TIME* TIME*
CASTINGS POROSITY 5 to 10 Min. **5 Min. 3
COLD SHUTS 5 to 15 **5 3
EXTRUSIONS
ALUMINUM & FORGINGS LAPS N/R*** 10 7
WELDS LACK OF FUSION 30 5 3
POROSITY 30 5 3
ALL CRACKS 30 10 5
ALL FATIGUE NR 30 5
CRACKS
CASTINGS POROSITY 15 5 3
COLD SHUTS 15 5 3
EXTRUSIONS
MAGNESIUM & FORGINGS LAPS NR*** 10 7
WELDS LACK OF FUSION 30 10 5
POROSITY 30 10 5
ALL CRACKS 30 10 5
ALL FATIGUE NR*** 30 7
CRACKS

CASTINGS POROSITY 30 **10 5

COLD SHUTS 30 **10 7
EXTRUSIONS
STEEL & FORGINGS LAPS NR*** 10 7
WELDS LACK OF FUSION 60 20 7
POROSITY 60 20 7
ALL CRACKS 30 20 7
ALL FATIGUE NR*** 30 10
CRACKS
CASTINGS POROSITY 10 *5 3
COLD SHUTS 10 *5 3
EXTRUSIONS
BRASS & & FORGINGS LAPS NR*** 10 7
BRONZE WELDS LACK OF FUSION 15 10 3
BRAZED PTS POROSITY 15 10 3
ALL CRACKS 30 10 3
PLASTICS ALL CRACKS 5 to 30 5 5

GLASS ALL CRACKS 5 to 30 5 5

CARBIDE- LACK OF FUSION 30 5 3
TIPPED POROSITY 30 5 3
TOOLS CRACKS 30 20 5
TITANIUM &
HIGH-TEMP. ALL NR*** 20 to 30 15

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 ALLOYS

ALL METALS ALL STRESS OR

INTERGRANULAR NR*** 240 240
CORROSION
TABLE 1 Liquid Penetrant Penetration Time (Typical)

3.0 Interpretation of Examination Results

3.1 Proper Lighting

The interpretation of examination results must be performed in a suitable environment. Visible-dye

penetrant is performed in a normally lit area. The only requirement is that lighting be adequate to detect
and evaluate any indications which may appear. Fluorescent penetrant examinations must be performed
in a suitably darkened area using "black light" (ultraviolet). The requirements for the intensity of the "black
light" are stated in referencing Codes and Standards.

3.2 Indications

3.2.1 General
Since penetrant cannot indicate any but surface discontinuities, and indication is caused by a discontinuity
in the surface, or by penetrant remaining on the surface from some non-relevant cause.

3.2.2 False Indications

The most common source of false indications is poor washing of water-washable and post-emulsifiable
penetrants. The use of black light during the washing process, when using fluorescent penetrant, is very
important. The operator can easily tell whether a good rinse is obtained or whether patches of
fluorescence remain on the specimen. With penetrants requiring solvent removal, the removal process is
much more likely to be thorough. To guard against confusion resulting from fluorescent or color spots
other than true indications, care is taken so that no outside contamination occurs. Typical sources of
contamination are:

a. Penetrant on hands of operator

b. Contamination of wet or dry developer
c. Penetrant rubbing off of an indication on one specimen to a clean portion of the surface of another
specimen
d. Penetrant spots on the inspection table
(1) To avoid contamination, its causes are eliminated or guarded against. Process tanks and
inspection areas are kept clean; only lint-free wiping cloths or rags are used; and
specimens are kept free of fingerprints and tool marks.

(2) Figure 3-1 illustrates some of the more common types of false indications, caused by certain
handling or cleaning processes.

Patch from contact

with another article
Mark from handling
tool

Finger prints left by

operator

Lint and dirt indication

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 Figure 3-1. Typical False Indications

3.2.3 Non-Relevant Indications

Outside the realm of truly false indications there is a category of non-relevant indications, which testing
personnel can recognize. These are true indications in the sense that they are caused by surface
discontinuities, but the discontinuities are there by design and are in no way a true discontinuity. Most of
such non-relevant indications are easy to recognize since they are related directly to some feature of the
assembly that accounts for their presence. Non-relevant indications include those that appear on articles
that are press-fitted, keyed, spliced, riveted, or spot welded together and those appearing on castings as a
result of loosely adherent scale or a rough surface due to burned-in sand. Such non-relevant indications
must be carefully noted since they may interfere with correct interpretation. Commonly detectable non-
relevant indications are shown in Figure 3-2.

3.2.4 True Indications

True indications are those caused by a discontinuity. The interpretation of an indication as true is a matter
of observing the indication, eliminating the possibility of it being a false indication, and then further
determining that it is not a non-relevant indication.

Figure 3-2 Typical Non-Relevant Indications

Any true indication immediately becomes subject to evaluation as to its cause (type of discontinuity) and
the effect of the indicated discontinuity on the service life of the specimen. There are no hard and fast
rules that lay down sure methods of determining whether an indication is true. Such definite appraisals
require knowledge of the fabrication processes used in creating the specimen or, in the case of used
article, knowledge of its operational use and stresses to which it has been subjected.

3.3 CATEGORIES OF TRUE INDICATIONS

3.3.1 General
Discontinuity indications vary widely in appearance but for each indication two interpretive questions must
be answered. What type of discontinuity caused the indication? What is the extent of the discontinuity as
evidenced by the extent of the indication? Each indication also requires an answer to the evaluation
question. What effect will the indicated discontinuity have on the service life of the specimen? The
answers to the interpretive questions are obtained by observing the indication and identifying the
discontinuity from the characteristics appearance of the indication. The answer to the evaluation question
is based on a certain knowledge of seriousness of the discontinuity and complete understanding of the
ultimate use of the specimen. True indications logically fall into five categories; continuous line,
intermittent line; rounded; small dots; and diffused or weak.

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3.3.2 Continuous Line
Continuous line indications are caused by cracks, cold shuts, forging laps, scratches, or die marks. Cracks
usually appear as jagged lines; cold shuts as smooth, narrow, straight lines; and forging laps as smooth,
wavy lines. Scratches and die marks appear in a variety of linear patters but are readily recognizable
when all penetrant traces are removed, since the bottom of the discontinuity is usually visible.

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3.3.3 Intermittent Line
The same discontinuities that cause continuous line indications may, under different circumstances, cause
intermittent line indications. When an article is worked by grinding, peening, forgings, machining, etc.,
portions of the discontinuities in the surface of the article may be closed by the metal working process.
When this occurs, the discontinuities will appear as intermittent lines. (See Figure 3-3.)

Figure 3-3. Typical True Indications

3.3.4 Round
Round indications usually are caused by porosity. The porosity may be the result of gas holes, pin holes,
or the generally porous makeup the specimen. Deep cracks may also appear as round indications since
they trap a large amount of penetrant that spreads when the developer is applied. Any round indication
that appears singly in an isolated position usually indicates a discrepancy of depth that may or may not be
round. Figure 3-4 illustrates typical round indications.

3.3.5 Small Dots

Small dot indications result from discrepancies caused by pin holes, by the porous nature of the specimen,
or by excessively coarse grains being used in producing a casting. They may also be the result of cast
alloy microshrinkage.

3.3.6 Diffused or Weak

Diffused or weak indications are particularly difficult to interpret. Weak indications appearing over a large
area are always suspect and when they appear the specimen is to be thoroughly cleaned and retested.
Other weak or diffused indications may be caused by surface porosity but more often are the result of
insufficient cleaning, in complete penetrant removal, or excessive developer.

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 Figure 3-4. Typical Rounded Indications

3.3.7 Discontinuity Depth Determination

The vividness of a visible dye indication or the brilliance of a fluorescent indication are measures of the
depth of a discontinuity. The greater the depth of a discontinuity the more penetrant it holds and the larger
and brighter the indication. Shallow discontinuities entrap only small amounts of penetrant and appear as
fine line indications of relatively low brilliance. When evaluation requires more accurate knowledge of the
depth of a discontinuity it is often obtained by removing the surface indication and reapplying developer.
The subsequent amount and rate of penetrant bleed-out is proportionate to the depth of the discontinuity.

3.4 Common Terminology

3.4.1 General
The common terminology used in the liquid penetrant examination method. These terms are defined as
follows:

(1) Mechanical Discontinuities - Any interruption in the normal physical structure of the material (weld
or base metal), which will cause a detectable penetrant indication, such as cracks, slag, porosity,
incomplete fusion, etc.

(2) Localized Surface Imperfections - Are surface conditions, such as, surface roughness, grinding
marks, machining marks, tool marks, undercutting, etc.

(3) Indications - Penetrant bleedout into the developer coating. The indication by itself may not reveal
whether it is caused by a mechanical discontinuity or by localized imperfections, and further
investigation may be necessary.

(4) Relevant Indications - Are those penetrant indications that are known to be the result of a
mechanical discontinuity.

(5) Nonrelevant indications - Are those indications that are known or proven to be the result of
localized surface imperfections.

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 (6) False Indication - An indication caused by improper technique during the penetrant examination.

(7) Relevancy - The determination of the origin of a penetrant indication as being relevant
(mechanical discontinuity) or nonrelevant (localized imperfection).

(8) Defects - Are relevant penetrant indications that exceed the limit of the acceptance criteria
specified in the applicable Code or Standard.

(9) Linear Indications - Are relevant penetrant indications whose length dimension is more than three
times its width dimension.

(10) Rounded Indications - Are relevant penetrant indications whose length dimension is equal to or
less than three times its width dimension.

(11) Dwell Time - The total time that the wet penetrant remains on the surface of the part being
examined.

(12) Developing Time - The period of time that begins with the application of the developer and ends
when the designated wait time, prior to interpretation, has lapsed.

(13) Interpretation Time - A typical interpretation time may be expressed as 7 to 30 minutes, meaning
that final acceptance evaluation of the examination results may be started seven minutes after the
developer has been applied (developing time) and must be completed prior to thirty minutes.

(14) Light Pink Background - Broad or light areas of pink hue in the developer coating that are of
insufficient brightness to mask an indication of a relevant discontinuity. Normally, a light pink
background is a good indicator that over-cleaning has not occurred.

(15) Red Background - Small isolated areas of dark red stain in the developer which are of insufficient
size to mask a defect would be considered acceptable. Isolated areas which are large enough to
mask a defect will void the examination. In the latter case, the dark red stains in the developer
are a good indicator that insufficient removal of the excess penetrant has occurred.

(16) Acceptance Criteria - The applicable Code or Standard Stipulates the maximum sizes of relevant
indications that are acceptable and the maximum number of relevant indications that are
acceptable. Some codes and Standards specify the minimum size of a relevant indication
meaning any indication less than that size is acceptable.

3.4.2 A thorough working knowledge of the above terminology and the following accepted qualities of the
liquid penetrant examination will make evaluation of the examination results a much simpler task,
because:

(1) These examinations, as are other NDE methods, are qualitative and not quantitative in nature.
This is due to the fluctuation in variables such as, operator proficiency, penetrant materials,
temperature, surface condition, cleanliness, developer time, and discontinuity geometry. In other
words, liquid penetrant examinations are not in all cases repeatable with the same results.

(2) The purpose and intent of the examination is to detect only those discontinuities that are open to
the surface and to evaluate them in accordance with the applicable Code or Standard
requirements.

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 (3) Liquid penetrant indications are caused by mechanical discontinuities, localized surface
imperfections, false indications, or dirt or foreign material on the surface being examined

(4) Over-cleaning is worse than under-cleaning. It is not the intent of the examination to show a
totally white background, since this could indicate over-cleaning.

3.4.3 This brings us to the interpretation of indications that are detected as the result of performing a liquid
penetrant examination in accordance with a Code or Standard requirements. The following are suggested
steps:

(1) The key to determining relevancy of an indication is to determining the cause of the indication,
i.e., the nature or identity of the discontinuity or condition that produced the indication. Removal of
the penetrant indication and visually examining the surface to determine if the nature of the
discontinuity is not prohibited by any Code or Standard. The size of the indication, and not the size
of the discontinuity is the basis for acceptance or rejection. After relevancy has been determined,
a correct and Code required disposition can be made.

(2) Any penetrant indication which is believed to be nonrelevant must be judged to be relevant until it
is proven, either by (1) above or by resurface conditioning and reexamination. Another NDE
method may be used, unless prohibited by the applicable Code or Standard.

(3) If a relevant indication, which is smaller than the size which is rejectable by Code, exists, it is
acceptable as is, and no other action need be taken.

(4) If a dark red nonrelevant indication exists, it must be evaluated in the terms of masking a
rejectable relevant indication. If it is small enough so that it will not mask a rejectable relevant
indication, it is acceptable as is, and no further action need be taken. Otherwise, reclean and
repeat the examination.

(5) By observing the examination surface as the developer is being applied and the indications as
they form, is an easy method that will assist in the evaluation of the type and configuration of the
discontinuity that is causing the indication.

(6) Application of a heavy coating of developer can mask and distort indications. The coating of
developer should be light and only sufficient to produce a white background and hide the luster of
the metal surface.

4.0 BIOGRAPHY

l. GENERAL DYNAMICS (Convair Division) Classroom Training Handbook NDT Liquid Penetrant
Testing (CT-6-2).

2. PRINCIPLES OF PENETRANTS, C. E. Betz, 2nd Ed., 1969, Magnaflux Corp.

3. NDT HANDBOOK, R. C. McMaster, Ronald Press Company 1963.

4. ASM METALS HANDBOOK, VOLUME 11, NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION, Aug. 1976.

5. HANDBOOK FOR STANDARDIZATION OF NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS, MIL-

HDBK-333 (USAF) 10 April, 1974.

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 6. THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS, VOLUME IV ELECTRONIC
PROPERTIES, R. M. Rose, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

7. GLOSSARY OF TERMS FREQUENTLY USED IN NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING, MATERIALS

EVALUATION, April, 1975.

8. ASME Section V, Article 6, 1983 EdItion.

5.0 GLOSSARY

aqueous developer - See "wet developer."

background - The environment against which an indication must be evaluated. It may be the natural surface of
the part, or may be modified by developer.

black light - The term given to electromagnetic radiation having wavelengths between 2000 and 4000 angstrom
units. Typical eights used in penetrant inspection provide an intensity of 100 to 150 foot-candles at 15 inches from
the face of the filter and are used to excite fluorescent materials, in the penetrant, a range visible to the eye.

black light filter - A filter that transmits ultraviolet light while suppressing the transmission of visible light of longer
wavelengths.

bleed out - The action by which penetrants exude out of a discontinuity due primarily to "capillary action" and the
blotting effect of the developer.

blotting - The action of the developer in "drawing-out" the penetrant from a surface discontinuity causing
maximum bleed out for increased contrast and sensitivity.

capillary action - The tendency of certain liquids to travel, climb or draw into tight crack-like interface areas due
to such properties as surface tension, wetting, cohesion, adhesion and viscosity.

checks (check marks) - Numerous, very small cracks in metal or other material caused in processing.

cold cracks - Appear as a straight line, usually continuous throughout its length and generally exist singly. These
cracks start at the surface.

cold shut - (1) A discontinuity that appears in cast metal as a result of two streams of liquid meeting and failing to
unite; (2) a portion of the surface of a forging that is separated, in part, from the main body of metal by oxide.

color-contrast dye - A dye which can be used in a penetrant to impart sufficient color intensity to give good color
contrast in indications against the background of the developer, when viewed under white light.

color-contrast penetrant - A penetrant incorporating a dye (usually non-fluorescent) sufficiently intense to give
good visibility to flaw indications under white light.

crack - A material separation which has a relatively large cross-section in one direction and & small or negligible
cross-section when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the first.

critical size - The established flaw size deemed to be detrimental to the serviceability of the product. The
acceptance/rejection levels established by design engineering as required to meet design performance.

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dark adaptation - The adjustment of the pupils of the eyes and internal eye changes, when one passes from a
bright to a darkened space. This adjustment permits maximum seeing in the dim area.

defect - A discontinuity whose size, shape, orientation, location or properties make it detrimental to the useful
service of the part in which it occurs or which exceeds the accept/reject criteria for this given design.

developer (nonaqueous) - A mixture of absorbent powdered materials suspended in a nonaqueous liquid

(nonaqueous NO WATER).

developer (penetrant) - A finely divided material applied over the surface of a part to help bring out penetrant
indications. Developers draw or absorb penetrant materials from a surface discontinuity to allow the penetrant to
be visible under natural, white or black light.

developing time - The time between the application of the developer and the examination of the part for
indications.

discontinuity - Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part, such as cracks, laps,
seams, inclusions or porosity. A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of a part.

dwell time - The period of time wherein a penetrant or developer is in contact with the surface of the part. Also
called penetration time or emulsifier time.

dye - The chemical component added to a penetrant vehicle to provide a characteristic color to the penetrant.

emulsification time - The time allowed for the emulsifier to act on the penetrant before the part is washed, after
emulsifier is applied as a separate step.

emulsifier - A material which, applied over the film of penetrant on the surface of a part, mixes with the penetrant
and enables it to be washed off the surface with water.

filled crack - A crack open to the surface, but filled with some foreign material,

fine crack - A discontinuity in a solid material with a very fine discontinuity, usually possessing length and depth
greater than the width.

flash point - The minimum temperature at which a flammable vapor mixture exists at the surface of a liquid.

flaw - An imperfection in an item or material which may or may not be harmful. If harmful, is it a defect or
discontinuity

fluorescence - The tendency of a given material to emit electromagnetic radiation when stimulated by radiation of
a greater energy. As applied to penetrant inspection, fluorescence generally refers to the radiation of a bright
yellow-green under the stimulus of ultraviolet radiation.

fluorescent dye - A dye which becomes fluorescent, giving off light, when it is exposed to shore wave radiation
such as ultraviolet or near ultraviolet light.

fluorescent penetrant - A penetrant incorporating a fluorescent dye to improve the visibility of indications at the
flaw. oxide, grease, etc.

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hot cracks - Appear as ragged dark lines of variable width and numerous branches. They have discontinuity and
may exist in groups. They may originate internally or at the surface.

hot tear - A fracture formed in a metal during solidification.

indication - In nondestructive examination, a response or evidence of a response that requires interpretation to

determine its significance.

indication (penetrant) - The visible evidence of penetrant residue indicating to the inspector that some sort of
surface discontinuity is present. Indications may be false or valid.

inspection - The process of examining and checking materials and parts for possible defects or for deviation from
established standards.

interpretation - The process of determining the nature of an indication.

leaker-penetrant - The type of penetrant especially designed for leak detection.

longitudinal direction - The principal direction of flow in a wrought material.

macroscopic - Visible with the naked eye at magnifications from one to ten diameters.

nonaqueous developer - See "solvent developer."

nondestructive examination (NDE) - Testing to detect internal, surface and concealed defects or flaws in
materials using techniques that do not damage or destroy the items being tested.

non-relevant indications - These are the true indications produced by uncontrolled test conditions. However, the
conditions causing them are present by design or accident; or other features of the part having no relation to the
damaging flaws being sought. The term signifies that such an indication has no relation to the discontinuities that
might constitute defects.

penetrability - The property of a penetrant that causes it to find its way into very fine openings, such as cracks.

penetrant - This is the fluId - usually a liquid but it can be a gas - that is caused to enter the discontinuity in order
to produce an indication.

penetrating time - The time allowed, after penetrant has been applied to a surface, for the penetrant to enter
discontinuities which may be present.

pores - (1) Sill voids in the body of a metal; (2) minute perforations in an electroplated coating.

porosity - A field of fine holes, voids or pores within a material.

post-emulsification penetrant - A type of penetrant containing no emulsifier, but which is cleaned from a surface
with water after applying an emulsifier as a separate step. The term is often abbreviated as "PE" penetrant or "PE"
method.

seeability - The characteristic of an indication that enables an observer to see it against the conditions of
background, outside light, etc.

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solvent cleaning - The process of removing the excess penetrant from the surface of a part by wiping with a
solvent dampened cloth.

solvent developer - A developer in which the developing powder is applied as a suspension in a quick-drying
solvent.

surface tension - That surface property of liquids which, due to the molecular forces, tends to bring the contained
volume into a form having the least superficial area.

toxic - The quality of certain materials that is damaging to life, health or comfort.

viscosity - The state of degree of being viscous, the resistance of a fluid to the motion of its particles.

water-wash penetrant - A type of penetrant which incorporates an emulsifier thus making it possible to clean a
surface coated with such a penetrant by means of water.

water-washability - The property of a penetrant which permits it to be cleaned from the surface of a part by
washing with water.

wet developer (penetrant) - A developer in which the developing powder is applied as a suspension or solution in
a liquid, usually water or alcohol.

wetting agent - A substance that will reduce the surface tension of a liquid or solid.

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