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2018 11 10 - 23 - 18 - 57 - Sfte Reference Handbook 2013 3rd Edition - 2017 Addendum
2018 11 10 - 23 - 18 - 57 - Sfte Reference Handbook 2013 3rd Edition - 2017 Addendum
Society of
Flight Test Engineers
Reference Handbook
Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
And
Contributing Authors
Al Lawless (sections 1-8, 10-12, 15, 18)
Greg Lewis (section 2.6)
Bill Norton (sections 9, 13)
Dan Hrehov (section 14)
Steven Arney (section 16)
John Minor (section 19)
David Kidman, Christopher Moulder, Craig Stevens (section 17)
Edited by
Lee Gardner & Darcy Painter 1998-2006
Harold Weaver 2006-2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Publication Policy
Copyright (C) 2013 by Society Of Flight Test Engineers
All rights reserved. This Technical Handbook is for the exclusive use of the Society of Flight
Test Engineers individual and Corporate Members. The Technical information contained
herein may not be reproduced by any other individual or organization in any form without writ-
ten permission from the Society of Flight Test Engineers. The Society reserves the exclusive
right of publication.
Or:
Contact the Society of Flight Test Engineers through their web site at www.sfte.org.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Quick Index
Tab Section______________________
1 General Information
2 Mathematics
3 Earth and Atmosphere
4 Pitot Statics
5 Aerodynamics
6 Axis Systems and Transformations
7 Mass Properties
8 Motion/Vibration Analysis
9 Material Strength (Loads)
10 Reciprocating Engines
11 Propellers
12 Fixed-Wing Performance Standardization
13 Acoustics
14 Electromagnetic Compatibility
15 Handling Qualities
16 Rotary Wing
17 Gas Turbine Propulsion
18 Radio Communications
19 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
SFTE
Reference Handbook
Complete Table of Contents
Tab Section____________________
1 General Information
1.1 Unit Conversions
1.2 Greek Alphabet
1.3 Greek Symbols Used for Aircraft
1.4 Common Subscripts
1.5 Common Abbreviations
1.6 Sign Conventions
1.7 Thermodynamic Relations
1.8 Mechanics Relations
1.9 International Phonetic Alphabet and Morse Code
2 Mathematics
2.1 Algebra
2.2 Geometry
2.3 Trigonometry
2.4 Matrix Algebra
2.5 Vector Algebra
2.6 Statistics
2.7 Standard Series
2.8 Derivative Table
2.9 Integral Table
2.10 Laplace Transform Table
4 Pitot Statics
4.1 Subsonic Airspeed and Mach Equations
4.2 Scale Altitude (Compressibility) Correction
4.3 Subsonic Relations between Compressible and Incompressible Dynamic Pressure
4.4 Supersonic Airspeed and Mach Equations
4.5 Total Temperature Equation
4.6 Altimeter Equation
4.7 Position Error Test Methods
4.8 Position Error Certification Requirements
4.9 PEC Correction Process Flow Chart
4.10 Airspeed/Altitude/Mach Graphic Relation
4.11 Effect of Errors on Calibrated Airspeed and Altitude
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
5 Aerodynamics
5.1 Dimensional Analysis Interpretations
5.2 General Aerodynamic Relations
5.3 Wing Design Effects on Lift Curve Slope
5.4 Elements of Drag
5.5 Aerodynamic Compressibility Relations
5.6 Drag Polars
7 Mass Properties
7.1 Abbreviations and Terminology
7.2 Longitudinal and Lateral cg Measurement
7.3 Vertical cg Measurement
7.4 Moment & Product of Inertia Measurement
8 Motion/Vibration Analysis
8.1 Recurring Abbreviations
8.2 First Order Motion
8.3 Second Order Motion
8.4 Complex Plane
8.5 Parameter Conversions
8.6 Vibration Nomograph
10 Reciprocating Engines
10.1 Abbreviations and Terminology
10.2 Reciprocating Engine Modeling
10.3 Reciprocating Engine Power Standardization
10.4 FAA Approved Engine Temp. Corrections
11 Propellers
11.1 Abbreviations and Terminology
11.2 Propeller Geometry
11.3 Propeller Coefficients
11.4 Efficiency and States
11.5 Propeller Theory
11.6 Propeller Modeling
11.7 Propeller Flight Test
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
13 Acoustics
13.1 Abbreviations and Terminology
13.2 Velocities, Spectrum, and Reference Levels
13.3 Pressure, Intensity
13.4 Weighting Curves
13.5 1/3 Octave Center Frequencies
15 Handling Qualities
15.1 Cooper-Harper Rating Related Figures
16 Rotary Wing
16.1 Principal Aeroderivatives
16.2 Forward Flight Static And Dynamic Stability
18 Radio Comunications
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Prefix Multipliers
1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
102 hecto h
10 deka da
10-1 deci d
10-2 centi c
10-3 milli m
10-6 micro μ
10-9 nano n
10-12 pico p
10-15 femto f
10-18 atto a
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Multiply by To Obtain
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Α α Alpha
Β β Beta
Γ γ Gamma
Δ δ Delta
Ε ε Epsilon
Ζ ζ Zeta
Η η Eta
Θ θ Theta
Ι ι Iota
Κ κ Kappa
Λ λ Lambda
Μ μ Mu
Ν ν Nu
Ξ ξ Xi
Ο ο Omicron
Π π Pi
p ρ Rho
Σ σ Sigma
Τ τ Tau
Υ υ Upsilon
Φ φ Phi
Χ χ Chi
Ψ ψ Psi
Ω ω Omega
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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CP center of pressure
CP propeller power coefficient
CPU central processing unit
cr wing root chord
CRM crew resource management
ct wing tip chord
CTF combined test force
CY calendar year
CY side force coefficient
CYβ side force due to sideslip coefficient
CYδr side force due to rudder coefficient
D diameter
D drag
D/A digital/analog
DAC digital to analog converter
DAPS data acquisition and processing system
DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
db decibel
DC direct current
deg degrees
DG directional gyro
DGPS differential GPS
DMA Defense Mapping Agency
DME distance measuring equipment
DoD Department of Defense
DOP dilution of precision
DSN defense switched network
DT development test
DTC data transfer cartridge
DTIC Defense Technical Information Center
e Oswald efficiency factor
e natural mathematical constant = 2.718281828459
E energy
E lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD, L/D)
EAS equivalent airspeed
EC electronic combat
ECCM electronic counter countermeasures
ECM electronic countermeasures
ECP engineering change proposal
ECS environmental control system
EGT exhaust gas temperature
EL elevation
ELINT electronic intelligence
ELV expendable launch vehicle
EM electromagnetic
Emax maximum lift-to-drag ratio
EMC electromagnetic compatibility
EMI electromagnetic interference
EMP electromagnetic pulse
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
EO electro optical
EOM equations of motion
EPR engine pressure ratio
EPROM electrically programmable read only memory
Es specific energy
ESA European Space Agency
ESD Electronic Systems Division
ESHP equivalent shaft horsepower
ETA estimate time of arrival
ETE estimate time en-route
EW early warning
EW electronic warfare
o
F degrees Fahrenheit
f frequency...hertz (originally cycles per second)
F.S. fuselage station
Fa aileron force
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation
FCF functional check flight
FDC flight data computer
Fe elevator force
Fex excess thrust
Fg gross thrust
FL flight level
Flip flight information publication
FLIR forward-looking infra red
FM frequency modulation
FMC fully mission capable
FMS flight management system
FMS foreign military sales
Fn net thrust
Fn/δ corrected thrust parameter
FOM figure of merit
FOT&E follow-on test & evaluation
FOUO for official use only
FOV field of view
fpm feet per minute
fps feet per second
FQT formal qualification test
Fr rudder force
FRD functional requirements document
FRL fuselage reference line
FRL force, rudder, left
FRR force, rudder, right
FRR flight readiness review
FSD full scale development
FSI full scale integration
ft feet
ft-lb English unit of work...foot-pound...
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
fwd forward
FY fiscal year
g acceleration due to gravity at altitude
G gravitational constant = 6.6732x10-11 [N m2/kg2]
GAO Government Accounting Office
GCA ground control approach
GCI ground controlled intercept
GDOP geometric dilution of precision
GMT Greenwich mean time
go standard acceleration due to gravity
(sea level, 46 deg latitude)
GPS global positioning system
GS ground speed
GSI glide slope indicator
h % MAC
H altitude
HARM high-speed anti-radiation missile
Hc calibrated altitude
(assumed to be pressure altitude in flight test)
HD density altitude
HDDR high density digital recorder
HDOP horizontal dilution of precision
HF high frequency
Hg mercury
Hi indicated altitude
hm stick-fixed maneuver point (%MAC)
h'm stick-free maneuver point (%MAC)
hn stick-fixed neutral point (%MAC)
h'n stick-free neutral point (%MAC)
hp horsepower
hr hour
hrs hours
HSI horizontal situation indicator
HUD head-up display
HV host vehicle
Hz hertz
I/O input/output
IAS indicated airspeed
IAW in accordance with
ICAO International Civilian Aviation Organization
ICU interface computer unit
ICBM intercontinental ballistic missile
IFF identification friend or foe
IFR instrument flight rules
ILS instrument landing system
IMC instrument meteorological conditions
IMN indicated Mach number
IMU inertial measuring unit
in inch
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mb millibar
MCA minimum crossing altitude
Mcr critical Mach number
Md drag divergence Mach number
Mac mean aerodynamic cord
MGC mean geometric chord
MHz megahertz
mHZ millihertz
Mic instrument-corrected Mach number
MilSpec military specification
MIL-STD military standard (publication)
min minute (time)
Mm millimeters
MOA memorandum of agreement
MOE measure of effectiveness
MOP measures of performance
MOU memorandum of understanding
MP manifold pressure
MSL mean sea level
MTBF mean time between failures
MTTR mean time to repair
MX maintenance
N newton (force)
N rotational speed (RPM)
n load factor (g's)
N yawing moment
N1 low pressure compressor speed
N2 high pressure compressor speed
NACA National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
NADC Naval Air Development Center
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NAV navigation
NED North, East, Down
NM, nm nautical mile (6080 feet)
NOE nap-of-the-earth
NOFORN not releasable to foreign nationals
NOTAM notice to airmen
NRC National Research Council (Canada)
NWC Naval Weapons Center
Nx longitudinal load factor (g's)
Ny lateral load factor (g's)
Nz normal load factor (g's)
OAT outside air temperature
OAT on aircraft test
OEI One engine inoperative
OPR Office of Primary Responsibility
OSD Office of the Secretary of Defense
OT&E operational test & evaluation
p aircraft roll rate (degrees/sec)
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R/T receiver/transmitter
RTO Rejected/refused takeoff
RTO responsible test organization
S wing area (ft2 or m2)
Sa horizontal distance between liftoff and specified
height or between specified height and touch
down.
SA selective availability
SA situational awareness
SE specific endurance
sec seconds (time or angle)
SFC specific fuel consumption
Sg ground roll distance
SHP shaft horsepower
SI international system of units
SIGINT signal intelligence
sin sine
SL sea level
SLAM standoff land attack missile
SLR side-looking radar
S/N serial number
S/N signal -to-noise ratio
SOF special operations forces
SOW stand-off weapon
SR specific range
SRB safety review board
ST tail area
std standard
ST total takeoff or landing distance (Sa + Sg)
STOL short takeoff and landing
STOVL short takeoff and vertical landing
T period of oscillation
T temperature
t thickness
T, t time (sec)
t/c thickness-to-chord ratio
Ta ambient temperature
TACAN tactical air navigation
tan tangent
Tas standard temperature at altitude
TAS true airspeed
TBD to be determined
TD touchdown
TED trailing edge down
TEL trailing edge left
TEMP test and evaluation master plan
TER trailing edge right
TEU trailing edge up
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TF terrain following
THP Thrust Horsepower
THPalt horsepower available at altitude
THPmax maximum horsepower available
THPmin minimum horsepower required
THPSL horsepower required at sea level
TIT turbine inlet temperature
TM telemetry
TMN true Mach number
T/O takeoff
To standard sea level temperature (59.0 oF, 15 oC)
TO technical order
TRB technical review board
TRD technical requirements document
TRP technical resources plan
TSFC thrust specific fuel consumption
TSPI time, space, position information
Tt total temperature
TV television
T/W thrust to weight ratio
TWT track while scan
TWT traveling wave tube
u velocity along aircraft's x-axis
UAV uninhabited aerial vehicle
UHF ultra high frequency
UPT undergraduate pilot training
USA US Army
USAF US Air Force
USCG US Coast Guard
USMC US Marine Corps
USN US Navy
UT universal time
UV ultraviolet
v velocity along aircraft's lateral axis
VH horizontal tail volume coefficient
VV vertical tail volume coefficient
V1 takeoff decision speed
V2 takeoff safety speed
VA design maneuvering speed
VAC volts AC
Vb buffet airspeed
VB design speed for max gust intensity
Vbr velocity for best range
Vc calibrated airspeed
VD design diving speed
VDC volts DC
VDOP vertical dilution of precision
Ve equivalent velocity
VFE maximum flap extended speed
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
W& f
, corrected fuel flow parameter
δ ϑ
W/S wing loading
Wf fuel flow (lb/hr)
x aircraft longitudinal axis,
a line running through the nose & tail
Xac distance from leading edge to aerodynamic cen
ter
Xlink cross link
y aircraft lateral axis, a line running the wingtips
Y force along y-axis
Y-code encrypted P-code
z aircraft vertical or yaw axis,
a line perpendicular to the longitudinal and lat
eral axes
ΔHic altimeter instrument correction
ΔHpc altimeter position error correction
ΔPp pitot pressure error
ΔPs static pressure error
ΔVc scale attitude correction to airspeed
ΔVic instrument correction to airspeed indicator
ΔVpc correction for airspeed position error
∞ infinity, or freestream conditions
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
x
Typical Aft view, looking forward
+
Fuselage Buttock
Reference line = 0
Station
+ +
Waterline
x y
z z
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Translational displacements, rates, accelerations, & forces are positive along the positive body axes di-
rections. In spite of the simplicity of this logic, it is important to recognize that lift and normal load factor are
positive in the negative z direction and the drag is positive in the negative x direction.
Angular displacements, rates, accelerations & moments, are positive according to the “right hand rule” (a clock-
wise rotation while looking in the direction of the positive axis) as shown in the figure.
The body axes, forces & translations along them, and moments & rotations about them are shown with
arrows indicating the positive direction.
Angular displacements, rates, accelerations & moments, are positive according to the “right hand rule” (a clock-
wise rotation while looking in the direction of the positive axis) as shown in the figure.
The body axes, forces & translations along them, and moments & rotations about them are shown with
arrows indicating the positive direction.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Angle of attack is positive clockwise from the projection of the velocity vector on the xz plane to the
reference x body axis. The angle of sideslip is positive clockwise from the xz plane to the velocity vector (wind
in the pilot’s right ear).
Aircraft true heading is the angle between true North and the projection of the x-body axis onto the hori-
zontal plane. Mag. heading refers to mag North
The velocity vector is measured relative to the air mass while the flightpath is measured relative to the
ground. They are equivalent only when winds are zero.
Flightpath heading angle (ground track heading) σg, is the horizontal angle between true North and the projec-
tion of the flightpath on the horizontal plane. Positive rotation is from north to east.
Flightpath elevation angle; γ, is the vertical angle between the flightpath and the horizontal plane. Posi-
tive rotation is up. During a descent, this parameter is commonly known as glide path angle.
Flightpath bank angle; μ, is the angle between the plane formed by the velocity vector and the lift vector and the
vertical plane containing the velocity vector. Positive rotation is clockwise about the velocity vector, looking
forward.
Fuselage reference station (FRS), Water line (WL), and Buttock line (BL) are reference coordinates es-
tablished by the design group.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Translational Measurements
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Angular Measurements
The debate regarding proper inputs and deflections stems from the user’s viewpoint. From the body axis
convention above, flight testers recognize that a climbing right turn generates positive angular measurements.
Logically then, pull, right roll and right yaw pilot inputs and subsequent surface deflections should also be posi-
tive. The traditional flight tester’s convention follows as “All input forces & displacements, surface deflections,
and motions that cause a climbing right turn are positive.”
Due to differential nature of aileron deflections, they require more discussion. The flight tester’s logic
implies (but does not dictate) positive deflections are right aileron up and left aileron down. It is, however,
equally acceptable to assign downward (or upward) deflection as positive for both ailerons and calculate the dif-
ference between the two as a measure of rolling moment.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The rationale within the wind tunnel community is also logical: any control surface deflection that in-
creases lift is positive. From this, positive deflections are trailing edge down (TED) for each: trailing edge flap,
stabilizer, elevator, stabilator, rollervator, ruddervator, canard, aileron, flaperon, and all their tabs. Leading edge
flap down is also positive. Similarly, since side force is positive to the right, then positive rudder and rudder tab
deflections are trailing left (TEL). The only exception to this straightforward logic is for spoilers and speed
brakes that extend only in one direction: this deflection is positive even though it might decrease the lift.
Since the above rationale defines downward deflection as positive for both ailerons, a measurement of
rolling moments requires calculation of the differential aileron deflection. This rationale does not, however, spe-
cifically dictate whether a “positive” differential deflection should generate right wing down (RWD) or left wing
down (LWD) moments. Differential aileron can be calculated as either.
δ aR − δ aL δ aL − δ aR
δa = or δa =
2 2
Selection of the RWD convention is obvious from the flight tester’s viewpoint since deflections that
generate right rolls are positive. An alternative interpretation is that a positive differential aileron deflection is
one that lifts the positive (right) wing lifts more than the left (LWD).
Another common convention for ailerons is one that gives the same sign to both ailerons for any input.
The “right hand screw” convention is opposite to the flight tester’s convention, but may be more common:
The above wind tunnel rationale dictates only the polarity for individual control surface deflections, and
leaves open the sign convention debate about controller (inceptor) input forces & displacements. One approach
is that positive inputs should generate positive motions while an alternate approach is that positive inputs gener-
ate positive surface deflections. Only the flight tester’s convention states that positive inputs yield positive mo-
tions and deflections. All approaches are mathematically connected to the hinge moment sign convention dis-
cussed below.
The simplest control surface hinge moment convention is that all positive hinge moments (generated by
the pilot and the aerodynamics) move the surface in a positive direction, i.e., positive input forces yield positive
deflections. This has different implications for the different sign conventions:
• According to the above flight tester’s sign convention, a positive pull force is required to generate a positive
(TEU) elevator deflection (positive stick force generates a climb).
• According to wind tunnel sign convention, a positive push force is required to generate a positive (TED) ele-
vator deflection (positive stick force generates a dive).
The alternate viewpoint defines a positive inceptor hinge moment as one that opposes the aerodynamic mo-
ments. In other words, a positive inceptor hinge moment moves the surface to a position which generates posi-
tive aerodynamic hinge moments or “positive input forces & displacements generate negative surface deflec-
tions.”
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Based on the above background, the SFTE technical council proposes the following standard convention for in-
ceptor & surface forces & deflections:
• Due to its widespread use and its simple & robust nature, use the wind tunnel convention for control surface
deflections.
• Due to widespread test pilot & FTE familiarity and logical nature, use the flight tester’s convention that pos-
itive inceptor forces & displacements generate a climbing right turn.
• A fallout from these conventions is that positive inceptor hinge moments generate positive aerodynamic
hinge moments (negative surface deflections).
• Consistent use of the above logic requires that the calculated value for aileron deflection be negative for
right wing down moments. Similarly, differential ruddervator deflections generating nose right yawing mo-
ments should have negative values.
SFTE/
Parameter Symbol Flight Test
Wind Tunnel
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δsL , δ sR Extended
Spoilers average:
Differential: δs = (δsR +δsL)/2
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*The wind tunnel rationale does not inherently define the polarity for control surface differential deflections.
#The wind tunnel rationale does not specify a convention for positive inputs or hinge moments. Historically,
Dutch, U.S. and some British aircraft use a climbing right turn, while it is a diving left turn for Canadian, Aus-
tralian, and some British aircraft.
The SFTE Technical Council recognizes that several combinations of the above possibilities are currently in use
around the world, and invites comments, additions, or corrections to the above summary and proposal. Alt-
hough SFTE does not expect all organizations to adopt this standard, it still provides a cornerstone for
reference purposes
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A Reversible process is one that can be reversed such that the system returns to its original state (form, location
& amount).
An Irreversible process cannot return to its original state due to heat flow from higher to lower temperatures,
fluid turbulence, friction, or inelastic deformation. The change in entropy is non-zero.
An Adiabatic process is one in which heat is not transferred to or from the fluid.
Heat is the energy transfer from one body to another by virtue of a temperature difference between them.
Conduction is the energy transfer from a warmer body by tangible contact (transfer of some internal molecular
kinetic energy).
Convection is the repositioning the energy of a fluid without state changes or energy transformations (e.g. heat-
ed air moving from one room to another room).
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A = area
C = compressibility factor
C = speed of sound
E = u = specific internal energy (e.g. Btu /lb)
H = specific enthalpy ≡ E + PV (e.g. Btu/lb)
J = Joule’s equivalent 107 ergs = 778 ft-lb/Btu
Q = energy supplied to a system or region as heat (e.g. Btu/lb)
P = absolute pressure (e.g. lbs/ft2)
V = specific volume (e.g. ft3/lb)
W = work (+ if entering)
V = velocity
Δ = change ( final – initial value)
Z = altitude
dE + PdV
S = specific entropy ≡ ∫ T
for a reversible process
R = gas constant for each gas (for air = 287 J/[kg K] = 53.35 ft-lb/lbmR)
The First Law of Thermodynamics shows that the net amount of energy added to a system equals the net
change in energy within the system (Principle of Conservation of Energy): W + Q = (E2 - E1)
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that entropy increases during any irreversible process:
S2>S1
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Boyle’s Law states that when the temperature of a given mass of gas is held constant, then the volume and pres-
sure vary inversely.
Charle’s Law states that when a volume of a given mass is held constant, then the change in pressure of the gas
is proportional to the change in temperature.
W = −∫ PdV
Q = ∫ TdS
T1 ⎡ P1 ⎤ γ
=⎢ ⎥
T2 ⎣ P2 ⎦
γ
P1 ⎡ ρ1 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥
P2 ⎣ ρ2 ⎦
2 2
V1 V2
Q + H1 + + Z1 = W + H 2 + + Z2
2g 2g
Bernoulli Equation:
2 2
ΔP V 2 − V 1
+ + ΔZ = 0
ρg 2g
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
W γ P M
=
A R T ⎛ γ −1 2 ⎞ γ +1
⎜1 + M ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2(γ − 1)
c = γgRT
cp
κ= γ ≡ = ratio of specific heats
cv
T2 V
s2 − s1 = cv ln + R ln 2
T1 V1
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
9) Differentiate H: dH = du + P dV + V dP
10) Substitution into step #2: T dS = dH-V dP
T2 P
11) Integrate: s2 − s1 = c p ln + R ln 2
T1 P1
T2 P
12) Assuming a reversible adiabatic process: c p ln = − R ln 2
T1 P1
κ −1
κ −1 T1 ⎜⎝ P1 ⎟⎠
κ
P ⎛V ⎞
14) Combine steps #8, #13 to 2 = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ get: or PVκ = const.
P1 ⎝ V2 ⎠
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Abbreviations
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Newtons Laws
st
1 law (law of inertia):
“Every body persists in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled to
change that state by forces impressed on it.
2nd Law:
“ The change in motion is proportional to the motive force impressed and is made in the direction of
the straight line in which that force is impressed” (motion defined as velocity x quantity of matter or
linear momentum, mV).
dF = dmV/dt = (dm/dt) + (dV/dt)
For constant mass in rectilinear motion: F = ma
For constant mass distribution in curvilinear motion: G = ω& I
3rd Law:
“Every action has an equal and opposite reaction; or, the mutual attraction of two bodies upon each
other are always equal and directed to contrary parts.[opposite directions]”
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
ar = rω2 = V2/r
a r = ω& r
g (N )2 −1
ω = zw
V
⎛ωV ⎞
N zw = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ +1
⎝ g ⎠
V= inertial velocity
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Gyroscopic Motion
(reference 1.7)
for bodies spinning about an axisymmetric axis
∑M x (
= − I tφ& 2 sin θ cos θ + I zφ& sin θ φ& cos θ + ψ& )
For torque free motion (gravity is only external force)
I cg − I z &
ψ& = φ cosθ
Iz
note that Icg>Iz yields regular precession
while Icg<Iz yields retrograde precession
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1 One •▬▬▬
2 Two ••▬▬▬
3 Three •••▬▬
4 Four ••••▬
5 Five •••••
6 Six ▬••••
7 Seven ▬▬•••
8 Eight ▬▬▬••
9 Niner ▬▬▬▬•
0 Zero ▬▬▬▬▬
Page 01- 46
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Section 1 References
http://www.onlineconversion.com/
1.1 Anon., “Weight Engineers Handbook”, Society of Weight Engineers, P.O.Box 60024 Los Angeles, CA
90060,1976.
1.2 Anon., “Aeronautical Vestpocket Handbook”, United Technologies Pratt & Whitney Canada, 1000 Ma-
rie Victorin Blvd. E. P.O.B. 10 Longueuil, Quebec Canada J4K 4X9.
1.3 Jones, J. P., Hawkins, G.A., “Engineering Thermodynamics” John Wiley & Sons, 1960.
1.4 Esbach, Ovid W., “Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals”, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1963.
1.5 Potter, M.C., Somerton, C.W., “Engineering Thermodynamics” Shaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill,
Inc.,1993.
1.6 Abbott, M. M., Van Ness, H. C., “Thermodynamics”, Shaum’s Outline Series, McGraw-Hill, Inc.,
1989.
1.7 Halliday, D., Resnick, R., “Fundamentals of Physics”, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1981.
1.8 Roberts, S.C., Chapter 3 Aircraft Control Sytems , “Aircraft Flying Qualities Testing”, National Test
Pilot School, 1997. P.O.B. 658, Mojave, CA, 93501.
Page 01 - 47
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
NOTES
Page 01- 48
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Section 2 Mathematics
2.1 Algebra
Laws
Identities
Equations
Interest & Annuities
2.2 Geometry
2.3 Trigonometry
Graphs
Identities
Oblique Triangle Laws
2.6 Statistics
2.11 References
Page 02 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
LAWS
IDENTITIES
exponents: axay = ax+y
(ab) x = axbx
(ax)y = axy
amn = (am)n
a0 = 1 a≠0 if
1 x
a − x = x = ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
a ⎝a⎠
x
a
y
= a x− y
a
x
ab = x a x b [ ][ ]
a
x
y
=
y
ax = ( a)
y x
1
= a
y y
a
a
x
y
= ax =
y
( a)
y x
a = a (1 / x ) + (1 / y ) = x+ y
x y xy
a a
a + b = a + b + 2 ab
Page 02 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1
M =
q
log b log b M
q
logc M
logbM = logcM logbc =
logc b
Page 02 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
EQUATIONS
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
x1, 2 =
2a
let b b2 a3
A=3 − + +
2 4 27
b b2 a3
and B=3 − − +
2 4 27
then x1 = A +B
x2 = -(A + B)/2 + {[-3]1/2/2}(A – B)
x3 = -(A + B)/2 - {[-3]1/2/2}(A – B)
special cases…
Page 02 - 4
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 02 - 5
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Effective Interest:
The rate per time period at which interest is earned during each pe riod is called the effective rate i.
i = (1 + r/q)q -1
Solve above equations for P to determine investment required now to accumulate to amount An
True discount , D = An – P
Annuities:
rent R is consistent payment at each period n
let s ≡ (1 + i ) − 1
n
n
i
1 − (1 + i ) − n
and let rn ≡
i
then An = Rsn
log( An + R) − log R
or n=
log(1 + i)
present value of an annuity, A is the sum of the present values of all the future payments. A = Rrn
Final value (FV) of an investment is a function of the initial principal invested (P), interest rate (r –expressed as .05 for 5%,
.1 for 10% etc.), time invested (Y- typically years), and compounding periods per year (n – typically =1 for yearly or =12 for
monthly).
FV = P (1 + r / n)Yn
Page 02 - 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
General definitions:
A = area
a = side length
b = base length
C = circumference
D = diameter
h = height
n = number of sides
R = radius
V = volume
x, y, z = distances along orthogonal coordinate system
β = interior vertex angle
triangle: A = bh/2
sum of interior angles = 180o
rectangle: A = bh
sum of interior angles = 360o
Page 02 - 7
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
circle: A = πR2
C = 2πR = πD
perimeter of n-sided polygon inscribed within a circle
= 2nRsin(π/n)
area of circumscribed polygon = nR2tan(π/n)
area of inscribed polygon = {nR2sin(2π/n)}/2
equation for a circle with center at (h,k): R2 = (x-h)2 + (y-k)2
p
Focus
Vertex
Directrix
Page 02 - 8
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
p
asymptotes
q
sphere: A = 4πR2
V = 4πR3/3
equation for sphere centered at origin: x2+y2+z2 = R2
torus: A= 4π2Rρ
V = 2π2Rρ2
ρ = smaller radius
Page 02 - 9
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
For any right triangle with hypotenuse h, an acute angle α, side length o opposite from α, and side length a ad-
jacent to α, the following terms are defined:
sine α = sin α = o/h
cosine α = cos α = a/h
tangent α = tan α = o/a = sin α /cos α
cotangent α = cot α = ctn α = a/o = 1/tan α = cos α /sin α
secant α = sec α = h/a = 1/cos α
cosecant α = csc α = h/o = 1/sin α
exsecant α = exsec α = sec α -1 h
versine α = vers α = 1-cos α o
α
coversine α = covers α = 1-sin α
haversine α = hav α = (vers α )/2 a
Identities
Pythagorean Identities:
sin2 α + cos2 α = 1
1 + tan2 α = sec2 α
1+ cot2 α = csc2 α
Page 02 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Double-Angle Identities
sin 2α = 2sin α cos α
cos 2α = 2cos2 α –1 = 1-2sin2 α = cos2 α - sin2 α
tan 2α = 2tan α /[1-tan2 α]
n –Angle Identities:
sin 3α == 3sin α – 4sin3 α
cos 3α = 4cos3 α – 3cos α
sin nα = 2sin (n-1)α cos α – sin (n-2)α
cos nα = 2cos (n-1)α cos α – cos (n-2)α
Two-Angle Identities:
sin (α+β) = sin α cos β + cos α sin β
cos (α+β) = cos α cos β – sin α sin β
tan (α+β) = [tan α + tan β]/[1- tan α tan β]
sin (α-β) = sin α cos β - cos α sin β
cos (α-β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β
tan (α-β) = [tan α - tan β]/[1+ tan α tan β]
Page 02 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Power Identities:
sin α sin β = [cos (α-β) - cos (α+β)]/2
cos α cos β = [cos (α-β) + cos (α+β)]/2
sin α cos β = [sin (α+β) + sin (α-β)]/2
cos α sin β = [sin (α+β) - sin (α-β)]/2
tan α cot α = sin α csc α = cos α sec α = 1
sin2 α = [1-cos2α]/2
cos2 α= [1+cos2α]/2
sin3 α = [3 sin α– sin 3α]/4
cos3 α = [3 cos α + cos 3α]/4
sin4 α = [3 - 4cos 2α + cos 4α]/8
cos4 α = [3 + 4cos 2α + cos 4α]/8
sin5 α = [10sin α –5sin 3α +sin5α]/16
cos5 α = [10cos α + 5cos 3α + cos5α]/16
OBLIQUE TRIANGLES
(no right angle, angles A,B,C are opposite of legs a,b,c)
Law of Sines: a/sin A = b/sinB = c/sinC
Law of Cosines:
B
2 2 2
a = b + c – 2bc cos A c a
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos B
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab cos C A C
-1 2 2 2
C = cos [(a +b -c )/2ab] b
Law of Tangents:
[a-b]/[a+b] = [tan ({a-b}/2]/ [tan ({a+b}/2]
Projection Formulas:
a = b cos C + c cosB
b =c cos A + a cos C
c = a cos B + b cos A
Page 02 - 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Matrix multiplication can be defined for any two matrices only whe the number of columns of the first is equal
to the number of rows of the second matrix. Multiplication is not defined for other matrices.
[A][B] = [C]
[aim][bmj] = [cij]
1 0 L 0
0 1 L 0
I =
M M O M
0 0 L 1
The identity [I] is a square matrix consisting of ones on the principle diagonal and zeros everywhere else; i.e.:
a ⋅ α−1 = α1−1 = α0 = 1
In the same way, the matrix [A]-1 is called the inverse matrix of [A] since:
Page 02 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
a 11 a 12 L a 1n
a 21 a 22 L a 2n
A = a ij =
M M O M
a n1 a n2 L a nn
The signed minor, with the sign determined by the sum of the row and column, is called the cofactor of aij and is
denoted by:
Aij = (−1)i+j Μij
The value of the determinant is equal to the sum of the products of the
elements of any single row or column and their respective cofactors.
|A| = a11(a22 a33 − a23 a32) − a12(a21 a33 − a23 a31) + a13(a21 a32 − a22 a31)
Page 02 - 14
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Step 1 Compute the determinant of [A]. This determinant is written |A|. If the determinant is zero or does
not exist, the matrix [A] is defined as singular and an inverse cannot be found.
Step 3 Replace each element aij of the transposed matrix by its cofactor Aij. This resulting matrix is de-
fined as the adjoint of matrix [A] and is written Adj[A].
Step 4 Divide the adjoint matrix by the scalar value of the determinant of [A] which was computed in
Step 1. The resulting matrix is the inverse and is written [A]-1.
⎡ 3 2 − 2 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ y 1 ⎤
⎢− 1 1 4 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ y 2 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ 2 −3 4 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ y 3 ⎥⎦
Thus, the system can be solved for the values of x1, x2, and x3 by computing the inverse of [A].
Step 1. Compute the determinant of [A]. Expanding about the first row
|A| = 3(4 + 12) − 2 (−4 −8) −2 (3 − 2)
|A| = 48 + 24 −2 = 70
Page 02 - 15
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Step 3. Determine the adjoint matrix by replacing each element in [A]T by its Cofactor.
⎡ 1 −3 2 −3 21 ⎤
⎢ − ⎥
⎢ 4 4 −2 4 −2 4 ⎥
⎡16 − 2 10 ⎤
⎢ −1 2 3 2 3 −1 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
adj [A] = ⎢− − ⎥ = 12 16 −10⎥
⎢ 4 4 −2 4 −2 4 ⎥ ⎢
⎢ 1 13 5 ⎥⎦
⎢ −1 2 3 2 3 −1 ⎥ ⎣
⎢ −
⎣ 1 −3 2 −3 2 1 ⎥⎦
Step 4. Divide by the scalar value of the determinant of [A] which was computed as 70 in Step 1.
⎡16 −2 10 ⎤
1 ⎢
[A ] − 10 ⎥⎥
−1
= 12 16
70 ⎢
⎣⎢ 1 13 5 ⎥⎦
if y1 = 1, y2 = 13, and y3 = 8
⎡x1 ⎤ ⎡16 −2 10 ⎤⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢x ⎥ = 1 ⎢12 16 −10⎥⎢13⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ 70⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢x3 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 1 13 5 ⎥⎦⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦
1
x1 = (16 − 26 + 80 ) = 70 = 1
70 70
1
x2 = (12 + 208 − 80 ) = 140 = 2
70 70
1 210
x3 = (1 + 169 + 40 ) = =3
70 70
Page 02 - 16
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Cramer’s Rule
⎡ 1 0 2 ⎤ ⎡ x1 ⎤ ⎡ 6 ⎤
⎢− 3 4 6 ⎥⎥ ⎢⎢ x 2 ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢ 30 ⎥⎥
⎢
⎢⎣ − 1 −2 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ x 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 8 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 0 2⎤ ⎡6 0 2⎤
A = ⎢⎢ − 3 4 6 ⎥⎥ A1 = ⎢⎢ 30 4 6 ⎥⎥
⎣⎢ − 1 −2 3 ⎦⎥ ⎣⎢ 8 −2 3 ⎦⎥
⎡ 1 6 2⎤ ⎡ 1 0 6 ⎤
A 2 = ⎢⎢ − 3 30 6 ⎥⎥ A 3 = ⎢⎢ − 3 4 30 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ − 1 8 3 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − 1 −2 8 ⎥⎦
Page 02 - 17
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Addition
A+B B
A A
A+B
B A+B +C
B +C
A+B C
A
. B
Subtraction
−B
A
A−B
Page 02 - 18
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
mA = A m Commutative
m(nA ) = (mn)A Associative
(m + n)A = mA + nA Distributive
m(A + B ) = mA + mB Distributive
P(x,y,z)
A
a x i$ a z k$ y
a y $j
A = a x iˆ + a y ˆj + a z kˆ
Dot Product
A = a x2 + a y2 + a z2
A ⋅ B = A cosθ
Page 02 - 19
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
θ
B
A cos θ
iˆ⋅iˆ = ˆj⋅ ˆj =kˆ⋅kˆ =1 iˆ⋅ ˆj = ˆj⋅kˆ =kˆ⋅iˆ=0
Vector Product
i$ $j k$
ay az ax az a ay
A × B = ax ay az = i$ + ( −1) $j + x k$
by bz bx bz bx by
bx by bz
A x B = A B sin θ
U = A×B
u$
A θ
B
i$ × i$ = $j × $j = k$ × k$ = 0
i$ × $j = k$ $j × k$ = i$ k$ × i$ = $j
$j × i$ = − k$ k$ × $j = − i$ i$ × k$ = − $j
Page 02 - 20
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Vector Differentiation
d (A + B ) dA dB
= + Distributi ve derivative
dt dt dt
d (A ⋅ B ) dB dA
= A⋅ + ⋅B Dot product derivative
dt dt dt
d (A × B ) dB dA
= A× + × B Cross product derivative
dt dt dt
dB df (t )
d
dt
[ f (t )B ] = f (t )
dt
+
dt
B Scalar vec tor product derivative
The first derivative of a position vector is a vector tangential to the trajectory with a magnitude equal to the speed of the
particle.
Reference A can be considered the inertial frame while Rotation of the B reference relative to the A reference must be con-
sidered when observing motion wrt the A reference system.
z Reference A
y r Trajectory C
x R
ω P
z ρ
Reference B
y V
x
Note: Unit vectors are along the B system axes. Subscripts denote reference system. Reference B can be equivalent to a
maneuvering aircraft.
ρ = x iˆ + yˆj + z kˆ
⎛ dρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = x& iˆ + y& ˆj + z&kˆ
⎝ dt ⎠ B
⎛ dρ ⎞
⎜
⎝ dt ⎠ A
( ⎝
&
)& &
⎟ = x& iˆ + y& ˆj + z&kˆ + ⎛⎜ x iˆ + yˆj + z kˆ ⎞⎟
⎠
Page 02 - 21
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
⎛ dr ⎞ ⎛ dρ ⎞
VA = ⎜ ⎟ VB = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ B
⎛ dr ⎞ ⎛ dR ⎞ ⎛ dρ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = V A = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟
⎝ dt ⎠A ⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ A
The term ( ddtR )A is the velocity of the origin of the B reference relative to the A
() ( )
reference, R& . The term dρ can be replaced with the above equation,
dt A
and denoting ( )
dρ
dt B
simply as VB the above expression then becomes :
V = V + R& + ω × ρ
A B
The term is the “transport velocity” and is the only velocity R& + ω × ρ if
Page 02 - 22
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
⎛ dV ⎞ ⎛ dV ⎞ ••
⎡d ⎤
a A = ⎜⎜ A ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ + R + ⎢ (ω × ρ )⎥
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠A ⎣ dt ⎦A
⎛ dV ⎞ ••
⎛ dρ ⎞ ⎛ dω ⎞
use product rule to get... a A = ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ + R + ω × ⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ×ρ
⎝ dt ⎠A ⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ A
⎛ dρ ⎞ ⎛ dρ ⎞
where ⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ +ω ×ρ B
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠ B
⎛ dVB ⎞ ⎛ dV ⎞
and similarly ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜ B ⎟⎟ + ω × V
⎝ dt ⎠ A ⎝ dt ⎠B
Page 02 - 23
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
ω
z
ρ
a
P
y
x
ρ& = ω × ρ
••
ρ = ω × (ω × ρ ) + ω& × ρ
ρ& = Vb − Va
Vb = Va + ω × ρ
ab = a a + ω × (ω × ρ ) + ω& × ρ
Page 02 - 24
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1 n
Sample and Population Mean (Average value): μ=x= ∑ xi
N i =1
1 N
Population Variance (from the mean value): σ2 =
N
∑d
i =1
i
2
1 N
Population Standard Deviation (from the mean value): σ=
N
∑d
i =1
i
2
1 N 2
Sample Standard Deviation (from the mean value): s= ∑ di
N − 1 i =1
Page 02 - 25
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
0.6
0.4
0.2 P(x=X)
0
0 1 2 3 4
0 .4
0.3 5
0 .3
0.2 5
0 .2
0.1 5
0 .1
0.0 5
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
So, the binomial distribution is the discrete case of the Normal distribution.
Continuous Distributions: As the number of samples increases and the width of the Discrete sample intervals shrink to
zero, discrete distributions become continuous.
P(x=X) = 0
Must talk about intervals, e.g. P(a < x < b)
−( x−μ )2
1
The Normal Distribution: f ( x) = e 2σ 2
2πσ
Page 02 - 26
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-5
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
-4 -5
.7
-4 -4.7
.4
-4 -4.4
Normal Distribution:
.1
-3 -4.1
.8
-3 -3.8
.5
-3 -3.5
.2
-2 -3.2
SFTE Reference Handbook
.9
-2
.6 -2.9
-2 -2.6
.3
-2 -2.3
-1
.7 -2
-1
.4 -1.7
-1
.1 -1.4
-0
.8 -1.1
-0 -0.8
.5
-0 -0.5
.2
0. -0.2
1
0. 0.1
4
0. 0.4
7
0.7
1
Page 02 - 27
1. 1
3
Normal Probability Mass Function
μ = 0, σ = 1
x−μ 1
z= , dz = dx
σ σ
− z2
1 b
P ( a < z < b) = ∫ e 2
dz
a 2π
Error Probable: An error budget that would contain half of the population data points. Assumes that events are independ-
ent and identically distributed (iid). Also assumes N is large (greater than 30), or population is normally distributed.
0.4
0.35
0.3
±0.674σ
0.25
0.2
0.15
AREA = 0.5
0.1
0.05
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
If σ x < σ y and σ x
σ y ≤ 0.28 then CEP = 0.562σ x + 0.615σ y
σy
If σ x > σ y and
σ x ≤ 0 .28 then CEP = 0.615σ x + 0.562σ y
Page 02 - 28
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Confidence Intervals: In practice, we take a sample from population. The sample mean and variance will differ from the
population mean and variance. Confidence Intervals express how certain we are that the population statistics lie in a region
around the sample statistics.
(μ , σ
2
Approaches a Normal distribution with parameters )
n
We want 1- α level of confidence that a region around our sample mean
AREA = 1 − α
P( − z1−α < x < z1−α ) = 1 − α
0 .4 2 2
0 .3 5
0 .3
0 .2 5
0 .2
0 .1 5
0 .1
0 .0 5
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
AREA = α 2 AREA = α 2
x−μ
z=
σ
N
σ σ
P ( x − z1−α < μ < x + z1−α ) = 1−α
2 N 2 N
Page 02 - 29
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
If n < 30, we must use Student’s T Distribution instead of the Standard Normal
s s
P ( x − t n ,1−α < μ < x + t n ,1−α ) = 1−α
2 n 2 n
Determining Sample Size: For the population mean to fall into an interval defined by
σ σ
( x − z1−α ) < μ < ( x + z1−α )
2 N 2 N
σ
μ − x ≤ z1−α
2 N
Where μ − x is the accuracy desired (or the error that can be tolerated).
Since the sample size decision must be made prior to the test, an estimate must be made for the population standard devia-
tion. Using the estimate we can solve for N
2
z1−α σ
N≥ 2
error
Hypothesis Testing: Begins with an assumption (hypothesis), usually about the underlying population distribution of some
measured quantity or computed error. Select values for the hypothesis and alternate hypothesis(es) that partition the sample
space. Collect N samples of the population test statistic or parameter. There are two types of errors: Type 1 errors reject
the hypothesis when it is true; Type II accept the hypothesis when in is false.
0 .4
O n e - S id e d T e s t
0 .3 5
0 .3
0 .2 5
0 .2
α
0 .1 5
0 .1
0 .0 5
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
R e je c t S y s te m A c c e p t S y s te m
z0
Page 02 - 30
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
0.4
Two-Sided Test
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
α
2
0.1
0.05
0
-4.5
-3.5
-2.5
-1.5
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
-0
5
Reject System Accept System Reject System
-z0 z0
0.08
Type I and Type II Errors
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04 β
0.03
α
0.02
0.01
0
50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Page 02 - 31
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
∑x − nx 2
σ
2
Large Samples, Unknown Variance use s = for
n −1
x − μ′
z′ =
σ
n
( μ − μ ′)
z′ = z +
σ
n
x−μ
Small Samples, Unknown Variance use:
t=
s
n −1
x − μ′
t′ =
s
n −1
μ − μ′
t′ = t +
s
n −1
Adjusting α and β
Adjust the size of the Error we wish to Detect Change the sample size n
Page 02 - 32
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
H0 : Tj = 0, ∀j
NormalEquations:
n k n k n k n k
∑∑ X =∑∑ m + ∑∑t
i =1 j =1
ij
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
j = nkm+ n∑t j , but ∑t j = 0
j =1 j =1
n k
so ∑∑ X ij =nkm
i =1 j =1
n n n
∑ X = ∑ m + ∑t
i =1
ij
i =1 i =1
j = nm + nt j
n k n n
SS r ( m, t j ) = m ∑∑ X ij + ∑ t j ∑ X ij
i =1 j =1 j =1 i =1
SS t
( k − 1)
Test Statistic is : Fk −1,( n −1) k =
SS e
(( n − 1) k )
Page 02 - 33
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
f ( x ) = f (a ) + f ' (a )
x−a
+ f ' ' (a )
(x − a ) + f ' ' ' ( a ) (x − a ) + ... f
2 3
( n −1 )
(a )
( x − a )( n −1 ) + Rn
1 2! 3! (n − 1 )!
f ( x ) = f ( 0 ) + f ' ( 0)
x
+ f ' ' (0)
(x ) + f ' ' ' (0) (x ) + ... f ( n −1) (0) (x ) + R
2 3 ( n −1)
1 2! 3! (n − 1)! n
Binomial:
Exponential:
( x ln a ) 2 ( x ln a ) 3
a x = 1 + x ln a + + + ....
2! 3!
x2 x3 x4
ex = 1+ x + + + + ....
2! 3! 4!
1 x x2 x4
(e + e − x ) = 1 + + + ....
2 2! 4!
1 x x3 x5
(e − e − x ) = x + + + ....
2 3! 5!
2 x 4 x6 x8
e−x = 1 − x2 + − + ....
2! 3! 4!
Logarithmic:
1 1
ln x = ( x − 1) − ( x − 1) 2 + ( x − 1) 3 − .... [0 < x < 2]
2 3
( x − 1) 1 x − 1 2 1 x − 1 3 ⎡ 1⎤
ln x = − ( ) + ( ) − .... ⎢⎣ x > 2 ⎥⎦
x 2 x 3 x
⎡ x − 1 1 ⎛ x − 1 ⎞3 1 ⎛ x − 1 ⎞5 ⎤
ln x = 2⎢ − ⎜ ⎟ + ⎜ ⎟ + ....⎥ [0 < x]
⎢⎣ x + 1 3 ⎝ x + 1 ⎠ 5 ⎝ x + 1 ⎠ ⎥⎦
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Trigonometric:
x3 x5 x7
sin x = x − + − + .....
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + .....
2! 4! 6!
x 3 2 x 5 17 x 7 62 x 9 ⎡ 2 π2⎤
tan x = x + + + + + ..... ⎢ x < ⎥
3 15 315 2835 ⎣ 4⎦
−1
sin x = x +
1 x 3 1⋅ 3 x 5 1⋅ 3 ⋅ 5 x 7
+ +
2 3 2 ⋅ 4 5 2 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 6 7!
+ ...... [x 2
]
<1
−1 x3 x5 x7
tan x = x − + − + ......
3 5 7
[x 2
]
≤1
x2 x4
ln sin x = ln x − − −
x6
6 180 2835
[
− ...... x 2 < π 2 ]
x 2 x 4 x 6 17 x8 ⎡ 2 π2⎤
ln cos x = − − − − ..... ⎢ x < ⎥
2 12 45 2520 ⎣ 4⎦
x 2 7 x 4 62 x 6 ⎡ 2 π2⎤
ln tan x = ln x + + + − ..... ⎢ x < ⎥
3 90 2835 ⎣ 4⎦
x 2 3x 4 8 x 5 3x 6
e = 1+ x + −
sin x
− + + .....
2! 4! 5! 6!
x 2 4 x 4 31x 6
e = e(1 − +
cos x
− + .....)
2! 4! 6!
x 2 3x 3 9 x 4 37 x 5 ⎡ 2 π2⎤
e = 1+ x + +
tan x
+ + + ..... ⎢ x < ⎥
2! 3! 4! 5! ⎣ 4⎦
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
[x is the independent variable; u and v are dependent on x; w is dependent on u; a and n are constants; log is
common logarithm; ln is logarithm to the base e]
da
=0
dx
d ( ax )
=a
dx
dx n
= nx n −1
dx
d (u + v ) du dv
= +
dx dx dx
d (uv ) dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
d (u / v ) 1 ⎛ du dv ⎞
= 2 ⎜v −u ⎟
dx v ⎝ dx dx ⎠
dw dw du
=
dx du dx
du n du
= nu n −1
dx dx
d ln x 1
=
dx x
d ln u 1 du
=
dx u dx
d log u log e du
=
dx u dx
Page 02 - 36
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
de x
= ex
dx
da x
= a x ln a
dx
da u du
= a u ln a
dx dx
du v v −1 du dv
= vu + u v ln u
dx dx dx
d sin x d sin u du
= cos x or = cos u
dx dx dx
d cos x d cos u du
= − sin x or = − sin u
dx dx dx
d tan x d tan u du
= sec 2
x or = sec 2
u
dx dx dx
d sec x d sec u du
= sec x tan x or = sec u tan u
dx dx dx
d cot x d tan u du
= − csc 2
x or = − csc 2
u
dx dx dx
d sin − 1 x 1 d sin − 1 u 1 du
= or =
dx 1− x2 dx 1− u2 dx
d cos − 1 x −1 d cos − 1 u −1 du
= or =
dx 1− x 2 dx 1− u 2 dx
−1 −1
d tan x 1 d tan u 1 du
= or =
dx 1+ x2 dx 1 + u dx
2
d cot − 1 x −1 d cot − 1 u − 1 du
= or =
dx 1+ x2 dx 1 + u 2 dx
Page 02 - 37
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Fundamental Integrals
∫ adx = ax
∫ af ( x)dx = a ∫ f ( x)d x
∫ (u + v)dx = ∫ ud x + ∫ vdx
∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu
udv du
∫ dx
dx = uv − ∫ v
dx
dx
x n +1
∫ x dx = , n ≠ −1
n
n +1
∫x
−1
dx = ln x
dx
∫ w(u )dx = ∫ w(u ) du u
dx 1 x
∫a 2
+x 2
= tan −1
a a
dx x
∫ a2 − x2
= sin −1
a
dx
∫ x ±a
2 2
= ln( x − x 2 ± a 2 )
1⎛ u⎞
∫ a 2 − u 2 du = ⎜ u a 2 − u 2 + a 2 sin −1 ⎟
2⎝ a⎠
du 1 u
∫u 2
+a 2
= tan −1
a a
a>0
Page 02 - 38
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
dx
∫ x
= ln x
∫ e dx = e
x x
e ax
∫ e dx =
ax
a
ax b ax
∫ b dx =
a ln b
∫ ln xdx = x ln x − x
bu
∫ b du = ln u
u
e ax
∫ = ( ax − 1)
ax
xe dx
a2
xb ax b ax
∫ = −
ax
xb dx
a ln b a 2 (ln b ) 2
∫ x e dx =
2 ax
a3
(
e ax 2 2
a x − 2 ax + 2 )
∫ ln axdx = x ln ax − x
x2 x2
∫ x ln axdx = 2
ln ax −
4
3
x x3
∫ = −
2
x ln axdx ln ax
3 9
∫ (ln ax ) dx = x(ln ax )
2 2
− 2 x ln ax + 2 x
∫ x ln ax = ln (ln ax )
dx
xn 1 e y dy
∫ ln ax dx =
a n +1 ∫ y
y = ( n + 1) ln ax
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
2 2
1 1
∫ cos udu = 2 u + 2 sin u cos u
2
1
∫ sin axdx = − a cos ax
x sin 2ax
∫ sin axdx =
−
2
2 4a
dx 1 ax
∫ sin ax = a ln tan 2
dx 1
∫ sin 2 ax = − a cot ax
dx 1 ⎛ π ax ⎞
∫ 1 ± sin ax = m a tan⎜⎝ 4 m 2 ⎟⎠
1 2
∫ sin x cos xdx = 2 sin x
Page 02 - 40
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1 −3
t πs 2 (s>0)
2
1 −1
t πs 2
(s>0)
(1)(3)(5)...(2n − 1) π − n − 1 2
tn-1/2 (n=1,2,…) s
2n (s>0)
1
eat
s−a (s>a)
1
teat (s − a )2 (s>a)
(n − 1)!
tn-1eax (n=1, 2, …) (s − a )n (s>a)
a
sin at
s + a2
2
(s>0)
s
cos at (s>0)
s + a2
2
a
ebt sin at (s?b)
(s − b )2 + a 2
s−b
ebt cos at (s>b)
(s − b )2 + a 2
2 as
x sin ax
(s 2
− a2 )2 (s>a)
x cos ax
s2 − a2 (s > 0)
(s 2
+ a2 )
2
sinh at
a (s > a )
s − a2
2
Page 02 - 41
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
s
cosh at (s > a )
s − a2
2
s sin b + a cos b
sin (at + b)
s2 + a2
s cos b − a sin b
cos(at + b)
s2 + a2
e at − e bt 1
a −b (s − a )(s − b )
ae at − be bt s
a −b (s − a )(s − b )
δ (impulse function) 1
1
square wave, period =2c
(
s 1 + e −cs )
1 − e − cs
( )
triangular wave, period = 2c
s 2 1 + e −cs
at for 0 ≤ t < c (
a 1 + cs − e − cs )
sawtooth wave, period = c
(
s 2 1 − e cs )
2 abs
sin at sin bt
[ ][
s 2 + (a + b ) s 2 + (a − b )
2 2
]
1 − cos at 1
a2 (
s s + a2 2
)
at − sin at 1
a3 2
(
s s + a2 2
)
sin at − at cos at 1
2a 3 (s 2
+ a2 ) 2
Page 02 - 42
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
2.1 Burington, Richard S., “Handbook of Mathematical Tables and Formulas”, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1973.
2.2 Ayers, F., Moyer, R., “Trigonometry”, Schaum’s Outline series, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1990.
2.3 Esbach, Ovid W., “Handbook of Engineering Fundamentals”, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1963.
2.4 Hudson, Ralph G., “The Engineers’ Manual”, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1944.
2.5 Jones, G., Chapter 14, Vectors and Matrices , from “Chapter 14, Vectors and Matrices , from “ Flying
Qualities Testing, Vol II” , National; Test Pilot School, P.O. Box 658, Mojave CA, 93501.
2.6 Flying Qualities Testing, Vol II”, 1997, National Test Pilot School, P.O. Box 658, Mojave CA, 93501.
2.7 Lewis, G., Chapter 2, Data Analysis , from “Crew station Evaluation and Data Analysis, Vol IV”, 1997,
National Test Pilot School, P.O. Box 658, Mojave CA, 93501.
Page 02 - 43
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
NOTES
Page 02 - 44
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Section 3 Universe/Earth/Atmospheric
Properties
3.9 References
Page 03 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Hp = pressure altitude. The pressure associate with geopotential altitude on a standard day.
T = absolute temperature (Rankin or Kelvin)
TR = absolute temperature, Rankin scale
To = standard day seal level absolute temperature
P = ambient pressure
Po= standard day seal level ambient pressure
ρ = ambient density
ρ ο= standard day seal level ambient density
δ = P/Po = atmospheric pressure/std day sea level pressure
θ = T/To = atmospheric absolute temp / std day sea level absolute temp
σ = ρ /ρ ο = atmospheric density/std day sea level density
g = acceleration due to gravity
go = standard earth acceleration due to gravity
ao = speed of sound at std day sea level temperature
Page 03 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Newtonian Gravity
The gravitaional field (g) near any mass can be calculated as
GM
g=
(RA )2
where G is the universal gravitational constant and RA is the absolute distance from the center of mass M
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
ΔCR = −
V2 (R ω ) = R ω 2
=− x
2
x
Rx Rx
where ω is the earth’s rotation rate and Rx is the perpendicular distance from the earth's axis to the surface and
can be calculated as Rx =R cos φ (see figure below).
Rx
φ = deg latitude
R
For any centrifugal relief calculations associated with aircraft performance, it is sufficiently exact (g ±0.00004
m/s2) to use the average earth radius. An aircraft flying eastward contributes to centrifugal relief while a west-
bound aircraft diminishes it.
Page 03 - 4
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The International Association of Geodesy publishes the following equation (accurate to 0.005%) to calculate
local sea level gravity including the effects of centrifugal relief for any point fixed to the earth's surface
(
g lsl = 9.780327 1 + 0.00530224 sin 2 φ − 0.000058 sin 2 2φ )[ ]
m
s2
hG g alt
2
(1000 ft) g lsl ⎛ R ⎞
g alt = g sls ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ R + hG ⎠
0 1
10 0.99904
20 0.99809
40 0.99618
60 0.99428
80 0.99238
100 0.99049
Page 03 - 5
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
N zω ⎡ g std ⎤
C Lstd = C Lt std
⎢ ⎥
N zωt ⎣ g A / C ⎦
C Dstd =
(C )Lstd
2
πA Re
[
Δ D = D std − Dt = qS C Distd − C Dit ]
W& f std = W& f t + ΔD ⋅ TFSC
Page 03 - 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
plus traces of helium, kryton, xenon, hydrogen, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ammonia, carbon monoxide, and iodine.
Viscosities of Air
7.3025 x10 −7 (TR )
3/ 2
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
⎡ ⎛ 734 .7 ⎞⎤
Absolute Viscosity, lb μ = ρv = ⎢.317 (TR ) 3 / 2 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ x10 −10 sec/ft2
⎣ ⎝ R
T + 216 ⎠⎦
Page 03 - 8
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Constantly changing atmospheric conditions cannot be duplicated at will to provide the exact environment in
which a flight takes place. A standard atmosphere provides a common basis to relate all flight test, wind tunnel
results, aircraft design and general performance. Several models of “standard atmosphere” exist with minor dif-
ferences based on mathematical constants used in the calculations.
Geometric altitude, hG , is defined as the height of an aircraft above sea level (also called tapeline altitude)
Absolute altitude, ha, is defined as the height of an aircraft above the center of the earth: (geometric altitude +
radius of the earth).
Geopotential altitude, h, is required because g changes with height.If potential energy is calculated using sea
level weight (WSL = mgo) instead of actual weight (W = mg), then the altitude must be lower.
W hG = WSL h
Pressure altitude, Hp is the altitude, on a standard day, at which the test day pressure would be found
Density altitude is the altitude, on a standard day, at which the test day density would be found
Temperature altitude is the altitude, on a standard day, at which the test day temperature would be found
Page 03 - 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
To = 288.15 K = 518.67 R = 59 oF = 15 oC
The above relations characterize the standard atmosphere table in this handbook. They may be re-written to
solve for pressure altitude (Hp) for any ambient pressure. Below the tropopause (ambient pressure greater than
472.683 psf or 22632 Pa)
Hp [ft] = [1-(Pa/Po)0.1902632]/[6.8755856 x 10-6]
In the troposphere (ambient pressure between 114.347 and 472.683 psf or between 5475 and 22632.1 Pascal)
Page 03 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
T h e r m o sp h e r
300
Thermosphere
M e so p a u se
S p e e d o f so u n d
M e so sp h e r e
200 T e m p e r a tu r e
S tr a to p a u se
G e o m e tric a ltitu d e
(fe e t X 1 0 0 0 )
100
S tr a ta sp h e r e
50
D e n sity T r o p o p a u se
P r e ssu r e T r o p o sp h e r e
0
150 200 250 300
K (te m p ) 288
Page 03 - 14
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 03 - 18
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Wave Height,
Code Sea
Crest to Trough (ft)
0 Calm 0
2 Slight 1-3
3 Moderate 3-5
4 Rough 5-8
6 High 12-20
8 Mountainous 40+
0 None low
1 Short or average
2 Long
4 Average
5 Long
6 Short heavy
7 Average
8 Long
Page 03 - 19
0:00
23:00 72 deg
22:00 70 deg
60 deg
21:00 50 deg
20:00 40 deg
30 deg
19:00 20 deg
18:00
SFTE Reference Handbook
17:00
16:00 Sunset Times
15:00
14:00
13:00
12:00 Subtract 4 minutes per degree longitude east of Prime Meridian (+4 if west)
UTC time
11:00
Page 03 - 20
10:00
9:00
8:00
Sunrise Times
Section 3.6 Sunrise Sunset Times
7:00
6:00
5:00
4:00
3:00
2:00
1:00
0:00
19/ 2/ 16/ 30/ 13/ 27/ 13/ 27/ 10/ 24/ 8/ 22/ 5/ 19/ 3/ 17/ 31/ 14/ 28/ 11/ 25/ 9/ 23/ 6/ 20/ 4/ 18/
Third Edition 2013
Dec/ Jan/ Jan/ Jan/ Feb/ Feb/ Mar/ Mar/ Apr/ Apr/ May/ May/ Jun/ Jun/ Jul/ Jul/ Jul/ Aug/ Aug/ Sep/ Sep/ Oct/ Oct/ Nov/ Nov/ Dec/ Dec/
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
40
Crosswind Components
X-wind = (wind speed)*(sin Ψ)
35
30
Headwind Component
25
20
15
10
40
35
30
25
20
5 15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Crosswind Component
Page 03 - 21
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Earth Modeling
The Geodetic System defines the location of any point relative to the earth using latitude, longitude and height
(Figure 3.8-1, point P). Longitude and latitude are expressed in degrees, minutes, seconds. Longitude lines extend
180 degrees from the Prime Meridian, run north to south, and converge at the poles. Latitude lines are parallel
to the equator and extend 90°.
The 1984 world geodetic system, WGS84, models the earth’s surface as an oblate spheroid - an ellipsoid rotated
about its semi-minor axis. In this model, used by global positioning systems, the earth’s semi-major axis, a is
6,378,137.0 meters and the semi-minor axis, b is 6,356,752.314 meters.
The flatness factor (f) is defined as:
For the WGS84 model, f =1/298.257223563
Because the earth is not perfectly spherical, there are various methods for defining latitude. Unlike the geocentric
latitude which uses the earth’s center for determining a point’s latitude, the geodetic latitude (used herein) is the
angle between the equatorial plane and a line normal to the reference ellipsoid. Figure 3.8-1 exaggerates this with
a normal line being well offset from the earth’s center. This definition leads to a degree of latitude being longer at
the pole than at the equator: 111,694 m (60.3 nm) vs. 110,574 m (59.7 nm).
The geodetic longitude of a point is the angle between a reference plane and a plane passing through the point,
both planes being perpendicular to the equatorial plane.
Mathematically, the geodetic surface is a smooth ellipsoid modeling the earth’s surface. Clearly, the topography
(actual surface height) deviates from this model whenever land is above or below sea level. Less evident is that
the actual sea level also deviates from the geodetic model due to local changes in the earth’s gravity. Specifically,
Page 03 - 23
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
mass variations caused by changes in earth density and topography, such as mountains or trenches, change local
gravity vectors and therefore sea level relative to the ellipsoid.
Reference to Mean Sea Level (MSL) served as the traditional way to express topographic or bathymetric height.
Geodesists once considered the sea in balance with the earth's gravity and formed a perfectly regular figure. MSL
is usually described as a tidal datum that is the arithmetic mean of hourly water elevations observed over a 19-
year (Metonic) cycle. This definition averages out tidal highs and lows caused by the changing effects of the
gravitational forces from the moon and sun. MSL defines the zero elevation (vertical datum) for a local area.
Because the sea surface conforms to the earth's gravitational field, MSL also has slight hills and valleys similar to
the land surface but much smoother. Zero elevation as defined by one nation is often not the same zero elevation
defined by another, thus locally defined vertical datums differ from each other.
The Geoid is the equipotential surface in the earth’s gravity field that coincides most closely with the mean sea
level extended continuously under the continents. In other words, it approximates the level of any non-flowing
water connected (actually or theoretically) to the seas by waterway or via trenches or tunnels. The geoid surface
undulates relative to the geodetic ellipsoid and is perpendicular to the local gravity vector – as seen with a plumb
line. Similarly, a spirit level defines the local surface parallel to the geoid, which is tangent to the local horizon.
Because the geoid is an equipotential surface, it is the best datum for measuring potential energy and is the true
zero surface for measuring elevations. Previously, there was no way to accurately measure the geoid, so heights
were measured relative to the similar MSL. EGM96 (Earth Gravity Model 1996) represents the best geoid model
currently available and shows smoothly changing surface undulations ranging from +85 to -107 meters relative to
the WGS84 ellipsoid.
The geoid surface cannot be directly observed, thus heights above or below it can't be directly measured. Instead
the geoid surface is modeled mathematically using gravitational measurements. Although for practical purposes,
at the coastline the geoid and MSL surfaces are assumed to be essentially the same, at some spots the geoid can
actually differ from MSL by several meters.
Ellipsoidal height (h) is the same as geodetic height and is the geometric distance between an object and the
earth ellipsoid (Figure 3.8-2). This may be a GPS output.
Geoid height (N) is the height of the geoid above or below the ellipsoid. Some GPS devices output this
undulation value in the data stream.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Orthometric height (H) is the geometric distance along a gravitational force line from a given point P to the
geoid. This is essentially the conventional height measurement because the geoid approximates MSL- the
traditional method for determining height.
Modern GPS units typically include a geoid model (e.g. EGM-96) that provides N (geoid height over the WGS
ellipsoid) at the current position. Such a unit can provide the height above geoid. If GPS height output is only
available relative to the ellipsoid (h), then traditional Orthometric height (H) above the geoid can be obtained by
subtracting the geoid height above the ellipsoid. [http://www.esri.com/news/arcuser/0703/geoid1of3.html]
ECEF Transformations
For the purpose of performance, navigation, or noise analysis, flight testers may require distances between two
points (the shortest being along the great circle arc) and the average heading of that arc. Calculating these from
typical Geodetic System Lat/Long inputs requires conversion to the Earth Centered Earth Fixed (ECEF)
coordinate system as shown in Figure 3.8-3.
The ECEF coordinate system is a Cartesian system with the origin at the earth’s center. In this system, the X-axis
is defined by the intersection of the Prime Meridian and equatorial planes. The Z-axis goes through the North
Pole. The Y-axis completes a right-handed orthogonal system by a plane 90 degrees east of the X-axis and its
intersection with the equator.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
x = (N + h)∙cos(φ)∙cos(λ)
y = (N + h)∙cos(φ)∙sin(λ)
z = (N∙(1-e2) + h) ∙sin(φ)
where,
x = ECEF coordinate parallel to the X-axis
y = ECEF coordinate parallel to the Y-axis
z = ECEF coordinate parallel to the Z-axis
φ = geodetic latitude
λ = geodetic longitude
h = height above geodetic (ellipsoid) surface
N = Normal radius of curvature; distance from earth axis to any point on the geodetic surface at that latitude
(extension of r to axis shown in Figure 3.8-3).
1
∙
where,
a = semi-major axis radius (6,378,137 m; 20,925,647 ft)
e2 = eccentricity squared;
1 2 ∙ = 0.00669438002290 (Earth, per WGS84).
Also useful is
M = Meridian radius of curvature; distance from earth axis to any point on the geodetic surface at that longitude.
1
1
∙ .
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Any plane passing through the center of a spheroid traces a Great Circle around the perimeter of that spheroid.
The shortest distance between two points on the surface is that portion of the great circle arc encompassing both
points (Figure 3.8-3).
Except when moving around the equator, navigating along a great circle route has the characteristic of
intercepting longitude lines at different angles. In other words, the heading (or bearing) changes along the route.
Analysis shows bearing change along a great circle route:
• Is never greater than the longitude difference between the end points.
• Approaches the value of the longitude change as the final latitude approaches a pole (regardless of
initial latitude).
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Calculate the great circle distance (D) between points (subscripts 1 and 2) as
,
→ ∙→ ∙ cos ∙ ∙ ∙
∙ ∙ ∙
∙
∙
where
P = distance from earth center to any point (including height above the spheroid surface).
→ = Vector from the Earth’s center to point P.
For shorter distances typical of local flight testing, the Great Circle model matches the following
Two-dimensional approximations.
An error analysis of the above 2-D heading approximation shows it consistently lies between the initial
and final headings transpiring during great circle navigation and is closest to the final heading. This
occurs when considering up to 10 degrees longitude change and is therefore sufficiently accurate for
lesser changes that arise in flight testing (e.g. radial from a navigation transmitter).
An error analysis of the above 2-D distance approximation shows accuracy within 0.6% of the great
circle distance when changing latitude and longitude 1 degree, and within 3% when changing latitude
and longitude 10 degrees. It is accurate to within 0.4% when changing only latitude or longitude 10
degrees.
Page 03 - 28
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Latitude φ, longitude λ, and height (typical GPS output data) can be transformed into rectangular (X,Y,Z)
coordinates. The following presents a method for applying this to two different coordinate systems, both with the
X-Y axes defining the horizontal plane. This is useful when working with local distances associated with typical
flight testing such as noise measurement, local navigation, or field performance.
Figure 3.8-4a shows a case where the X-Y coordinate system aligns with the latitude & longitude grid. Figure 3.8-
4b shows a case where the X-Y coordinate system aligns with a runway, with Y=0 defining the centerline. In both
cases, a designated primary reference datum [φ0, λ0], such as the runway centerline threshold, coincides with
X=0, Y=0. With the example shown in Figure 3.8-4b, the opposite end of the runway centerline [φ1, λ1],
coincides with X= runway length and Y= 0.
Figure 3.8-4: Local X-Y Coordinate System Aligned with (a)φ,λ Grid; (b) Runway
Because each degree of latitude change is not always exactly 60 nm and because the spacing between degrees of
longitude changes markedly with latitude, converting from degrees latitude & longitude change to distance
requires scaling factors. First select equatorial distances for each degree change
∅_scale#∅$%& 56_789:;#∅$%&<∙=>?∅
∅_scale 1.3 λ_scale
*
'() * ∙+, -./0 () * ∙?@A* -./
Calculate X and Y components of distances aligned with the latitude & longitude grid (Figure 3.8-4a)
Y = φ _scale·(φ 1 - φ 0)
X = λ_scale·(λ1 - λ0)
The 2-D local (vice great circle) distance between any two points on the X-Y plane is
D = (X2 + Y2)1/2
Page 03 - 29
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
For field performance work, it is preferable to align X & Y with the runway as shown in Figure 3.8-4b. To convert
from grid-aligned to runway-aligned coordinates, apply a rotation matrix that ensures X remains positive when
going from point [φ 0, λ0] towards [φ 1, λ1]. The rotation angle, ψ, is positive counter-clockwise from true East to
the direction of the runway. [Note: do not confuse ψ with runway heading measured relative to magnetic north].
The function
ψ = atan2(X, Y)
returns rotation angles from - π to π, so that rotating to headings between 90° and 270° results in
negative rotation angles.
For any point [φ, λ], calculate runway-aligned X & Y distances using
This provides a right-handed rectangular coordinate system where X is positive from [φ 0, λ0] towards [φ1, λ1]
and Y is positive left of the runway centerline (Figure 3.8-4b).
For multiple tests from a given runway, it is convenient to define the following
constants from the above equations
K1 = φ _scalesin(ψ)
K2 = λ_scalecos(ψ)
K3 = φ _scalecos(ψ)
K4 = λ_scalesin(ψ)
Calculating aircraft height Z above the X-Y plane requires defining where the X-Y plane lies. An analyst may
define Z=0 at some arbitrary height (i.e. GPS altitude at the beginning of a maneuver) and consider only changes
from that reference.
For field performance, it is typical to use the runway altitude as the reference. Because runway altitudes vary
however, height should be surveyed and modeled or tabulated as a function runway centerline position, H{X}.
For best accuracy, the runway survey accounts for GPS antenna height above the surface. Airplane height above
the X-Y plane (Z) is then
Z = ζ – H{X}
Note: Analysts can determine Z using either Orthometric height above the geoid (H) or above the
.
geodetic surface (h) – as long as the runway surface model H{X} uses the same reference
Page 03 - 30
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
3.2 Lawless, Alan. R. et al, “Aerodynamics for Flight Testers”, National Test Pilot School, P.O. Box 658,
Mojave CA, 93501, 1999.
3.3 Denno, Richard R., et al “AIAA Aerospace Design Engineers Guide” ISBN 0-930403-21-5, AIAA, 1987.
3.4 Global Positioning System Overview, Peter H. Dana, Department of Geography, University of Texas
at Austin, 1994. (www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html)
Page 03 - 31
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
NOTES
Page 03 - 32
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Editor's Note
In an effort to reduce confusion and conflict regarding pitot and static pressure nomenclature, SFTE
has elected to change two definitions and symbols since the first edition of this handbook was released.
Henceforth, ΔPs shall indicate static pressure ERROR (ΔPs = Ps – Pa) and ΔPT shall indicate total (i.e.
pitot) pressure ERROR (ΔPT = Pp – PT). This nomenclature eliminates the ΔPp symbol and confusion
as to whether it indicates position error or pitot error.
Page 04 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 04 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Equivalent Airspeed
(= VT equation with assumption of std day sea level density)
2
Pa PT − Pa 7 ρa
Ve = 7 + 1 − 1 = V T = VT σ
ρ o Pa ρo
Calibrated Airspeed
(= Ve equation with assumption of std day sea level pressure)
1
γ −1
2
2γ Po PT − Pa γ
Vc = + 1 − 1
γ −1 ρo Po
ඨ7 ൬ቂP +1ቃ
Po qc .2857
-1൰
ρo o
Applying British units (lb/ft2) and converting from ft/sec to knots yields
2
P − Pa 7 (kts)
Vc = 1479 T + 1 − 1
2116
Mach Number
γ −1
q
2
2 PT − Pa γ 7
+ 1 − 1 = 5 + 1 − 1
V
M = T = c
a
γ − 1 Pa Pa
Page 04 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The name comes from the fact that although the equivalent airspeed equation does correct for compressibility,
the sea level pressure assumption used for calibrated airspeed makes the compressibility correction valid only
for that (sea level) pressure. Above sea level, the calibrated airspeed must be re-scaled for pressure effects on
compressibility. The mathematical method for determining Ve from Vc is to first solve the calibrated airspeed
equation for qc
⎡⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞3.5 ⎤
qc = Pο ⎢⎜⎜ o c + 1⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎣⎝ Po 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Next, substitute this value and the ambient pressure (Pa) into the equivalent airspeed equation. (qc = PT - Pa )
Pa ⎛⎜ ⎡ qc ⎤ 7 ⎞⎟
2
Ve = 7 ⎜ ⎢ + 1⎥ − 1⎟
ρ o ⎜ ⎣ Pa ⎦ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
The adjacent chart does this graphically for all subsonic airspeeds.
Ve = Vc +ΔVc
Page 04 - 4
Vc, Knots Calibrated Airspeed
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
0 0.3 Mach 0.4 Mach
0.5 Mach
0.6 Mach
-5
SFTE Reference Handbook
0.7 Mach
0.8 Mach
-10
0.9 Mach
-15
1.0 Mach
ΔVc (kts),
Page 04 - 5
ΔV c =V e -V c
-30
Section 4.3 Subsonic Relations Between Compressible and Incompressible Dynamic Pressure
2 2q
VT = (PT − Pa ) =
ρa ρa
q = /2 ρaVT = /2 ρoVe
1 2 1 2
This value for q should not be confused with compressible (a.k.a. impact or differential) pressure, qc (= PT -Pa)
⎛⎡q 2
⎞
⎜ c + 1⎤ − 1⎟
7
1 P
q = ρo 7 a ⎜⎜ ⎢ P ⎥ ⎟⎟
2 Po ⎣ ⎦
⎝ a
⎠
Page 04 - 6
1.30
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.05
Poly. (qc/q)
Page 04 - 7
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
M
Third Edition 2013
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
True Airspeed
γ⎡ ⎤ γ −1
⎡γ + 1 ⎛V ⎞ ⎤
2 γ − ⎢ ⎥
P ' T − Pa q 1
⎢ 1 ⎥
= c = ⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ −1
Pa Pa ⎢⎣ 2 ⎝ a ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢ 2γ ⎛ V ⎞ 2 γ − 1 ⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ − ⎥
⎣γ +1⎝ a ⎠ γ +1⎦
7
⎡V ⎤
166.92⎢ c ⎥
qc
= ⎣ ao ⎦ − 1
2
Po ⎡V ⎤
(7 ⎢ c ⎥ − 1) 2.5
⎣ ao ⎦
Mach Number
qc 166.92[M ]
7
= −1
Pa (7[M ]2 − 1) 2.5
Page 04 - 8
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Since stagnation exists at the probe, it absorbs the energy of the air
ρ PTV ρT PT VT TT
Temperature Probe
V2 γ Ps γ Pp
Apply Bernoulli: + ⋅ = ⋅
2 γ −1 ρs γ −1 ρ p
also P
/ρ = RT and a2 = γRT
TT ⎛ γ −1⎞ 2
∴ = 1+ ⎜ ⎟M
Ta ⎝ 2 ⎠
Use K ( probe recovery factor) to account for heat losses:
TT ⎡ K(γ −1) 2 ⎤
= 1+ M ⎥
Ta ⎢⎣ 2 ⎦
Ti + ∆Tic = TT = Tα + Tα KM 2
plot Ti ~ M 2
TT
γ −1
Ta slope= Ta K
2
2
M
Page 04 - 9
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 04 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
4.7.1 Fly-by
As depicted below, the flyby method originally used some sort of viewing platform with surveyed distances and a
grid or other device for determining the aircraft’s relative angle above the platform’s altimeter. This information
combined to give the aircraft’s actual pressure altitude. Modern methods replace the tower system with a radar
altimeter or GPS unit to determine tapeline height above the flyby line (Hg). This geometric height is converted to
a pressure altitude change using a temperature correction. When added to the aircraft’s pressure altitude on the
runway, this change provides the actual pressure altitude during the flyby (Actual Hc = runway pressure altitude +
Hg(Ts/Tt).
Assumptions
1. No errors in total head.
2. Constant height runs
3. Surveyed course
T
Actual H c = H ctower + D tanθ ⋅ s
Tt
∆H pc = Actual H c − (H i + ∆H ic )
∆ PS = − ρ g ∆ H pc
∆ PS = q c − q cic
∆ PS = 1 ρ 0V c − 1 ρ 0V ic (low Mach only)
2 2
2 2
Solve for V c
∆ V pc = V c − V ic
Page 04 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Error Analysis
10
Vic (knots)
100 200 300 400
Note: A check on basic instrument calibration is easily accomplished using a “ground block” where a parked test aircraft
compares altimeters with tower. Any error can be treated as a bias.
This altitude-based Test method determines altimeter corrections and therefore static error directly. Accurately converting
this static source error to an airspeed correction also requires knowledge of the test pitot tube's total pressure error (ΔPT ).
This can be determined either through direct comparison with a calibrated noseboom pitot pressure or from one of the air-
speed-based methods that directly yield airspeed corrections (pace, ground course, GPS). In lieu of these options, the pitot
error may assumed to be zero, but this will reduce confidence in the calculated value for airspeed correction.
Page 04 - 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Vi
+ Δ V ic ΔS
= V ic Vi
+ ΔV pc Ti
= Vc
÷ σ
= VT
ΔS
=
ΔT
Page 04 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
e
rs
timing
u
co
error
ile
e
u rs
m
2
co
2
i le
3m
e
o urs
ile c
1 5m
0
50 100 150 200 250
Airspeed (kts)
3
Wind speed increasing from 10 kts to 15 kts
Airspeed Error (kts)
0
50 100 150 200 250 Airspeed (kts)
This airspeed-based Test method determines airspeed corrections directly. Accurately converting this airspeed
error to a static source error requires knowledge of the test pitot tube's total pressure error (ΔPT ). This can be
determined using one of the altitude-based methods that directly yield altitude corrections (tower fly-by, trailing
cone or bomb). In lieu of these options, the pitot error may assumed to be zero, but this will reduce confidence
in the calculated values for static pressure error and altimeter. correction
Page 04 - 14
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Static holes
Psref
If pitot errors do exist, then they must be included in calculations for ΔVpc (see flowchart)
Using a trailing cone during stall testing may give airspeed errors due to lag errors during the deceleration.
This altitude-based Test method determines altimeter corrections and therefore static error directly. Accurately converting
this static source error to an airspeed correction also requires knowledge of the test pitot tube's total pressure error (ΔPT ).
This can be determined either through direct comparison with a calibrated noseboom pitot pressure or from one of the air-
speed-based methods that directly yield airspeed corrections (pace, ground course, GPS). In lieu of these options, the pitot
error may assumed to be zero, but this will reduce confidence in the calculated value for airspeed correction.
Page 04 - 15
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• The attraction
» any altitude
Various methods available, all assume steady winds and ambient temperature. You must determine wind speed
and direction to calculate VT and T0 and to ensure steady winds existed during test series.
GPS accuracies are variable. Know tolerances before accepting GPS as a truth model.
If exact (± 10º ) winds are calculated inflight, you can fly one pass directly into/away from the wind
VT = VG + VHeadwind
This airspeed-based Test method determines airspeed corrections directly. Accurately converting this airspeed
error to a static source error requires knowledge of the test pitot tube's total pressure error (ΔPT ). This can be
determined using one of the altitude-based methods that directly yield altitude corrections (tower fly-by, trailing
cone or bomb). In lieu of these options, the pitot error may assumed to be zero, but this will reduce confidence
in the calculated values for static pressure error and altimeter. correction
Graphs in Section 4.11 separately show the effect of measurement errors in ΔPT, air temperature, or true air-
speed on ΔVC calculations . The last chart (Page 04-29) shows how each knot of accumulated ΔVC uncertainty
affects the ΔHC uncertainty at various altitudes and temperatures.
Page 04 - 16
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Flying four legs instead of three allows four separate calculations of wind speed & direction to confirm stable
winds at that test airspeed. If several real-time calculations of winds confirm constant direction and velocity,
then testing may be shortened by flying only one pass directly into or away from the wind. If this is done, an
end-of-test wind calibration must be performed to confirm steady winds throughout the test series. To mini-
mize temperature and wind variations, testing should be accomplished within a relatively small area.
VW
c
VG3 VT
VT
VG1
VT
VW
VW VG2 b
a
1 ⎛ 2 ⎛V 2 ⎞⎞
True airspeed : VT = ⎜V1 + V22 + V32 + V12 × ⎜ 32 ⎟ ⎟
2 ⎜ ⎜V ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎝ 2 ⎠⎠
2 2
⎛ V − V ⎞ ⎛ V − V ×V V ⎞
Wind velocityVW = ⎜ 1 3 ⎟ + ⎜ 2 1 3 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(V − V ×V V )
Wind directionψ W = tan -1 2 1 3 2
(V1 − V3 )
Page 04 - 17
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
W
c
VT VG3
VG1
VT VG2 Angle a = ψ
Angle b = 90 + ψ
VW
VT b Angle c = 180 - ψ
a VW
The “Windbox” method consists of flying four legs instead of three. The extra leg provides a fourfold increase
in wind calculations to improve result confidence. The “Orbis” method extends this advantage by collecting
data at every heading throughout a level turn.
Page 04 - 18
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Cloverleaf Method
(Microsoft Excel spreadsheet adapted from Doug Gray, NSW Australia)
Fly three legs with approximately 90-120 degree difference between headings.
~ Can be accomplished in a broad turn as with the horseshoe method, or
~ Directly over a single point (cloverleaf maneuver).
Accurate results require
~ Identical values for indicated airspeed (and TAS) for all legs.
~ Constant winds throughout data collection (single W/S vector in figure).
~ Approx. 10 seconds stable ground speed, Vg, (G/S in figure) during each leg.
Aircraft heading results for each leg entail an airborne compass swing.
Intermediate calculations
X1 = Vg1*SIN(PI()*(360-Trk1)/180)
Y1 = Vg1*COS(PI()*(360-Trk1)/180)
X2 = Vg2*SIN(PI()*(360-Trk2)/180)
Y2 = Vg2*COS(PI()*(360-Trk2)/180)
X3 = Vg3*SIN(PI()*(360-Trk3)/180)
Y3 = Vg3*COS(PI()*(360-Trk3)/180)
M1 = -(X2 -X1)/(Y 2-Y1)
M2 = -(X3 -X1)/(Y3 -Y1)
B1 = (Y1 +Y2)/2 -M1*(X1 +X2)/2
B2 = (Y1 +Y3)/2 -M2*(X1 +X3)/2
VWx = (B1 -B2)/(M2 -M1)
VWy = M1* VWx +B1
Results
Aircraft true airspeed = VT = [(X1 - VWx)2 +(Y1 - VWy)2] 0.5
Total wind speed = Vw = [(VWx 2 + VWy 2)]0.5
Wind direction = ψw = Psiw = MOD(540-(180/PI()*ATAN2(VWy, VWx)),360)
1st leg a/c heading = ψ1 = Psi1 = MOD(540-(180/PI()*ATAN2(VWy -Y1, VWx -X1)),360)
2nd leg a/c heading = ψ2 = Psi2 = MOD(540-(180/PI()*ATAN2(VWy –Y2, VWx -X2)),360)
3rd leg a/c heading = ψ3 = Psi3 = MOD(540-(180/PI()*ATAN2(VWy -Y3, VWx -X3)),360)
Page 04 - 19
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
100
50
30 V ( kts )
ic
Δ H pc 0
100 200 300
-30
-50
1.3 V
S0
-100 1.8 V S 1
Maximum error at sea level must be less than ± 30 ft/100 kts between 1.3 VSO and 1.8 VSI
VSO = Full flap, gear down, power off, stall speed
VSI = Stall speed in a specific configuration
12
10
8
6
4
VFE
2
ΔV pc V ic ( kts )
0
( kts ) 200
-2 100 300 400
-4
-6 V MO / M MO
or V NE
-8
1.3 VS 0
-10
-12 166.7 kts
Page 04 - 20
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
.03
.02
Air data computer
.01
ΔPS Mach number
0
q .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
-.01 Compensation req.
-.02
Page 04 - 21
Pitot-Static Calibration Flow Chart, written by Al Lawless
Std Sea Level Conditions Tο = 15o C = 288.15 K = 518.7 R Mach qc ≡ PT − Pa ; qcic ≡ Pp − Ps
VT V
aο = 1116.45 ft/s = 661 KTAS = 761.14 mph = 340.3 m/s M≡ = T Δ PT ≡ P P − PT ; Δ P s ≡ P s − P a
a ao θ
Temperature Pο = 2116.22 lb/ft 2 = 29.92 in.Hg = 101325 Pa ΔPT , ΔPs , = total & static errors
K = o C + 273 . 15 q 2
3 3 M (< 1) = 5[( c + 1) 7 − 1] Common definitions:
ρο = .0023689 slg/ft = 1.225 kg/m
R =o F + 459.67 Pa Pa = true ambient pressure,
o 5 g = 32 .17 ft/sec 2 = 9.80665 m/sec 2 PT = true total pressure,
C = [o F − 32] Ps = instrument-corrected static press.
o 9 9
SUPERSONIC EQUATIONS PP = instrument-corrected pitot press.
SFTE Reference Handbook
F = o C + 32
5 7
Calculations require consistent units Altitude ⎡ V ⎤ Ve
166.92 ⎢ e ⎥ Can replace with M Airspeed
TTi (e.g. ft/s, lb/ft2) for all inputs & outputs. qc ao δ
ft/s = knots x 1.68781 = mph x 1.4666
Hi
= ⎣ ao δ ⎦
−1
2 Vi
m/s = knots x .51444 = ft/s x .30386 Pa or replace Ve with Vc and
2 .5
⎡ Ve ⎤
knots = .54 x Km/hr = mph x .869 (7 ⎢ ⎥ − 1) δ
+ ΔTic Pa = lb/ft2 x 47.88 = lb/in2 x .3325 + ΔH ic ⎣ ao δ ⎦ replace Pa with Po + ΔVic
TT Sign Convention
. ⎡⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞3.5 ⎤
Note that SFTE sign convention qcic = Po ⎢⎜⎜ o ic + 1⎟⎟ − 1⎥ Vic
TT .. . Slope=.2TaK H ic stipulates ΔPT and ΔPs are errors to
Ta ⎢⎣⎝ Po 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦
be subtracted while ΔHpc and ΔVpc
are corrections to be added.
M2 ΔV pc = Vc − Vic
+ ΔV pc
ΔPs P ⎛ q 2 ⎞
Page 04 - 22
Δ H pc = H c − H ic + ΔH pc ΔH pc = Vc = 7 o ⎜⎜ [ c + 1] 7 − 1 ⎟⎟
TT K ρa g ρ ο ⎝ Pο ⎠ If using known Vc
Ta = 2 3 .5
+
1 .2 KM ⎡⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞ ⎤
If using known pressure alt. qcic + ΔPs − ΔPT = qc qc = Po ⎢⎜⎜ o c + 1⎟⎟ − 1⎥
Hc ⎢⎣⎝ Po 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦ + ΔVc
T HG = geometric (tapeline) altitude ΔPs
ΔH c ≈ ΔH G s Ts = std temp at test altitude (abs.)
Ta Ta = test day ambient temp (abs.) ΔPT often ≈ 0 for fixed-wing A/C in normal flight. Ve
T Exact solution requires multiple tests or noseboom with PT reference.
θ= a
4.9 PEC Correction Process Flow Chart
To Pa
δ= = [1 − 6.876 ×10−6 × H c ]5.25 Subsonic ΔVc from scale altitude
Note: Must use Pο (a.k.a. compressibility) correction chart,
<36,088 ft (<11,000 m)
absolute temperatures or from ΔVc = Ve - Vc where ÷ σ
(K or R) when −.00004806 [ H c −36 , 088 ]
δ =.223358 e
calculating θ. P ⎛ q
a 2
7
⎞
>36,088 ft (>11,000 m) Ve = 7 ⎜ [ c + 1] − 1 ⎟⎟
ρ ο ⎜⎝ Pa ⎠
If using known VT
ρa δ − Vheadwind
σ = =
2
P ⎛ q ⎞ ⎡⎛ ρ V 2 ⎞3.5 ⎤
ρo θ VT = 7 a ⎜⎜ [ c + 1] 7 − 1 ⎟⎟ qc = Pa ⎢⎜⎜ a T + 1⎟⎟ − 1⎥
ρ a ⎝ Pa ⎠ ⎢⎣⎝ Pa 7 ⎠ ⎥⎦
VG
Third Edition 2013
Airspeed: KEAS and KCAS
KEAS=100 150 200 250 300 350 400
60000 450
55000 500
KCAS=100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
550
50000
SFTE Reference Handbook
600 600
45000
650 650
700
40000
700
750
800 850
30000 900
850
950
Altitude (Feet)
25000 900
Page 04 - 23
1000
950
20000 1000
15000
4.10 Airspeed/Altitude/Mach Graphic Relation
10000
5000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Mach Number
Third Edition 2013
50 KEAS=8.5 psf q
100 KEAS=33.9 psf Subsonic Airspeed and Mach Number Relations
150 KEAS=76.2 psf
60,000 0.2M 0.4M 0.6M 0.8M 1.0M
Dark fairings denote constant Mach number
200 KEAS=135.4 psf q Dashed colored fairings denote constant KTAS @ ISA.
55,000
White fairings denote const. KEAS & dynamic pressure (q)
SFTE Reference Handbook
50,000 50 KTAS
Velocity conversions
kts* 1.68781 = ft/sec 100 KTAS
250 KEAS=211.6 psf q
45,000 kts * 1.852 = Km/hr 150 KTAS
kts * 1.15078 = mph 200 KTAS
250 KTAS
40,000 A. Lawless 300 KTAS
300 KEAS=304.7 psf q
350 KTAS
Pressure conversions 400 KTAS
35,000
psf * 144.0 = psi
450 KTAS
psf * 47.88 = Pa
350 KEAS=414.7 psf q 500 KTAS
psf * .1414 = in. Hg
30,000 550 KTAS
600 KTAS
400 KEAS=541.7 psf q
Page 04 - 24
25,000 650 KTAS
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700
(33.9 psf qc) (138 psf qc) (319.5 psf qc) (590.8 psf qc) (970.5 psf qc) (1484.5 psf qc)
(8.4 psf qc) (76.9 psf qc) (218.5 psf qc) (443 psf qc) (765.7 psf qc) (1208.8 psf qc) (1802.3 psf qc)
Calibrated Airspeed (KCAS)
Third Edition 2013
Calibrated Airspeed Correction per PSF Total Pressure Increase
2.0
Δ Vc (kts) = Δ PT*{ -[2.715E-13]*Vc^5 + [5.75E-10]*Vc^4 - [4.75E-07]*Vc^3 + [ 1.934E-04]*Vc^2 - [0.04047]*Vc + 4.01}
1.8
Δ PT effects are essentially linear if Δ PT <3psf
SFTE Reference Handbook
1.6
1.4
1.2
0.8
Page 04 - 25
0.6
0.2
0.0
50 150 250 350 450 550 650
Calibrated Airspeed, KCAS
Third Edition 2013
Calibrated Airspeed Correction per Degree Above ISA
True Airspeed, VT
0.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
-0.1
SFTE Reference Handbook
-0.2
-0.3
-0.4
Press. Altitude
Hc
-0.5
54K'
Page 04 - 26
Stratosphere Approximation
ΔVc= VT* [2.649E-8*Hc(ft) -0.00239]*[#deg C above ISA] 45K'
-0.6 (any consistent units for VT and Vc, accurate to +/- .025 Δ Vc)
Troposphere Approximation 36,089'
0.90
18K'
0.80
27K'
0.70
0.60 36,089'
0.50
45K'
Page 04 - 27
0.40
54K'
0.30
0.00
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
True Airspeed, KTAS
Third Edition 2013
Altimeter Correction per Knot Airpseed Correction
ISA ΔHpc = ΔVpc{[(-1.184E-18]*Hc^3 + (4.004E-14)*Hc^2 + (-1.533E-09)*Hc - 0.000105]*Vc^2
+ [(-5.034E-15)*Hc^3 + (1.502E-10)*Hc^2 + (-5.019E-06)*Hc - 0.06421]*Vc }
Non-ISA:
Troposphere ΔHpc =[ISA ΔHpc]*[1+{3.1059E-08*Hc + 0.00344}*(deg C above ISA)]
Stratosphere ΔHpc =[ISA ΔHpc]*[1+0.004616*(deg C above ISA)]
SFTE Reference Handbook
200
Valid at all subsonic airspeeds Pressure Altitude (ft)
180 54000
36089
160
27000
18000
140
45000
120 9000
Page 04 - 28
0
100
80
40
Section 5 Aerodynamics
5.7 References
Page 05 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 05- 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
•Perfect Fluid
~ incompressible, inelastic, and non-viscous
~ used in flow outside of boundary layers at M < .7
•Incompressible, inelastic, viscous
~ used for boundary layer studies at M < .7
•Compressible, non-viscous, elastic fluid
~ used outside boundary layers up to M = 5
Page 05 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Aerodynamic force = F
F Aerodynamic
Force
α l
Angle of Attack ength
Chord L
eam
estr
Fre V
F
Force Coefficient π =
1
ρV 2l 2
ρVl
Reynolds Number π =
2 μ
V
Mach Number π =
3 a
V
Froude Number
π =
4 lg
Page 05- 4
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
F F
CF = ⇒1 2
ρV l
2 2
2 ρV S
A feel for q
• Kinetic energy of a moving object = ½ mVT2
• Block of moving air kinetic energy = ½ ρ (volume) V T2
• Dividing through by volume yields KE per volume of moving air = ½ ρ V T2
• "Dynamic pressure” or “q” = potential for converting each cubic foot of the
airflow's kinetic energy into frontal stagnation pressure
• Feel q by extending your hand out the window of a moving car
L F
D
α
V
ive
relat
Page 05 - 5
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• Recall that forces are aslo a function of angle of attack, shape & surface roughness, therefore
CL max Re
Angle of Attack
To compare test day and standard day aircraft or to match wind tunnel
CF data to actual aircraft; the shape, roughness, M, Rn and α must be
equal for both aircraft
LA
qM LM
qA
SM
SA
LA L
= CL = M
qASA qM SM
Page 05- 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Continuity Equation
Fluid M ass in = Fluid Mass out
ρ 1V 1A 1 = ρ 2V 2A 2
For subsonic (incompressible) flow ρ 1 = ρ 2
V 1A 1 = V 2A 2
1
2 ρ V 2 + p s = constant
1
2 ρV 2 + p s = pt
• This classic approach only applies in the “potential flow” region and not in the boundary layer where energy
losses occur
Page 05 - 7
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• Pressures around a surface can be calculated or measured from tests and converted into pressure coefficients,
CP
100%
x
0 c
Lower surface 1.0
1.0
• Summation of all pressures perpendicular to surface yield the pitching moments and the “Resultant Aero-
dynamic Force” which is broken into lift and drag components
RAF - Resultant
Lift Aerodynamic Force
Center of
Pressure
Drag
Angle of attack
α
Freestream Velocity V
• Lift & drag forces are referred to the aerodynamic center (ac) where the pitching moment is constant for rea-
sonable angles of attack.
• Pitching moments increase with airfoil camber, are zero if symmetric.
• Aerodynamic center is located at 25% MAC for fully subsonic flow and at 50% MAC for fully supersonic
flow.
Page 05- 8
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
5.3 Wing Design Effects on Lift Curve Slope (refs 5.1, 5.2, 5.10)
Pressure
Free stream High flow
airflow
Tr
x ai l
o rt e Rear view in g
i pv tip
in gt vo
l
Upwash T ra i r te
x Upwash
Downwash
ao
W
Coefficient of lift
ing
W
CL 3D a
ao = Lift curve slope for
an infinite wing
dCL a
• Above relationship estimated as a= = 57o.3ao
dα 1+ πAR
Page 05 - 9
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Basic Section
3.0
Cl er
owl ed
F ott
Section Lift Coefficient
2.5
Sl lit
2.0 Sp
ain
1.5
Pl
n
1.0 io
e ct
0.5 si cS
Ba
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
Section Angle of Attack, α
Page 05- 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Slat
3.0
Cl
2.5
Fixed Slot
Section Lift Coefficient
2.0
1.5
Basic Section
1.0
0.5
0 5 10 15 20
Section Angle of Attack, α
Cl 3.0
2.5
High Suction
Section Lift Coefficient
2.0
Low Suction
1.5
Basic Section
1.0 No Suction
0.5
0
5 10 15 20 25
Section Angle of Attack, α
Page 05 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Total
TotalDrag
Drag
Induced
InducedDrag
Drag Parasite
ParasiteDrag
Drag Wave
WaveDrag
Drag
Interference
InterferenceDrag
Drag Profile
ProfileDrag
Drag
Skin
SkinFriction
FrictionDrag
Drag Pressure
PressureDrag
Drag
ayer
ar y l Velocity proflile through
o f bound the boundary layer
e
r edg
Oute dv
dy
Surface
δ
dy
⎛ dv ⎞
Shear stress ℑ w = μ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ dy ⎠ y = 0
TR +199 ⎢⎣ s ⋅ ft ⎥⎦
⎢ ⎥ x
TK +110.4 ⎣ s ⋅ m⎦
Page 05- 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Thickness
turbulent boundary layers.
• High Reynolds numbers help
propagate turbulent flow.
Laminar Turbulent
⎛ dv ⎞
Shearing stress ℑw = μ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ dy ⎠ y =0
ℑw ℑw
Skin friction coefficient Cf = =
1
2 ρ ∞V∞ 2 q∞
1.328
Laminar boundary layer Total C f =
(Re L )1/ 2
.455 0.074
Turbulent boundary layer Total C f = ≈
(log Re L )2.58
(Re L )1/ 5
0.010
0.008
0.006
Cf Transition
0.004
0.003 Turbulent
• Depth of boundary layer (δ) depends on local Reynolds number (Rex) and whether the flow is turbulent or
laminar.
5 .2 x
δ lam =
ρ V x Inertia Forces Re x
Re x = ∞ ∞ ≡
μ∞ Viscous Forces . 37 x
δ turb = .2
x= distance traveled to point in question Re x
Page 05 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• Ideal frictionless flow has no losses and leads to zero pressure drag
• Energy losses negate total pressure recovery, lead to decreasing total pressure along surface
Airfoil Airfoil
leading trailing Ideal fluid
edge edge Real fluid
ρ
Pressure distribution greatly modified
(a)
Shoulder
(b) Ideal fluid air foil (no pressure drag)
Sum of horizontal pressures = 0
(b)
Shoulder
Page 05- 14
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Separation point
R =105
Cylinder diameter = d
V1 CD = 1.2
Separation point
R =105
Streamline body
V1 thickness = d
CD = 0.12 Same
total
R =104 Separation point drag
Cylinder
d diameter =
V1
10 CD = 1.2
Separation point
R =107
Cylinder diameter = d Larger
100 x CD = 0.6
Skin-friction drag
V1 Pressure drag
• Caused by flow’s interference with itself or by excessive adverse pressure gradient due to rapidly decreasing
vehicle cross section
Page 05 - 15
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Induced Drag
Lift
(⊥ to freestream) Local lift force
(⊥ to local freestream)
Local R
elative
Wind
Local Downwash
Oswald efficiency factor, e, accounts for losses in excess of those predicted above (due to uneven downwash and
changing interference drag effects).
2
CL
∴ C Di =
πA R e
Page 05- 16
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Prandtl/Glauert Approximation
Approximates Mach effects on aerodynamics below critical Mach
1
C Pcompressib le = C Pincompress ible
1− M 2
TT γ −1 2
=1+ M Isentropic flow not required
T 2
γ
PT ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1
= ⎢1 + M ⎥ Isentropic (shockless) flow required
P ⎣ 2 ⎦
1
ρT ⎡ γ − 1 2 ⎤ γ −1 Isentropic flow required
= ⎢1 + M ⎥
ρ ⎣ 2 ⎦
P2 1 − γ + 2γM12
=
P1 1+ γ
ρ 2 ⎡ 2 + (γ − 1)M 12 ⎤
−1
=
ρ1 ⎢⎣ (γ + 1)M 12 ⎥⎦
T2 ⎡1 − γ + 2γM 12 ⎤ ⎡ 2 + (γ − 1)M12 ⎤
=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
1+ γ ⎦ ⎣ (1 + γ )M1 ⎦
2
T1 ⎣
2
M12 +
γ −1
M 22 =
2γ
M2 −1
γ −1 1
Page 05 - 17
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
= ⎨⎢ + ⎥
2
sin 2
θ − ⎬
PT2 ⎪ ⎣ γ + 1 (γ + 1)M 12 sin 2 θ ⎦ ⎢⎣ γ + 1 γ + 1 ⎥⎦ ⎪
M 1
⎩ ⎭
2
M 12 sin 2 θ +
γ −1
M 22 sin 2
(δ − θ ) = 2γ
M 2 sin 2 θ − 1
γ −1 1
Page 05- 18
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 05 - 19
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• The wave angle μ determines where the lower pressure can be felt and thus where the flow can be accelerat-
ed
• As the flow accelerates, a new wave angle forms and the subsequent lower pressure further accelerates the
flow
• Results in a series of Mach waves forming a “fan” until the flow turns and accelerates so that it is parallel to
the new boundary
Page 05- 20
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Prandtl-Meyer Function
Shows flow’s required turning angle (ν) to accelerate from one Mach number to another
γ + 1 ⎡ −1 γ − 1 2 ⎤
νM =
γ −1 ⎣
⎢ tan
γ +1
(M − 1)⎥ − tan −1 M 2 − 1
⎦
• If upstream Mach (M1) =1, then ν1 = 0, and equation directly relates downstream Mach (M2) to surface turn-
ing angle (Δν)
• If M1>1, determine M2 as follows:
Calculate upstream ν1 from above equation
Calculate ν2 = ν1 + Δν
Reverse above equation to obtain corresponding M2
• Above equation is tabulated in NACA TR 1135 and is plotted below
Page 05 - 21
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• Determine surface static pressures by calculating changes through obliques shocks and expansion fans
ΔP 2δ
Cp = ≅ ±
q M 2
−1
t
4α
CL ≅ c
M 2
−1
2
4α 2
4 ⎛ t ⎞
CD ≅ + ⎜ ⎟
M 2
−1 M 2
−1 ⎝ c ⎠
t
c
4α
CL ≅
M 2 −1
2
4α 2
⎛t⎞
5 . 33
CD ≅ + ⎜ ⎟
M 2 −1 M −1 ⎝ c ⎠
2
Page 05- 22
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
C L2
C D = C Do + = C D o + C Di
πA Re
CL
“Polar” form of
simple drag polar
CDo CD
CD
Linearized form of 1
m=
simple drag polar πA Re
CDo
C L2
Page 05 - 23
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Actual Drag
CL Parabolic Curve
Airflow Separation Effects
CLbreak
CD
C D = C Dmin +
(C L − C Lmin )
2
(
+ k 2 C L − C Lbreak )
πA Re
• Delete last term if CL<Clbreak
• Determine k2 from flight test
or c f = 0.455{log ReL }
− 258
{1 + 0.144M }2 −0.65
turbulent
ΔC D =
( )
Σ c f s − c f t S wet
S
Page 05- 24
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1.25
7
6
1.00
CL 5
4
0.75 3
2
0.50
=1
AR
0.25
CD
Linearized drag po- m= 1
πARe
lafor aircraft with
wing camber and/or
incidence CDmin
CD pe
(− CL2) 0 C Lmin CL2
C D = C Dmin +
(C L − C Lmin )2
πA Re
• Generally not necessary since most flight occurs above CLmin
Page 05 - 25
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Lift Coefficient, CL
small “wave drag” 0.95
penalty. 1.0
Drag Coefficient
0.7
Altitude = 30,000 ft Μ ≤ 0.6
cg = 25% MAC
• With external 0.6
Multiple external stores
stores, same air- 0.8
craft pays larger 0.5
Mach penalty
Lift Coefficient
0.85
0.4
0.9
0.95 1.0
0.3
1.3
0.2
1.5
0.1
0
0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
Page 05- 26
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Lw LT
x
W 2 ⎧⎪ 2 ⎡ ⎤ ⎫
2
⎛ ⎞
Δ C Dtrim = 2 ⎨
π q Sb e ⎪ lW
2
[x 0 − x1 ] + 12 ⎢1 + S e ⎜⎜ b
l ⎢ S t et ⎝ bt
⎟⎟ [
⎥ x 02 − x12 ]⎪⎬
⎩ ⎣ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Δ C D trim ⎡x⎛ b ⎞ e
2
⎤
Trim drag change relative to =
x
⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 2⎥
total induced drag: Δ C Di l ⎢⎣ l ⎝ bt ⎠ et ⎥⎦
ΔCDtrim
CDi 2
11 ⎛ b⎞ e
9 13 ⎜ ⎟ = 13
0.5
⎝ bt ⎠ et
7
5 0.4
11
0.3
Plot of above
equation
0.2 9
0.1
x 7
0
l -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
-0.1
5
-0.2
Page 05 - 27
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
⎡ C L2 ⎤ ⎡ W 2 ⎤
D = q SC D = q S ⎢ C D o + = 1
ρ oV e2 S ⎢ C D + 2 ⎥
⎣ π A Re ⎥⎦ 2
⎢⎣
o
π A Re (12 )
ρ oV e2 S ⎥⎦
Total Drag
Induced Drag
Parasitic Drag
Ve Ve3 W2
Preq = DVT = D = k1 + k2
σ σ σ Ve
Page 05- 28
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
CL d: CDi = 3 CDo
CL L
c: CDi = CDo = =
CD max
D max
b: CDi = CDo /2
a: CDi = CDo /3
CDo CD
To calculate optimum speed V2 for config- 1
⎛ CDo ⎞ 4 ⎛ W ⎞ 2
1
uration2 & weight2 based on optimum
V2 = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟
⎟ ⎜
2
⎟ V1
speed V1 at configuration1 & weight1 ⎝ CDo2 ⎠ ⎝ W1 ⎠
Page 05 - 29
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
5.7 References
5.1 Roberts, Sean “Aerodynamics for Flight Testers” Chapter 3, Subsonic Aerodynamics, National Test Pilot
School, Mojave, CA, 1999
5.2 Lawless, Alan R., et al, “Aerodynamics for Flight Testers” Chptr 4, Drag Polars, National Test Pilot
School, Mojave ,CA, 1999
5.3 Hurt Hugh H., “Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators“, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA,
1959.
5.4 McCormick, Barnes W., “Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, and Flight Mechanics“, Wilet &Sons, 1979
5.5 Stinton, Darryl, “The Design of the Aeroplane“, BSP Professional Books, Oxford, 1983
5.6 Roskam, Jan Dr., “Airplane Design, Part VI“, Roskam Aviation and Engineering Corp. 1990
5.7 Anon, “Equations, Tables, and Charts for Compressible Flow” NACA Report 1135, 1953
5.8 Lewis, Gregory, “Aerodynamics for Flight Testers” Chapter 6, Supersonic Aerodynamics, National Test
Pilot School, Mojave CA, 1999
5.9 White, Frank M. “Fluid Mechanics” pg 29, McGraw-Hill, 1979, ISBN 0-07-069667-5.
5.10 Anderson, John D. Jr, “Introduction to Flight” pg 142, Mcraw-Hill, 1989, ISBN 0-07-001641-0.
5.11 Twaites, Bryan, Editor, “Incompressible Aerodynamics: An Account of the steady flow of incompressible
Fluid Past Aerofoils, Wings, and Other Bodies,” Dover Publications, 1960.
Page 05- 30
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
6.6 References
Page 06 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Both fixed-Earth and moving-Earth axis systems keep constant orientation with respect to the Earth. The Z-
axis point towards the center of the Earth.
• The origin of a fixed-Earth system does not move relative to the Earth. (such as a ground radar site)
• The origin of a moving Earth system does not move relative to its host (such as an aircraft inertial reference
unit) .
X
Moving XY plane is horizontal
Earth Y
Axes
Y
Z Fixed
X
Earth
Z Axes
.
Page 06 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• The body axis system originates at the aircraft’s reference center of gravity. The +xb direction is towards
the front, the +yb direction is towards the right wing tip, and the +zb direction is towards the bottom of the
aircraft.
xb
p u
x is
xa
ya
xi s q
z axis
v
yb
r
w
zb
• The stability axis system is similar to the body axis system except that it is rotated about the y-axis through
the angle of attack (α)
xb
RW
xs
α
ys, yb zb
zs
Forces, velocities or accelerations along the stability axes are related to the body axes as follows
xb = xs cos α − zs sin α
zb = zs cos α + xs sin α
yb = ys
For cases where the z axis is defined positive upward (typical for normal-axis accelerometers)
xb = xs cos α + zs sin α
zb = zs cos α - xs sin α
Page 06 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• The wind axis system is similar to the stability axis system except it is rotated about the zs axis through the
angle of sideslip (β).
The term “wind” refers to the fact that the freestream relative wind approaches the aircraft directly along the xw
axis. This dictates that the true airspeed also lies along the xw axis.
xs
RW
u α
VT xw
The geometric relations be-
tween body, stability and wind β
axis velocities are illustrated
here. v yb
w
zb
ω V
ω V if β is small, then sin α = , β=
sinα = , sinβ = VT VT
VT cosβ VT ω
if α is small, then α=
VT
Most aircraft sideslip vanes do not measure β directly. They measure the flanking angle, which is the projection
of the relative wind into the aircraft’s x-y plane. The difference between these two angles increases with angle
of attack. Ignoring upwash, boom bending, and body axis rate corrections, calculate true sideslip as a function
of vane α and β as follows:
βtrue = tan-1 [ tan(βvane ) cosα ]
Page 06 - 4
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The inverse transform, converting from the body to the wind axis system is
After expansion,
xw = cosβ (xbcosα + zbsinα) + ybsinβ
yw = -sinβ (xbcosα+zbsinα)+ ybcosβ
zw = -xbsinα + zbcosα
Note that these equations apply to the sign convention with z+ down. If
sign convention (and instrumentation calibration) use z+ upward, then the
above equations become:
xw = cosβ(xbcosα - zbsinα) + ybsinβ
yw = –sinβ(xbcosα + zbsinα) + ybcosβ
zw = xbsinα + zbcosα
Page 06 - 5
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• The Principle axes are those about which the products of inertia are zero. They can be equated to the axis
of “dumbells” which represent concentrated mass elements. Neglecting aerodynamic and gyroscopic ef-
fects, an aircraft rotating about one of its principle axes will not tend to cross-couple into motion about any
other axis.
x y
z z
Page 06 - 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Euler angles are expressed as yaw, pitch, and roll. The sequence: first yaw, then pitch, then roll; must be main-
tained to arrive at the proper orientation angles. The Euler angles are defined as follows:
ψ ≡ Yaw Angle: The angle between the projection of the vehicle xb- axis onto the horizontal reference
plane and some initial reference position of the Earth x-axis. Yaw angle equals the vehicle heading only
if the initial reference is North.
φ ≡ Bank angle, the angle (measured in the y-z plane of the body-axis system) between the y-axis and the
horizontal reference plane. Also known at the roll angle, it is a measure of the rotation (about the x-axis)
to return the aircraft to a wings level condition.
+θ
−ψ
+φ
y
z
Earth Plane
Page 06 - 7
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
σ = Flight path heading angle; also known as ground track heading, is the horizontal angle between some ref-
erence direction (usually North) and the projection of the velocity vector on the horizontal plane. Positive
rotation is from North to East.
γ = Flightpath elevation angle; the vertical angle between the flightpath and the horizontal plane. Positive rota-
tion is up. During a descent, this parameter is commonly known as glide path angle.
μ = Flightpath bank angle; the angle between the plane formed by the velocity vector and the lift vector and
the vertical plane containing the velocity vector. Positive rotation is clockwise about the velocity vector,
looking forward.
The first two parameters above are easily measured using ground-based radar, or onboard GPS or inertial refer-
ence systems. If only α, β, and the Euler angles are available, then assuming zero winds, the flightpath angles
can be calculated as
Technically, the above equations describe the velocity vector (angles relative to the air mass). If the air mass is
moving relative to the Earth, as is usually the case, the above equations do not describe the flight path.
Editor’s note: not knowing the difference between flightpath and velocity vector angles can cause considerable confusion
when analyzing data from different sources.
Page 06 - 8
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Transformation matrix for converting forces, velocities or accelerations from inertial (X, Y, Z) to body (x, y, z)
axes
⎡ X ⎤ ⎡cosθ cosψ − cosφ sinψ + sinφ sinθ cosψ sinφ sinψ + cosφ sinθ cosψ ⎤ ⎡x⎤
⎢Y ⎥ = ⎢cosθ sinψ cosφ cosψ + sinφ sinθ sinψ − sinφ cosψ + cosφ sinθ sinψ ⎥ ⎢ y⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ Z ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ − sinθ sinφ cosθ cosφ cosθ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ z ⎥⎦
Acceleration Transformations
• Convert body-axis angular rates & linear accelerations into total
accelerations along body axes.
• Convert element (m1) location & rates into specific angular momentum
a x = u& + qw − rv
a y = v& + ru − pw
a z = w& + pv − qu
= r1 × [ω × r1` ] ⇒
H
m
ω
y
m1 ⎡H ⎤a
( )
⎢⎣ m ⎥⎦ l = p y + z − q ( xy ) − r ( xz )
2 2
r1 ⎡H ⎤ n
( )
⇒ ⎢ ⎥ = q x 2 + z 2 − r ( yz ) − p ( xy )
⎣m⎦ y
⎡H ⎤n
( )
⇒ ⎢ ⎥ = r x 2 + y 2 − p ( xz ) − q ( yz )
⎣m⎦k
x z
Page 06 - 9
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Transformations from Euler & aerodynamic angles to the aircraft stability and wind axis angular rates.
Subscripts b, s, and w denote the body, stability and relative wind axis systems.
( p s , q s , rs , p w , q w , rw ) = f ( pb , qb , rb , α , β )
p s = pb cos α + rb sin α p w = p s cos β + q s sin β
q s = qb q w = q s cos β − p s sin β
rs = rb cos α − pb sin α rw = rs
Transformations from Euler angles to the three aircraft axis angular accelerations (ref 6.6.3)
( p& b , p& s , p& w , q&b , q& s , q& w , r&b , r&s , r&w ) = f (θ , θ&, θ&&, φ , φ&, φ&&,ψ ,ψ& ,ψ&&, α , α& , β , β& )
p& b = φ&& −ψ&& sin θ −ψ&θ& cos θ
q& = θ&& cos φ − θ&φ& sin φ + ϕ&& cos θ sin φ −ψ&θ& sin θ sin φ + ψ&φ& cos θ cos φ
b
r&b = ψ&& cos θ cos φ −ψ&θ& sin θ cos φ −ψ&φ& cos θ sin φ − θ&& sin φ − θ&φ& cos φ
p& s = p& b cos α + α&pb sin α + r&b sin α + α&rb cos α
q& s = q&b
r&s = r&b cos α − α&rb sin α − p& b sin α − α&pb cos α
p& w = p& s cos β − p s β& sin β + q& s sin β + q s β& cos β
q& = q& cos β − q β& sin β − p& sin β − p β& cos β
w s s s s
r&w = r&s
Page 06 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
6.6 References
6.6.1 Lawless, Alan R., Math and Physics for Flight Testers “Chapter 7, Axis Systems and Transformations”, National
Test Pilot School, Mojave CA, 1998.
6.6.2 Anon., Aircraft Flying Qualities, Chapter 4, Equations of Motion, USAF TestPilot School notes, AFFTC Edwards
AFB CA, March 1991.
6.6.3 Kalviste, Juri, Flight Dynamics Reference Handbook, Northrop Corp. Aircraft Division, April 1988.
Page 06 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
NOTES
Page 06 - 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
7.5 References
Page 07 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
a perpendicular distance from the spring line of action to the oscillation axis (ft).
cg center of gravity
f measured frequency of oscillation (cycles/sec)
g Earth’s acceleration due to gravity (g = 32.172 ft/sec2)
h vertical component of the perpendicular distance from the cg to the oscillation axis.
Icg moment of inertia any axis passing through the cg
Ixb moment of inertia about aircraft body x-axis
Iyb moment of inertia about aircraft body y-axis
Izb moment of inertia about aircraft body z-axis
Ixz product of inertia in aircraft body x-z plane
Io moment of inertia about oscillation axis
Ko component of spring stiffness perpendicular to vehicle motion.
k spring constant (lb/ft)
Ktot total radius of gyration (includes effect of offset pivot)
L rolling moment
leff effective pendulum length
MAC mean aerodynamic chord
METO maximum power (except for takeoff)
m mass
N yawing moment
T period of oscillation
p roll rate
r yaw rate
ΔIte correction for test equipment mass (slug-ft2)
ΔIam equivalent moment of inertia contribution of the air
(slug-ft2)
δ tilt of spring assembly (measured positive if tilted nose-down relative to local horizontal).
ε inclination of principle axis (positive if tilted down).
φ angle between aircraft y-axis and line connecting aircraft cg with spring attach points.
ωd damped frequency of oscillation (rad/sec) =2πf
ωn natural frequency of oscillation (rad/sec)
Page 07 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Terminology
Allowable cg range Documented on Type Certificate Data Sheet. May be different for takeoff vs landing.
Forward limit usually determined by control power limitations, aft limit usually deter
mined by stability requirements.
datum The manufacturer defined reference plane used for distance calculations.
empty weight Basic aircraft weight with only equipment on board. (without crew, passengers, or
fuel). This weight may or may not inlcude oil weight, depending on civil certification
date.
empty weight cg range The allowable cg locations for an empty aircraft. This is defined by the manufacturer to
help assure that a normally loaded aircraft will have an acceptable total cg location.
maximum weight Maximum allowable weight. Usually implies takeoff weight, but may apply to landing
or in-flight weight. conditions after aerial refueling.
minimum fuel A calculated value that represents the minimum amount of fuel any airplane should
have while retaining appropriate flight reserves. Calculated as
min fuel [lbs] = 0.5METO [hp]
tare The bias in weight scales due to test equipment weight or due to scale calibration errors.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Example cg calculations
Datum #2
Datum #1
? in ? ? in
40 in 75 in
115 in
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1. Note aircraft empty weight & empty weight cg. Multiply these
values to obtain the empty weight moment.
2. Note the weight and moment arm for each item added to or subtracted from the aircraft (items subtracted are
listed as negative weights).
3. Multiply each item’s weight and arm to determine its moment.
4. Sum each item’s moment in step 3 with the aircraft empty weight moment.
5. Sum each item’s weight with the aircraft empty weight.
6. Calculate the new cg as [step 4/step 5].
Example cg corrections:
Given aircraft with empty weight = 1,075 lbs and cg @ 84 inches. Add pilot (170 lbs, @85.5”), fuel (75 lbs
@94”), and oil (15 lbs @ 31.7”).
Given aircraft with empty weight = 1,220 lbs and cg @ 25 inches. Add radio (15 lbs, @ 65”), and replace 11 lb
generator with 14 lb generator at same 21.5” location (in front of datum-located on firewall).
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
G J V
WL
F
SCALE
FLOOR
(FO − F ) = ⎡⎢V + BG ⎤⎥ ⎛⎜ W ⎞
⎟
⎣ C ⎦ ⎝ C cot θ + G ⎠
parenthesis.
300
5. Slope of line equals term in brackets.
⎡ BG⎤
6. Solve for V after measuring B, C, G, Slope= ⎢V +
C ⎥⎦
200
and the slope. ⎣
• This method 100
applies to “gear
down” cg . -16 -12 -8 -4 4 8 12
• For “gear up” add the manufacturer's W/(C cot θ+G) [lb/in]
-100
prediction of the cg shift to this result.
-200
-300
-400
-500
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The moment of inertia about any axis of a body is the summation of the product of every element’s mass and
distance squared. Moments of inertia represent the resistance to rotational momentum changes.
(
I xb ≡ ∫ y 2 + z 2 dm ) d 2
d =x +z
2 2
≡ ∫ (x + z )dm
2 2 x
I yb
I zb ≡ ∫ (x 2
+ y )dm
2
m1
z
Products of inertia are also calculated about any body axes. They represent the symmetry of mass dis-
tribution (comparing opposing quadrants).
x
I xy = I yx ≡ ∫ xydm
(−) (+)
I yz = I zy ≡ ∫ yzdm (+) (−)
y
m1
I xz = I zx ≡ ∫ xzdm Ixy = (+)
• Aircraft moments and products of inertia are calculated using body axes as the reference system.
• Careful x axis
U
Documentation can yield P Fx
inertial G
x
predictions
within about G
y
1-5% of actual. Q
F
G y
z V
R
y axis
Fz
z axis
W
Page 07 - 8
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
( )
I x ≡ ∫ y 2 + z 2 dm = mk yz2
Aircraft moment of inertia summary
Izb is always the largest value.
Iyb> Ixb for fuselage-loaded aircraft
Ixb> Iyb for wing-loaded aircraft.
x y
z z
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Similarly, the parallel axis theorem shows how to determine modified products of inertia after some compo-
nent alterations
I xz mod = I xz orig + [ I xz comp + mcomp xz ]
x and z are the distances from the component cg to the reference axes.
Moments of inertia are calculated about a set of reference axes which all intersect at the reference cg. In general,
however, the actual cg does not lie exactly at this reference cg. The parallel axis theorem shows how to correct
the moment of inertia to the actual cg axis. As an example, the rolling moment of inertia about the actual cg
(Ixcg) is calculated from the reference Ixb as follows.
I x cg = I xb − m[ y 2 + z 2 ]
Page 07 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
a O
h 90 SPRING
A+B
CG
WL
OSCILLATION
AXIS
CRADLE
KNIFE
EDGE
A B
ωd
ωn =
1− ζ 2
Page 07 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
11. Use parallel axis theorem to correct Io to a parallel axis passing through the cg.
12. Springs, cradles and attachments hardware will change the moment of inertia. Sum their total into a com-
bined “test equipment inertia” (ΔIte) and subtract this from the above result.
K o a 2 − mgh
Combining steps 6-9 gives I cg = − md 2 − (ΔI te + ΔI am )
ωd2
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
2. Attach spring perpendicular to line a. Only one spring is required since the aircraft cg is off-center. Spring
must be stiff enough to hold the aircraft in equilibrium as well as provide a restoring moment during oscilla-
tions.
CG
h
WL
a
d O
90
SPRING
OSCILLATION
AXIS
KNIFE
EDGE A B
Repeat steps 3-12 and apply the moment of inertia equation to determine Iyb
K o a 2 − mgh
I cg = − md 2 − Δ I te
ω n2
Page 07 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
CRASH
RECOVERY RESTORING MOMENT
SLING
N
WL δ
L
A+B
OSCILLATION
AXIS
2. Ideal case is where the wing attach points are in line with the aircraft cg as shown. Springs are perpendicu-
lar to the AB line and are parallel.
WL
CG
AXIS
A B
Y
90 O
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
If not possible to rig wing attach points in line with the cg, then keep the springs parallel to each other and
measure the angle φ.
CG
WL
O
90
B
AXIS
Y
Repeat steps 3-12 and apply the moment of inertia equation to determine Izb. Note that distances h and d are zero
for a properly suspended aircraft.
K oa 2
I cg = − Δ I te
ω n2
K oa 2
I cg = − (Δ I te + Δ I am )
ω d2
Page 07 - 15
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• Inclination of principle axis (ε) is positive if it lies in the +xz plane as shown.
CG
+X
+ε WL
+X-
FUSELAGE REFERENCE LINE
+Z
AXIS ORIENTATION
• When forcing small motions about only the yaw axis, pq and qr are
negligible, giving
• If ε and Ixz are negative, a right yaw will generate a right moment.
Page 07 - 16
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
+.01 p&
r&
0
Tangent of
Restoring Spring Assembly Angle
0.1 (tanδ)
-.02
-.03
-.04
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07
p&
3. Determine the point where equals zero. This occurs at tanδo.
r&
Page 07 - 17
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• Springs are typically linear except around zero load. Best results
occur if springs are pre-loaded.
• If using a hand recorded stopwatch, best spring stiffness gives about one cycle per second (f = 1).
k=
(I cg )
+ md 2 (2πf ) 2 + hmg
a2
• The purpose of instrumentation is to provide a means for measuring frequency and magnitude. Any of sev-
eral parameters will be sufficient, including angular displacement, rate or acceleration; or linear accelera-
tion.
Page 07 - 18
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
2. Measure pendulum length (l), component mass (m ), and the period of oscillation (T).
2π
2
ω=
g l eff ⎛ T ⎞
and T = = 2π or leff =⎜ ⎟ g
l eff ω g ⎝ 2π ⎠
• The total moment of inertia about the pivot point is the product of mass and radius of gyration squared. The
parallel axis theorem states that this also is the sum of the component’s moment of inertia about its cg plus
its mass times the distance between the pivot and the component’s cg.
I eff = mK tot2 = I cg + ml 2
3. Solving for the component’s moment of inertia about its own cg gives
2
⎡⎛ T ⎞ 2 ⎤
I cg = mK 2
− ml = m ( K
2 2
− l ) = m ( ⎢⎜
2
⎟ g⎥ − l )
2
⎢⎣⎝ 2π ⎠ ⎥⎦
tot tot
Page 07 - 19
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
7.5 References
7.5.1 Lawless, Alan R. et al, “Special Topics and Aircraft Subsystems Flight Testing,” Chapter 1, Mass Prop-
erties, National Test Pilot School, Mojave, CA, 1999.
7.5.2 Bradfield, Edward N., "Experimental Determination of the Moments of Inertia, Product of Inertia, and
Inclination of the Principle Axis of Conventional Aircraft by the Spring Oscillation Method" FTC-TIM-
1001, AFFTC, Edwards AFB, CA, 1971.
7.5.3 Malvestuto, S. F., et al, "Formulas for Additional Mass Corrections to the Moments of Inertia of Air
planes" TN 1187, Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory, Langley Field Virginia, 1947.
7.5.4 Lawless, Alan R., "Fixed Wing Flying Qualities Flight Testing" Chapter 7, Equations of Motion, Na
tional Test Pilot School Mojave CA, 1998.
Additional Reading
7.5.5 Tanner H.L., "Measurement of the Moments of Inertia of an Airplane by a Simplified Method"
NACA2201, Ames Aeronautical Laboratory, Moffet Field, CA, 1950.
7.5.6 Woodward, C.R., et al "Handbook of Instructions for Experimentally Determining the Moments of Iner
tia of Aircraft by the Spring Oscillation Method" TB-822-F-2, ASTIA AD97104, Cornell Aeronautical
Laboratory, Buffalo, New York, 1955.
Page 07 - 20
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
8.7 References
Page 08 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
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Found in classical aircraft roll and spiral modes. Named first-order because the motions are described by mathe-
matics using the first derivative of a parameter.
dV
Summing vertical forces ∑ Fvert : M + DV = 0
dt
dV D
+ dt = 0
V M
dV D
∫ V = − ∫ M dt
−D −D
Since D & M are constant ln V = t +C = t + ln c
M M
−D
Vc = ce M (complementary solution)
t
Page 08 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• Example 2: Diver with 20 lb submerged weight releases from zero velocity at top of pool (quiescent condi-
tion).
Solve using Laplace analysis methods:
MV& + DV = 20 (step input)
M [sV (s ) − V (0)] + DV (s ) =
20
s
sV (s ) − V (0) + V (s ) =
D 20 1
M M s
⎛ D ⎞ 1 20 1 20
+ V (0) ⎧ 20 ⎫ V (0)
V (s )⎜ s + ⎟ = + V (0) V (s ) = s M
= ⎨ M D ⎬+
⎝ M ⎠ sM s + MD ⎩ s (s + )
M ⎭ s + MD
⎧ 20 ⎫ A B ⎧ 20 ⎫ A(s + MD ) Bs A(s + MD ) + Bs
usepartialfraction= ⎨ M D ⎬ = + ⎨
M
D ⎬
= + =
⎩ s(s + M )⎭ s s + M ⎩ s (s + M ) ⎭ s(s + M ) s(s + M ) s(s + MD )
D D D
− D 20 −D − 20 20 D 20
let s = ; =B ⇒B = , let s = 0 : = A ⇒ A =
M M M M M M D
⎧ 20 − 20 ⎫ V
V (s) = ⎨ D + DD ⎬ + (0)D ,
⎩S s+ M ⎭ s+ M
⎧20 20 −(D )t ⎫ −(D )t −(D )t
v(t ) = ⎨ − e M ⎬ + V(0)e M sinceV (0) = 0 then v(t ) = ⎡1− e M ⎤
20
⎩D D ⎭ D ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
⎡ −D
t⎤
Note that 20 is thesteadystate valuei.e. v(t ) = Vss ⎢1 − e M ⎥
D ⎣ ⎦
• Several methods can be used to describe the quickness of convergence toward steady state (i.e., time to
99.999 % of Vss, time to 1/2 Vss).
• By convention, we use a % that directly reflects the exponent.
• Establish a time constant τ based on D/M.
D 1 −M
Dt − τt
≡ so e =e
M τ
− τt − ττ
when t = τ , then e =e = e −1 = 0.36788
so, after τ [( ) ] seconds have elapsed, V = V
D −1
M ss [1 − 0.36788 ] = 63 .212 %Vss
τ = time constant (time for parameter to reach 63% of its steady state value)
Page 08 - 4
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1.0
x
t
.37 −
x(t ) = e −ζωnt
=e τ
.05
.02 t
τ 3τ 4τ
Therefore x 2 = 2 c
2 c = ce mt 2
2 = e mt 2
ln 2 = mt 2
0.6931
∴ Time to double amplitude = t 2 = 0.693τ
m
Page 08 - 5
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Method #1
x
xss
τ = time to reach 0.632 xss
0.632 xss
t
τ
Method #2
1. Define xss
2. Measure x1 at some time t1
(
3. Calculate x2 = 0 .632 xss + .58 x(t1 ) )
4. Find t2 corresponding to x2
5. t2 − t1 = τ xss
0 . 632 ( x SS + . 58 x ( t 1 ) ) = x q
x1
t1 t2 t
Method #3
x xss . t2
1. Pick any time t1.
2. Draw tangent at t1. Slope method
3. Note t2 where tangent intercepts xss. m
4. τ = t2-t1 x( t1 )
t
t1
Page 08 - 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
XSS
X3
A2
X2
A1
X1
t2- t1= t3- t2 =Δt
t1 t2 t3 time
− Δt
Method #5 When Xss is known, use τ =
⎡ X − X1 ⎤
ln ⎢ SS ⎥
⎣ X SS − X 2 ⎦
Δp3
Δp
Δp4
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5
Page 08 - 7
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Found in classical aircraft phugoid, Dutch roll and short period modes as well as noise filter and vibration test-
ing. Named second-order because the motions are described by mathematics using the second derivative of a
parameter.
Mechanical systems have elements of spring, mass, and usually damping. Forcing functions can be included
(see illustration).
Natural character is observed when system is allowed to move with no external input [F(t) = 0]
[x = c e1
s1t
+ c2 e s 2 t ]
Solve for the roots using the quadratic equation
Page 08 - 8
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
ωd = − ( 2M )
K D 2
M
K
Dcrit = 2M = 2 KM
M
• For oscillatory motion, actual system damping is typically expressed as a fraction critical damping. Define
damping ratio as
D D
ζ≡ =
Dcrit 2 KM
Page 08 - 9
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
2
K ⎛ D ⎞
Combining ωd ≡ −⎜ ⎟
M ⎝ 2M ⎠
K D
with ωn ≡ and ζ=
M 2 KM
D
gives ωd ≡ ωn 1 − ζ 2 and = ζωn
2M
The values can be substituted to give
D ⎛ K ⎛ D ⎞2 ⎞
sin ⎜ +φ ⎟
− t
x = Ae 2M
−⎜ ⎟
⎜ M ⎝ 2M ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= Ae −ζωn t
sin (ωd + φ )
(
= Ae−ζωnt sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 + φ )
ωd ω 1− ζ 1− ζ
where φ = tan −1 = tan −1 n = tan −1
ζωn ωn ζ
(
x = Ae −ζω nt sin ω n 1 − ζ 2 t + φ )
Frequency, ωd
φ
of Motion
Amplitude
Envelope
Damped
Phase
Shift
Initial
Α
x = Ae −ζωnt
x (
x = Ae−ζωnt sin ωn 1 − ζ 2 t + φ )
t
x = Ae−ζωnt
−Α Τ
2π
=
ωd
Page 08 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
−D
2
K ⎛ D ⎞
Roots s1,2 = ±j −⎜ ⎟ = −ζω n ± jωn 1 − ζ
2
2M M ⎝ 2M ⎠
Possible Solutions:
k Non-oscillatory
> Real and unequal ~ convergent if D > 0
x
t
m
~ divergent if D < 0 x
t
k Non-oscillatory x
= Real and equal ~ convergent if D > 0
m t
~ divergent if D < 0
Non-oscillatory
k Complex
< (purely imaginary if D = 0)
~ convergent if D > 0
m ~ neutral if D = 0
~ divergent if D < 0
• The various combination of K, M, and D and their effects on system response can be related to damping ratio
ζ as follows:
exponential, divergent
Page 08 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Convergent Sinusoid
1.0
(x)t = e−0.3t sin (2.99t), ζ = 0.1, ωn = 3
Response of various
second order systems 0.5
to an impulse input.
X 0
Second-order sys-
-0.5
tems are oscillatory
if
-1 > ζ > 1. -1.0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (sec)
Motion typically
described by Neutrally Damped Sinusoid
ωn and ζ 2
(x)t = cos 3t , ζ = 0
1
knowledge of any
two will yield -1
the other two.
-2
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec)
Divergent Sinusoid
400
(x)t = e+0.2t sin t, ζ < 0
200
0
X
-200
-400
0 10 20 30
Time (sec)
Page 08 - 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
2nd order system response to unit step input for underdamped systems
1 .6
1 .5
1 .4
1 .3
1 .2
1 .1
1 .0
0 .9
x 0 .8
0 .7
0 .6
0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Normalized Time, ωn t
(0 > ζ > 1)
Page 08 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
⎛ π ⎞ πζ
ζωn ⎜ ⎟
Note HCAR= f (only)
=e ⎝ ωn 1− ζ 2 ⎠
=e 1− ζ 2
⇒ ln
x1
= πζ
⇒ζ =
(ln ) x1
x2
2 This can be applied in
graphical form
π +(ln )
1−ζ
2
2 (transient peak ratio
x2 2 x1
method)
x2
Page 08 - 14
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1.2
x(t)
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.0
Td Tp Ts
Tr
time
% Overshoot, PO:
MP−1
1
×100% target value = unity
Page 08 - 15
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
e − ζωnt
x
x1
t2
t1 t
x2
T= 2π
ωd
2π x
ln x12
fd =
1 ωd = ζω n =
T T (t 2 − t1 )
x
ln x1
ζω 2
(t 2 −t1 ) T ln xx12
Define ε ≡ n = =
ωd 2π
T 2π (t2 − t1 )
ζω ln x12
x
ε2 ζωn ωd
ζ= ωn = =
1+ ε 2 ζ 1− ζ 2
= e ζω n (t2 −t1 )
x1
≡ Half - Cycle Amplitude Ratio ( HCAR )
x2
Page 08 - 16
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
x 110
D1
D3
D2 Example D5
Calculation
D4
x1 D1 100
x5
t 90
x2 D2
80
0 50 100 150
Time (sec)
ζ=
(ln ) x1
x2
2 D2 117 − 86 31
D4 112 − 90 22
= = = 0.8462
π + (ln )
Third TPR :
2 x1 2 D3 112 − 86 26
x2
Average TPR = 0.8409
D1/D2 or x1/x2
0 .9
ratios in above equation.
0 .8
4b) In lieu of equation, use
adjacent look-up curve to find ζ. 0 .7
0 .6
4c) Time ratio method works better
with heavy damping. 0 .5
0 .4
0 .3
0 .2
0 .1
0 .0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.80
1.00
D am p in g R atio , ζ
Page 08 - 17
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
0 .3 0
0 .2 8
0 .2 6
0 .2 4 2 m = 1
0 .2 2 3
4
0 .2 0
5
0 .1 8
6 ζ
Damping ratio,
0 .1 6 7
0 .1 4 8
9
0 .1 2 10
0 .1 0 12 11
14 13
0 .0 8
1 8 1 6 11 75
19
0 .0 6 20
0 .0 4
0 .0 2
0 .0 0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.80
1.00
S u b s id e n c e r a tio , x m /x 0
Page 08 - 18
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• If the damping ratio is between 0.5 and 1.0 (two or less overshoots), then the time ratio method can be used to
determine frequency and damping ratio. Select a peak where the response if free.
• Note times for amplitude to reduce to 73.6%, 40.9%, and 19.9% of the peak value.
1.000
0.736
0.409
199
α time
t1
t2
t3
Input Response
• Enter the next figure at the time ratio side to find ζ for each time ratio.
• If recorded measurements are not available and if the number of overshoots is between 2 and 6, then
ζ ≈ 7 − #overshoots
10
Page 08 - 19
ωnΔt3
6.5 6.5
6.0 6.0
5.5 Δt3 5.5
5.0 Δt1 5.0
4.5 4.5
4.0 ωnΔ t2 4.0
SFTE Reference Handbook
3.5 3.5
3.0 Δt2
3.0
Δt1
2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
Page 08 - 20
1.5 ωnΔt1 1.5
Δt1 Δt1 Δt2 − Δt1
Time Ratio, Δt3 , Δt2 , Δt3 − Δt2
Δx Peak
t
Δt
4.8
2 .0
4.4
1.8
4.0
1.6
ωnΔt
3.6
1.
4
3.2
o ,ζ
a ti
1.
2
2.8
g R
p in
1.0
m
2.4
Da
0.8
0 .6
2.0
0.4
0.2
0.0
Page 08 - 21
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
X(t) ΔX(t)
to t Response
ΔX '0
(Log Scale)
ΔX0
ΔX0
ΔX1
slope = 1/τ1 Plot
Semilog
ΔX2
t0 t t1 t2
3) After the faster root has decayed, the semi-log plot will be a straight line whose slope determines the slower
root (1/τ1)
t1 − t2
τ1 =
⎛ Δχ ⎞
ln⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ Δχ2 ⎠
4) Determine by extrapolating the straight line portion of the response to establish the values
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛1 1⎞
⎛ Δχ ⎞ - ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟ - ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
τ 2= τ 1 ⎜⎜ 0' ⎟⎟ τ τ2 ⎠ τ τ2 ⎠
and ζ = ⎝ 1 = ⎝ 1
1 1
ωn =
⎝ Δχ 0 ⎠ τ1 τ 2 2ωn 1 1
2
τ1 τ 2
Page 08 - 22
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
X
ΔX (t3){ ΔT = (t1-to) = (t2-t1), etc.
ΔX (t2){
ΔX (t1){
to t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
t
ΔX(t0)
ΔX '
0
ΔX 0
ΔX(t3)
Log ΔX(t)
ΔX(t4)
ΔX(t5)
ΔX(t6)
t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
Page 08 - 23
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Method # 8 Frequency Sweep Analysis
180° 0.05
ζ=0 0.15
Phase Angle, φ
0.375
3 0.05 ζ = 1.0
90°
Kx
0.10
A
Amplification Factor F
0.15
0.25 0
2 1 2 3 4 5
0.375 ω
Frequency Ratio ω
0.50 n
0 1 2 3 4 5
ω
Frequency Ratio ω
n
ζ = 0.5(ω2 – ω1)/ωn
Page 08 - 24
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
45°
120°
Output
ωn
0° ω
φ
-45°
-90°
-135°
-180°
6. ωn occurs at φ = 90°
Page 08 - 25
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
10
Double or Half Amplitudes
a
m=0 b m=1
c
m=2 d m=3
1
e
m=4
TPR f
g
T/2 T 3T/2 2T
Page 08 - 26
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
m1 Imaginary
1
τ=
ζω n ζ = cos θ
− ζωn ωn 1 − ζ 2 = ωd Real
− 1τ − ωn 1 − ζ 2 = −ωd
1
− ± jω d
τ ωn
m2
1
4
3 Imaginary
σ = ζωn = 1/τ = damping rate
2
Real
Page 08 - 27
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = c1 e m1t
+ c2 e m2t
overdamped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = c1e m1t + c2 e m 2 t
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = c1 e − ζω n t
+ c 2 te − ζω n t
critically damped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = c1 e mt + c 2 e mt
Page 08 - 28
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
More sample second order root plots and corresponding time histories
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = A sin (ω n t + φ )
undamped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = Ae − ζω n t sin (ω d t + φ )
lightly damped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = Ae − ζω n t sin (ω d t + φ )
moderately damped
Im x
Re
t
x (t ) = Ae ζω n t sin (ω d t + φ )
negatively damped
Page 08 - 29
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Acceleration to velocity
to convert from to multiply by
ft/s2 rms ft/s rms 1/jω
ft/s2 rms in/s rms 12/jω
ft/s2 rms in/s peak 16.97/jω
g rms in/s rms 386/jω
g rms in/s peak 545.8/jω
m/s2 rms mm/s rms 1000/jω
m/s2 rms mm/s peak 1414/jω
g rms mm/s rms 9806/jω
g rms mm/s peak 13865.7/jω
Acceleration to Displacement
to convert from to multiply by
ft/s2 rms in rms 12/(jω)2
ft/s2 rms in p-p 33.9/(jω)2
ft/s2 rms mil p-p 33.9 E 03/(jω)2
g rms in rms 386/(jω)2
g rms in p-p 1091.6 E 03/(jω)2
g rms mil p-p 1091.6 E 03/(jω)2
m/s2 rms mm rms 1000/(jω)2
m/s2 rms mm p-p 2828/(jω)2
m/s2 rms micron p-p 2828 E 03/(jω)2
Page 08 - 30
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 08 - 31
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
8.7 References
8.7.1 Lawless, Alan R., Math and Physics for Flight Testers, “Chapter 9, Motion Analysis,” National Test
Pilot School, Mojave CA, 1999.
8.7.2 Ward, Don, Introduction to Flight Testing, Texas A&M, Elsevier, 1993.
Additional Reading
Hartog, J.P. Den, Mechanical Vibrations, Dover Publications, New York, New York, 1984.
Jacobsen, Ludik S. and Ayre, Robert S., Engineering Vibrations, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, New York, 1958.
Meirovitch, Leonard, Elements of Vibration Analysis, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New
York, 1986.
Meirovitch, Leonard, Analytical Methods in Vibrations, Macmillan Publishing Company, New York,
New York, 1967.
Page 08 - 32
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
9.1 Terminology
9.5 References
Page 09 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Section 9 Abbreviations
Page 09 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Brittleness Measure of a material's lack of ductility (by one definition breakage at five percent or less
strain implies brittleness.
Creep rate The rate at which a material continues to stretch when stress is applied at high temperature.
Cold Working Deformation of a metal below its recrystallization temp., thereby strengthening and reshaping
it.
Durability Ability to resist cracking, corrosion, thermal degradation, delamination, wear, and the effects
of foreign object damage over time.
Elastic Deformation of the material that is recovered when the applied load is removed.
Deformation
Elasticity Ability of a material to return to its undeformed shape after all loads have been removed.
Endurance Limit The stress below which a material will not fail in a fatigue test.
Factor of Safety Ratio of the predicted failure stress to the maximum stress anticipated in normal operation
(DLL). For aircraft, the Factor of Safety is typically 1.5 DLL.
Fatigue The failure of a material when subjected to repeated loads less than the ultimate sustainable
load. This effect is presented in an S-N diagram such as
60
40
Stress
(S)
20
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Cycles to Failure (N)
Page 09 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Fatigue life The number of cycles at a particular stress before a material fails by fatigue.
Impact Energy The energy required to fracture a specimen when the load is suddenly applied.
Limit Stress The maximum stress where the Modulus of Elasticity remains constant (proportional limit).
Margin of Safety Any load-bearing capability greater that the ultimate load, calculated as
failure load as a factor of DLL - 1
1.5 DLL
Plastic Permanent deformation of a material applied load. Plasticity Material deformation charac
Deformation teristics beyond its elastic limit.
Resilience A measure of the amount of energy a material can absorb elastically in a unit volume of the
material.
Rupture time The time required for a specimen to fail by creep at a particular temperature and stress.
Stress (σ) The ability of a material to react a force distributed over some area.
Thermal stress Stress resulting from expansion (strain) of a material subjected to heating.
Tensile strength The stress that corresponds to the maximum load in a tensile test.
Toughness Total energy absorbed before failure occurs (area under the stress-strain curve).
Transition Temperature The temperature below which a material behaves in a brittle manner in an impact test.
Ultimate Stress The stress point at which additional load cannot be reacted.
Wing Loading Aircraft weight per wing area, W/S, a ready measure of air loads for steady level flight.
Yield Stress The stress applied to a material that just causes permanent plastic deformation.
Page 09 - 4
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Stress (σ) is the ability of a material to react a force distributed over some area. In the simple axial load case
this can be presented as
σ = P/A
Strain (e) is the deformation of a material under an applied load. In the basic form this can be presented as
e = ΔL/L
where ΔL is the change in dimension due to some load, and L is the original dimension
The stress-strain relationship is linear (proportional) for a large percentage of the applied load to the maximum,
as expressed by the Modulus of Elasticity (Young’s Modulus)
E = σ/e
ultimate stress
Stress (σ) ~ psi
fracture stress
Plastic
Range
yield stress
proportional
limit
Elastic
Range
E
maximum
strain
Page 09 - 5
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Flight Path Normal Load Factor (Nzw) can be expressed during level flight, as
Nzb = [Nzw-Nxbsinα]/cosα
For the simplified case of negligible thrust lift, the maximum achievable Nzb at any flight speed can be
calculated as
Nzb = (V/Vs)2
Page 09 - 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
8
7.5
POSITIVE LIMIT
7 UNAVAILABLE
LIFT AREA
6 AREA OF
5 STRUCTURAL
VH
4
MAXIMUM THE DAMAGE
OR FAILURE
POSITIVE LIFT VL
Load Factor ~ nz
3 CAPABILITY ENVELOPE
2 LIMIT
AIRSPEED
1 575 KNOTS
Indicated Airspeed ~ knots
0
200 300 400 500 600
-1
-2 UNAVAILABLE
LIFT AREA NEGATIVE LIMIT
-3 -3.0
MAXIMUM STRUCTURAL DAMAGE AREA
-4
NEGATIVE LIFT NEGATIVE ULTIMATE
-4.5
-5 CAPABILITY
STRUCTURAL FAILURE AREA
STALL REGION
• It is frequently desirable to correct measured (test) Nzb data to a standard weight or design gross weight
(GW) using the relationship
Δn = 0.115mVe(KU)/(W/S)
Page 09 - 7
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Strain (e) is measured using the electrical resistance measured via the strain gage in a material subject to load.
For the uniaxial gauge
K = (ΔR/R)/e
• For the bi-axial gage oriented coincident with the principal axes (maximum strain), each leg of the gage is
analyzed as a uniaxial gage using the above equation for the principle strains. The
associated stresses are
where emax and emin are the measured principal strains in the appropriate legs of the bi-axial gage,
E is the Young’s Modulus of the material, ν is Poisson’s ratio for the material.
(ratio of compression and tension strains)
Page 09 - 8
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• For the Rosette gage, the principal strains and stresses are derived as
where e’s denote the strains in each of the three legs of the Rosette (+ is used for the maximum and - for the
minimum).
To accurately measure the very small resistance changes in a strain gage, a Wheatstone Bridge is typically used
A B
G
A= active or strain-measuring gage
B= temperature compensating (dummy) gage
D C C= D = internal resistance in instrument
G= galvanometer
Page 09 - 9
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
9.5 References
9.1 Dole, Charles E., Fundamentals of Aircraft Material Factors, University of Southern California, Los
Angeles, California, 1987.
9.2 Norton, William J., Structures Flight Test Handbook, AFFTC-TIH-90-001, Air Force Flight Test Cen
ter, Edwards AFB, California, November 1990.
Additional Reading
Page 09 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
10.5 References
Page 10 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 10 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Terminology
Bore Piston diameter
Critical Altitude
The altitude at which a supercharged (or turbocharged) engine can no longer:
a) maintain sea level manifold pressure, or
b) maximum allowable horsepower.
Detonation
An operating condition where combinations of excessive temperature, high manifold pressure, and l
ow RPM cause explosive fuel burn, large internal pressure pulses, and subsequent engine damage.
Displacement
Total volume swept by all cylinders, measured in either cubic inches or liters.
Manifold Pressure
Pressure of fuel-air mixture passing through intake manifold, typically measured in absolute gauge
pressure (inches of mercury or lb/in2).
Mixture Ratio
Ratio of [fuel weight/air weight] passing through the intake manifold.
• This ratio must be between .05 and .125 to burn.
• Best power typically occurs at mixture ratio of 0.075 to 0.08.
• Best economy typically occurs at a ratio of .0625
• To provide sufficient cooling, the mixture ratio is usually greatly increased from best economy when
operating at very high or very low power settings (a.k.a. auto rich).
Reduction gear
Gearing between the engine crankshaft and propeller shaft that reduces the rotation speed going to the
propeller.
Stroke Linear distance traveled by piston.
Supercharger
A mechanically driven compressor that boosts the ambient air pressure to provide the engine with
higher power output.
Turbocharger
Also known as a turbo supercharger, it is similar to a super charger except that the compressor is
driven by engine exhaust pressure.
Page 10 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
For any given engine design, power output is primarily a function of the product of engine speed (RPM) and in-
take manifold pressure (MP). Smaller but significant effects are due to the fuel/air density (ρfa) and exhaust
back pressure (which is essentially ambient pressure, Pa). Less significant effects are due to the condition of the
engine itself and include such factors as ignition quality & timing, piston ring leakage, fuel grade, and oil viscos-
ity.
Engine models have various levels of sophistication which can account for the four most significant factors
listed above. Theses models can be presented graphically or analytically. Figure 10.2a shows a typical
graphic power model for determining reciprocating engine BHP.
1) The left-hand chart shows the fundamental relation between BHP and the product of RPM and MP. En-
ter with MP and RPM to obtain point “B” and the associated “base brake horse power” (BHPB) at sea level
standard day pressure and temperature.
2) Transfer this BHPB value to point “B1” on the ordinate of the right hand chart.
3) Enter the right hand chart with the same MP & RPM to obtain point “A” and the associated brake horse-
power at altitude (BHPA) .
5) Enter the abscissa at the test pressure altitude, locate point “C”, and read the corresponding “chart horse-
power” (BHPC). BHPC. is the sea level power corrected to the reduced back pressure con ditions at altitude. It
does not account for non-standard temperatures.
6) To correct for non-standard air temperature, subtract 1% from BHPC for each 60C warmer than test altitude
standard temperature. Conversely, add 1% to BHPC for each 60C cooler than standard. For convenience, the
lower right hand chart of Figure 10.2a illustrates standard temperature as a function of pressure altitude.
Page 10 - 4
Sea Level Performance Altitude Performance
220 220
M
28
SFTE Reference Handbook
RP
00
200 200 26
28
00 24
26
180 180 A 28 22
0 C
00
B 2 40 B RP
26
00 M
160 160
20
0 24 0
2 20 0
18
140 140
se 22
ui 00 00 16
Cr 20
Page 10 - 5
120 120 20 0
0 14
Brake Horsepower
0
1 80
100 100 18 0
0
80 40
0
-40
18 20 22 24 26 28 30
STD ALT Temp °F (Ts)
Sea Level
An analytic power model of a reciprocating engine should match the graphic model. Its principle application is
in automating the power determination process rather than manually performing graphic lookups.
1) The left hand chart shows that BHPB is a linear function of MP, but it is not necessarily a linear function of
RPM. Extrapolating the RPM curves towards low manifold pressure illustrates their convergence to a common
point. This left hand chart can be summarized with the equation
a through e are determined from the graph or from separate engine tests.
3) Based on the direct relation between available power and density, calculate chart horsepower as
BHPC = BHPB [ BHP A − BHPB ][(1 − σ A ) /(1 − σ D )]
where σD is the standard atmosphere density ratio at the operating pressure altitude (Hc). For convenience, this
calculation is presented below for flight in the tropopause
BHP A
σ A = . 117 +
BHP sl max
where BHP is the full-throttle sea level power at the RPM in question. This value is located towards the
right side of the BHPB chart.
4) The final step in determining test day power (BHPt) is to correct for non-standard ambient absolute tempera-
ture (Ta)
T as
BHP t = BHP C
T at
where Tas is the standard absolute ambient temperature at the test altitude, and, below the tropopause, is calculat-
ed as Tas = 288.15-.0019812Hc .
Page 10 - 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The fuel flow model is centered around the brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) defined as
fuel flow ⎛ lb / hr ⎞
BSFC ≡ ⎜ ⎟
power ⎝ BHP ⎠
Figure 10.2b shows the basic effect of RPM & BHP on BSFC (ref 10.5.4).
• At any given BHP, operating at lower RPMs reduces mechanical friction and therefore BSFC.
• At any given RPM, operating at very low BHP increases the percentage of piston work overcoming friction
and therefore increases BSFC.
• Operation at high BHP also increases BSFC, but this is due to the fuel enrichment required to prevent deto-
nation at high loads.
1.05
0.75
0.60 2200
0.45 1800
0.30
0.15
0
100 500 1000 1500 2000
Brake Horsepower, BHP
Figure 10.2b Effect of RPM and BHP on BSFC
The same effects can be modeled as shown in Figure 10.2c (ref 10.5.5).
• Not shown on these figures are the possible altitude and temperature effects. Flight testers rarely need to
validate these models throughout the engine’s working range. Instead, testers typically evaluate BSFC only
at the combinations of RPM and MP recommended by the manufacturer to give the desired power output.
Page 10 - 7
0.690 BSFC
100
0.680
0.660
0.640
0.620 90
SFTE Reference Handbook
0.600
0.580
0.560
80
0.540
70
wer
o
able p
il 60
Page 10 - 8
ava
imum
x
Ma
0 50
(supercharged engine) (load)
Percent Normal Rated Power
0.44
0.450
0.460 40
0.480 0.520
Correcting from test day to standard day power available uses one of
several methods, depending on the test conditions.
Some useful insights are summarized below.
• In all cases, test day RPM must equal standard day RPM. There are no corrections if this requirement is vio-
lated.
• The effect of density on power output at wide open throttle has been empirically shown to be
(ref. 10.5.6)
BHPalt = BHP sl max (1 .1324 σ − .1324 )
• The above correction is not typically applied to test data since test and standard day pressure altitudes (Hc)
are usually the same. Instead, most standardization requirements center around correcting to standard tem-
perature.
• Engine power is actually related to the carburetor air temperature. The difference between test and standard
day carburetor temperature equals the difference between test and standard day ambient temperature (Tct-Tcs
= Tat-Tas).
• With proper design, most of the freestream dynamic pressure (q) is converted into additional pressure at the
carburetor and is known as “ram” effect. Above the critical altitude (where full throttle operation does not
generate maximum manifold pressure), ram effect can be used to increase manifold pressure and therefore
power output.
Partial Throttle Standardization. If the test engine is set at some partial throttle setting to achieve a specific
manifold pressure, then the same MP should be achievable on standard day with a slightly different throttle set-
ting. Calculate standard day power (BHPs) as
n
⎛T ⎞
BHPs = BHP t ⎜⎜ ct ⎟⎟
⎝ T cs ⎠
Page 10 - 9
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Full Throttle Standardization applies only if test and standard pressure altitude are equal. If the engine is op-
erated full throttle on a test day, then the change in ambient temperature would generate a power change due to
carburetor air temperature (ΔBHPcat) and manifold pressure changes (ΔBHPmp). Calculate standard day power
(BHPs) as
BHPs = BHPt + ΔBHPcat + ΔBHPmp
⎡⎛ T ⎞
n
⎤
ΔBHPcat = BHPt ⎢⎜⎜ ct ⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢⎣⎝ Tcs ⎠ ⎥⎦
MPΔt is the correction of manifold pressure due to changes in ambient temperature and is approximated as
Δ MP Δ t = MP t C Δ t
C is a constant depending upon the pressure ratio (P2/P1), carburetor air inlet temperature, and whether or not the
fuel is vaporized during process.
• If only the air is compressed, or if the inlet temperature is measured after fuel vaporization, then determine C
using Figure 10.3a .
• If the fuel is injected after the temperature is taken but before the charge is compressed, then determine C
using Figure 10.3b.
• By use of Figures 10.3a and 10.3b, any combination of induction processes for air only or for a fuel air mix-
ture may be evaluated.
Page 10 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Δt is the difference between test and standard day carburetor air temperature and was previously described as the
change in ambient air temperature
Δt = Tat-Tas
Pts/Ptt is the ratio between standard and test day total (ram) inlet pressures at the standard and test Mach num-
bers. The first step in determining this ratio is to recognize
Pts
Pts Pa
=
Ptt P tt
Pa
Pa is the pressure altitude and must be the same for test and standard days. Calculate Ptt/Pa using test Mach
number and the equation
Pt
Pa
[(
= η r 1 + .2 M 2 )
3 .5
]
−1 +1
ηr is the carburetor inlet ram efficiency and is usually between 0.7 and 0.75. A more exact value may be calcu-
lated as
Pt ( actual ) − Pa
ηr =
Pt (theoretica l ) − Pa
Calculate Pts /Pa using the same equations and standard Mach number.
• This last calculation may be iterative because standard Mach number cannot be exactly determined from the
drag polar until power output is known.
• This correction is not normally made unless the flight Mach number is above 0.6 and the power change
causes a speed change of more than 3 knots.
• To get a feel for the dynamic pressure change (and therefore ram effect change) due to Mach number
change, recall
⎡ lb ⎤ 1
q ⎢ 2 ⎥ = ρ aVT2 = 1481δM 2
⎣ ft ⎦ 2
The final standard day power curves are presented in a form similar to that shown in Figure 10.3c
Page 10 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
0.007 1.43
0.005 0° 2.00
°C For 1% Correction
Correction Factor, C
50°
0.004 2.50
0.003 3.33
0.002 5.00
Note: This chart may be used
where air only is compressed or
0.001 where inlet temperature is 10.00
measured after fuel vaporization.
0
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Figure 10.3a - Manifold Pressure Correction When Temperature is Measured After Fuel Vaporization
0.005 2.00
Carburetor Air Temperature
-50°C
0.004 2.50
°C for 1% Correction
Correction Factor, C
0°C
0.002 5.00
Page 10 - 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
30
20
M 10
RP
tcs (°C)
5 00 M 0
,2 P
Hg 0 0R
” 0
40 g ,2 -10
”H
30 -20
-30
40”Hg, 2500 RPM
M ilitary Power
Low Blower
40
MPs (“Hg)
30
30”Hg, 2000 RPM
Cruising Power 20
Low Blower
10
4 0” H g, 2 50 0 R P M 1000
30”H g, 2
BHPs
000 R P M
600
200
36 32 28 24 20 16 12 8 4 0
Page 10 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The intent is to ensure that the critical engine parts, (i.e., cylinder head and cylinder barrel) do not exceed the
engine manufacturer’s specified limits during worst-case climb operating conditions on a 100 oF hot day.
Test procedures are detailed in AC 23-A. The basic idea is best illustrated with the single-engine airplane proce-
dure:
1) Trim in level flight at the lowest practical altitude with at least 75% maximum continuous power. Allow
2) temperatures to stabilize.
2) Increase engine power to takeoff rating and climb at a speed not greater than Vy (best climb speed).
Maintain takeoff power for one minute.
3) At the end of one minute, reduce engine power to maximum continuous and continue climb for at least
five minutes after temperatures peak or the maximum operating altitude is reached. Flight manual lean
ing procedures should be used.
Correct the peak test day cylinder barrel temperature (Tbt) to hot day conditions (Tbh) as follows
Tbh = Tbt+0.7[100-0.0036Hc-Tat]
Correct the peak test day cylinder head or other temperature (Tht) to hot day conditions (Thh) as follows
Thh = Tht+100-0.0036Hc-Tat
This method is known to be quite conservative More satisfactory temperatures may be achieved by actually test-
ing during hot weather.
Page 10 - 14
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
10.5 References
10.5.1 Roberts, Sean C. “Light Aircraft Performance,” Flight Research Inc. Mojave, CA, 1982.
10.5.2 Lawless, Alan R, “Fixed Wing Aircraft Performance Testing” Chapters 3 and 4, National Test Pilot
School, Mojave CA, 1996.
10.5.3 Baughn, J. W., “A Method for computing Brake Horsepower from the Performance Charts of Recipro-
cating Aircraft Engines,” AIAA- 94-2148-CP, from 7th Biennial AIAA Flight Test Conf., 1994.
10.5.4 Herrington, R. M. Major, USAF, et al, “Flight Test Engineering Handbook,” USAF Technical report
No. 6273, AFFTC, Edwards AFB, CA, May 1951.
10.5.5 Chatfield, C. H., et al, “The Airplane and its Engine,” McGraw Hill, 1949.
10.5.6 Gagg, R.F., and Farrar, E.V., “Altitude Performance of Aircraft Engines Equipped with Gear-Driven
Superchargers,” SAE Transcripts, Vol 29, pg 217-223, 1934.
10.5.7 anon., “Flight Test Guide for Certification of Part 23 Air planes,“ U.S. Department of Transportation
Advisory Circu-lar 23-8A, 1989.
10.5.8 Smith, H. C., and Dreier M. E., “A computer Technique for the Determination of Brake Horsepower
Output of Normally Aspirated Reciprocating Aircraft Engines,” SAE paper No. 770465,
March 1977.
10.5.9 Hamlin, B., “Flight Testing Conventional and Jet-Propelled Airplanes,” The Macmillan Co., New York,
NY, 1946.
10.5.10 Operators Manual for Series IO-360 Aircraft Engines, form No. X-30032, FAA Approved March 1979.
Page 10 - 15
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
NOTES
Page 10 - 16
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Section 11 Propellers
11.8 References
Page 11 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
(C LD )x 3 dx
1 .0
CLi integrated design lift coefficient = 4∫
. 15
Page 11 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Terminology
thickness ratio (TR) blade thicknessmeasured locally or at .75R to represent entire prop.
Page 11 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
r
R
VR = V T2 + (2 π rn )
2
VT VT VT 1 VT
φ = tan -1
= tan -1
= tan -1
: φ tip = tan -1
rω r 2π n xD π n π nD
1 VT 1 VT J
α x = θ x − φ = θ x - tan -1 = θ x - tan -1 = θ x − tan -1
π r 2n π xDn πx
Page 11 - 4
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Integrating lift and drag along a blade gives the thrust (T) and torque (Q). Multiply by number of blades (B) to
determine total T and Q.
c
(C L cos φ − C D sin φ )dr
R2
T = qB ∫
R1 sin 2 φ
cr
(C L sin φ + C D cos φ )dr
R2
Q = qB ∫
R1 sin 2 φ
T
Thrust Coefficient, CT ≡
ρn2D 4
Q
Torque Coefficient, CQ ≡
ρn2D 5
P Q ×ω Q × 2π n Q
Power Coefficient, CP ≡ = = = 2π = 2π C Q
ρn3D 5 ρn3D 5 ρn3D 5 ρn2 D 5
CQ CT
.008 .08
CQ
.004 .04
CT
.002 .02
0 0
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0
Advance Ratio
Page 11 - 5
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
η Cp
0.8 .04 η
0.6 .03
Cp
0.4 .02
0.2 .01
V
ND
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Windmill
Propeller State State
Brake State
20º 25º
15º
10º Fixed-pitch blade twist at .75R
Page 11 - 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
V V+v V + v1
p p' p' + Δp
Δp Atmospheric Pressure
Blade element theory tends to be more complex and may include corrections for tip swirl losses, Mach effects,
nacelle blockage, etc. Below is a comparison of typical calculated and measured thrust distribution.
Thrust
Calculated
Measured
Radius
Page 11 - 7
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• For a specified propeller geometry; CT , CP, J, and blade angle (θ) are interrelated such that knowledge of
any two defines the other two.
• Calculate propeller efficiency as η = JCT /CP .
• Models assume isolated conditions, i.e., without nacelle blockage.
• Models assume negligible Mach effects at propeller tips.
• Different models required for static and “in-flight” conditions.
2.8
2.4
Integrated design CL
2.0
0.3
Optimum CT/CP
0.5
1.6 0.7
1.2
C T
C P
.8
.4
Advance Ratio, J
0
0 .04 .08 .12 .16 .20 .24
ciency (η) from the appropriate “Flight Charts.” They are typically presented in one of two forms.
Page 11 - 8
1.0
0.9
0.06
Cp =
SFTE Reference Handbook
0.08 0.12
0.8 0
0.1 2
0.1
0.14
0.16 0.0
8
0.18
1.7 0.20
0.40875SHP
2
Cp =
ρ n3 C
0.2 p =0
Page 11 - 9
0.24 .06
30
n
C.
=
SHP = 0.00381 x (n) x Torque (lb - ft)
p
C
V True airspeed, knots
0.5 n Propeller rotational speed, %
0.4
0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6
Advance Ratio (J)
Third Edition 2013
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The other “in-flight η” format also requires calculation of CP and J. Below is a typical flight chart published by
Hamilton Standard (Ref 11.2). This applies to a propeller with 2 blades, AF= 80, and CLi =0.5
3.0
.80 5
85
.7
η =3.
.8
2.8
.90
.91
2.6
8.5o
.92
η=
2.4
52.5o
91
2.2
90
89
50.0o
88
2.0
87 6
8 5
8
Advance Ratio, J
2 Blades/ 80AF/0.5 CLi
.80
2.0
η=
1.8
o
47.5
1.6
45.0o
1.4
42.5o
θ3/4=40.0o
1.2
37.5o
35.0o
70
0.8
65
60
55
.50
ηx
0.6
45
40
35
30
0.4
θ 3/4
0.2
32.5o
30.0o
@
27.5o
22.5o
20.0o
17.5o
10.0o
25.0o
15.0o
12.5o
0
0
.28
.12
.32
.16
.04
.36
.24
.20
.08
CP
Page 11 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
A body correction factor (FBC) should be applied to account for reduced efficiency due to body flow blockage
immediately behind the propeller. Two examples follow.
1.00
.98
.96 S /A = .141
S /A = .146
F BC S /A = .153
.94 S /A = .160
S /A = .167
.92
S /A = .175
.90 S /A = .184
S /A = .193
S /A = .199
.88
Advance Ratio
Page 11 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Hamilton Standard also publishes a generalized nacelle blocking correction for typical scoop and annual inlet
nacelles used on typical turboprops.
2.8
ANNULAR
ANNULAR
2.4
SCOOP
2.0
Advance ratio, J
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
1.03
1.02
1.01
1.00
1.04
FBC
Page 11 - 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
To determine if tip compressibility corrections are appropriate, find the maximum integrated design lift coeffi-
cient, CLimax from the graph below.
∼ Enter at flight Mach number, and move across at appropriate NDfc.
1
fc =
θ
∼ If CLimax is below calculated Cli , then corrections are required.
1.0
Approximate integrated design CL
to avoid compressibility losses
0.9
0.8
0.7
Aircraft Mach Number
00
= 14,0
x fC
0.6
ND
000
15, 0
6,00
1
0
,00
0.5
17
0
8,00 00
1 ,0
19
=
xf C
0.4
0
ND
,50
19
0
,00
0.3
20
50
0,2
=2
C
xf
0.2
ND
0.1
0.3
0.6
0.1
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.2
L
Maximum Integrated Design C
Page 11 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
0.06
0.04
0.02
ΔM
0
-0.02
-0.04
ηcomp = η x Ft x FBC
• Calculate in-flight thrust as
η comp SHP 326 η comp SHP
T = =
VT KTAS
Page 11 - 14
1.0
0.9
SFTE Reference Handbook
0.8
Ft
0.7
Page 11 - 15
Meff = M +ΔM
0.6
M = airplane Mach number
ΔM = adjustment for blade camber
Advance Ratio, J
Third Edition 2013
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Slip Rings
Calculate efficiency as
TVT
η comp =
Q ω
Page 11 - 16
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
• Trim the aircraft at test RPM, VT , & altitude. Note SHP required.
• Repeat above test with drag device and load cell attached. Note the power requirement change (ΔSHP ) and
load cell drag (ΔD).
VT
η p . BHPAC = D
550
η p . BHPAC + ΔD =
VT
(D + ΔD )
550
Load Cell
ΔD (SHP ) VT D
D= η =
ΔSHP 550 (SHP )
• This technique assumes the same η for both tests and is valid if J is constant and the CP change is small.
The drag device must therefore be small enough to not violate this assumption, yet large enough for the
change in SHP to be measurable on engine instruments.
Page 11 - 17
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
11.8 References
11.8.1 Roberts, Sean, “Light Aircraft Performance for Test Pilots and Flight Test Engineers,” Flight Re
search Inc., Mojave CA, 1982.
11.8.2 anon., Hamilton Standard Propeller Efficiency Charts (a.k.a.Redbook), PDB 6101.
Page 11 - 18
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Page 12 - 1
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
a acceleration
BHP brake horsepower
BSFC brake specific fuel consumption (fuel flow per horsepower per hour)
CD drag coefficient
CDiOGE induced drag coefficient out of ground effect
CDiIGE induced drag coefficient in ground effect
cg center of gravity
CL lift coefficient
CLIGE lift coefficient in ground effect
CLOGE lift coefficient out of ground effect
D drag
Fn net thrust
Fg gross thrust
Fe ram thrust
Fex excess thrust
F/δ corrected thrust
g reference acceleration due to gravity (32.174 ft/sec²)
GECL ground effect correction factor for lift coefficient
GECD ground effect correction factor for drag coefficient
H, h geopotential altitude
Hc pressure altitude
L lift
LW lift of the wing
M Mach number
m mass
Nxw longitudinal load factor along flight path (wind axis)
Nzw, nz load factor normal to flight path
P power output
Pa ambient pressure
Po std ambient pressure sea level (2116.22 lb/ft² = 29.921 in Hg)
Piw standard day sea-level power required
Pm mission-day power required
Ps specific excess power
Ps standard power required
Pt test-day power required
q dynamic pressure
Page 12 - 2
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
R range
R/C rate of climb
Rn Reynolds number
RF range factor
S reference wing area
Sa horizontal air distance
Sg ground roll
SLD total landing distance
SR specific range
STO total takeoff distance
T ambient air temperature (absolute)
T thrust
To ambient temperature sea level standard (288.15 °K=15.0 °C)
V inertial speed
Vc calibrated airspeed
Ve equivalent airspeed
Viw standard day sea-level true airspeed
VT true airspeed
VTt test true airspeed
VTs test true airspeed
Wt test weight
Ws weight standard
W& f
Fuel Flow
W& f iw standard day sea-level fuel flow
α angle of attack
β sideslip angle
δ ambient air pressure ratio
σ ambient air density ratio
ιT thrust incidence angle
γ flightpath angle
φ bank angle
μ rolling coefficient of friction
ω turn rate (rad/sec)
Page 12 - 3
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
where
Ps = standardized parameter
Pt = test day parameter
Ps’ = standard day parameter predicted by models
Pt’ = test day parameter predicted by models
The parameter of interest can be one of the basic modeling values such as thrust, drag, power, or fuel flow. The
parameter can also be the end result of the predictive process, and may include values like takeoff/landing dis-
tance, climb/sustained turning capability, or cruise range.
The ratio method is the other standardization process. It corrects to standard conditions by multiplying the
test values by a correction factor. This factor is the ratio of the model predictions for standard and test
conditions.
Ps = Pt (Ps’ / Pt’) (Eq’n 12.2)
The preferred approach is whichever gives the lowest total error. If the prediction models are in error by approx-
imately a constant percentage, then the ratio method yields the least error. If the models are in error by approxi-
mately a constant magnitude, then the increment method yields the least error. Less exact empirical methods can
also be used.
Page 12 - 4
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Both Sg and Sa can be standardized using the increment or ratio method, or by empirical relations. The empiri-
cal methods are useful when detailed aircraft models are not available. The more exact process of predicting
takeoff distance using models is described in section 12.3.2.
S at = S a w + V w t (Eq’n 12.4)
⎡ W sin θ ⎤
S g t = S g zw ⎢1 − ⎥ (Eq’n 12.5)
⎢⎣ [Fex ]avg ⎥⎦
If the average excess thrust is not known, then approximate Fex as that at 70% of the liftoff airspeed or from the
zero-wind ground roll distance:
2
[Fex ]avg ≈
mV LO
(Eq’n 12.6)
2 S g zw
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
After correcting the test day distance to zero wind and slope, use the following empirical equations to correct for
non-standard weight, density, and temperature. Any desired values can be treated as the "standard" conditions.
where
Pt = Test day brake power at the propeller Fnt = Tot = Avg. Test net thrust (approx .94 x static thrust
@ test conditions)
Ps = Standard day brake power at the propeller Fns = Tos = Avg. Standard net thrust (approx .94 x static
thrust @ std.conditions)
These empirical corrections are valid only for small (<10%) changes.
(above equations from ref 12.3)
Page 12 - 6
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Define
V = airspeed
VTO = liftoff airspeed
Sg = ground roll distance
Sw = reference wing area
Fex = excess thrust
Fn = net thrust
CLIGE = lift coeffient in ground effect
CDIGE = drag coefficient in ground effect
W = aircraft weight
m = rolling friction
g = acceleration due to gravity
A = acceleration = g*Fex/
Assuming zero initial speed for takeoff run, ground roll distance
2
VTO ⋅W
Sg =
⎛ ⎞ (Eq’n 12.7)
⋅ (μ ⋅ C LIGE − C DIGE )⎟
1
2 ⋅ g ⋅ ⎜ Tavg − μ ⋅ W + ⋅ ρ ⋅ S w ⋅ VTO
2
⎝ 6 ⎠
Where Fnavg may be estimated as the average of static thrust and net thrust at liftoff airspeed. If the initial air-
speed is non-zero, its value should be inserted into Equation 10.3 in place of VL/O and the answer subtracted
from the zero-wind case.
where μ is the rolling friction coefficient (typically between 0.015 and 0.025 for hard dry runways), and
CLIGE is the lift coefficient in ground effect while at ground roll attitude.
Estimate CLIGE by determining the out-of-ground-effect lift coefficient (CLOGE) at the ground roll angle of at-
tack and correcting it as follows: n
(Eq’ 12.8)
CLIGE = CLOGE GECL
where the ground effect factor, GECL = [0.8609 –0.6282 log10(h/b)] and h is the wing height above the surface
and b is the wingspan. The above correction is not used above the height that predicts
GECL < 1
CDIGE is the induced drag coefficient while in ground effect. Estimate this by determining the out-of-ground-
effect drag coefficient (CDiOGE ) at the appropriate angle of attack and correcting it as fol-
lows: (Eq’n12.9)
where the ground effect factor, GECD = [0.2412 ln(h/b)+1.0829] The above correction is not used above the
height that predicts
GECD > 1
Page 12 - 7
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
A direct approximation of takeoff air distance requires the desired speeds at liftoff and at 50 feet (typically
1.1Vs and 1.2Vs, respectively). It also requires an estimate of the average excess thrust as the aircraft climbs out
of ground effect.
Sa =
W
⎢
( ) ( )
⎡ V502 − VLO 2 ⎤
+ 50⎥ (Eq’n 12.10)
(T − D)avg ⎣ 2g ⎦
A direct approximation of the total takeoff distance (STO) can be calculated as the sum of the ground and air
distances or can be estimated by multiplying the ground roll distance by a “planform factor” (Fpl).
Fpl combines the effects of wing type, thrust-to-weight ratio, and pilot technique. The following values charac-
terize the typical aircraft.
A more exact prediction of takeoff performance (ref 12.5) requires accurate thrust and drag models and an
integration of the aircraft’s velocity over the takeoff time. This is equivalent to a double integration of the air-
craft’s acceleration or its specific excess thrust.
Fex 1
STO = ∫ VT dt = ∫∫ adt = ∫∫ dt = ∫∫ Fex dt (Eq’n 12.12)
m m
This double integration can be performed numerically or graphically. Alternately, use planar kinematics and
sum the distances required to accelerate between incremental true airspeeds from brake release (V0) to the true
airspeed when the aircraft reaches the takeoff altitude (V50‘).
m V 50 '
V 22 − V1 2
S TO =
2
∑V0 Fex
(Eq’n 12.13)
Both methods above are typically split into pre-rotation ground roll,
rotation/post-rotation ground roll, and airborne segments. Both methods require calculation of the excess thrust,
addressed below.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
Solving for the excess net thrust during the ground roll for either takeoff or landing cases requires a simultane-
ous solution of the three equations of motion along the aircraft’s longitudinal & vertical axes and about the pitch
axis. These equations (in the above order) are as follows:
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The previous equations were arranged so that the right hand side of each can be abbreviated as A1, A2, and A3
respectively. This step allows for a compact matrix form of the equations using a 3x3 matrix
⎡1 μ nw μ m ⎤ ⎡ Fex ⎤ ⎡ A1 ⎤
⎢0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢ Rnw ⎥ = ⎢⎢ A2 ⎥⎥
⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢
⎢⎣0 X1 + X 2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Rm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ A3 ⎥⎦
Solve for Fex by pre-multiplying both sides by the inverse of the first matrix
−1
⎡ Fex ⎤ ⎡1 μ nw μ m ⎤ ⎡ A1 ⎤
⎢ R ⎥ = ⎢0 1 1 ⎥ ⎢A ⎥
⎢ nw ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 2⎥
⎢⎣ Rm ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣0 X1 + X 2 0 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ A3 ⎥⎦
Although wheel reaction forces are not required for takeoff distance
prediction, they are useful for accurate calculation of rotation capability and for braking effectiveness during
landing ground rolls. For takeoff
calculations, several simplifying assumptions can be made such as:
μnw = μm = 0.02
Fg >> Fe
Dt = 0
This above approach can be repeated for the segment between rotation and liftoff. This is slightly more
complicated because the changing angle of attack alters drag and acceleration.
Precise predictions of the takeoff air distance can be made by applying Equation 12.10 in small incre-
ments using accurate models that describe thrust as a function of airspeed and the lift & drag changes due to
climbing out of ground effect.
Along with the incremental Sg and Sa calculations, the time to accelerate between the corresponding incre-
mental velocities can be calculated as
V2 − V1
Δt = m
Fex
Page 12 - 10
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
The total landing distance (SLD) is the sum of the ground roll distance (Sg, from touchdown to full stop) and the
horizontal component of the air distance (Sa, from the screen height to touchdown). The screen height can be
either 35 or 50 feet above the surface, depending on the requirements
SLD = Sg + Sa
Both Sg and Sa can be standardized according to the increment or ratio methods described by equations 12.1 and
12.2, or by empirical relations. The empirical methods are useful when detailed aircraft models are not availa-
ble. The more exact process of predicting landing distance using models is described in section 12.4.2.
Apply Equation 12.4 to correct to the zero-wind air distance (where t is the time to descend from the screen
height to touchdown).
To correct to a zero-slope runway, apply Equation 12.5 to the zero-wind ground roll distance (note that Fex is
negative). If the average excess thrust is not known, then approximate [Fex ]avg as that at 70% of the touchdown
airspeed. Alternately, approximate [Fex ]avg from the zero-wind ground roll distance using
2
[F ex ]avg ≈
mV TD
(Eq’n 12.18)
2S g zw
Page 12 - 11
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
After correcting the test day distance to zero wind and slope, use the following empirical equations to cor-
rect the ground roll to standard weight and air density.
2
⎡W ⎤ σ
S gs = S gt ⎢ s ⎥ t
⎣ Wt ⎦ σ s
(Eq’n 12.19)
where hv is the specific kinetic energy change during the air phase. For the case of a 50-foot screen height, this
term is calculated as
V 502 ' − V TD2
hv = (Eq’n 12.21)
2g
With reasonably precise models available, the landing distance can be predicted through calculation. Test
distances can then be standardized using either the increment or ratio method (Equations 12.1-12.2).
A direct approximation of landing ground roll can be obtained by applying the same Equation 12.7
used for the takeoff case. This method requires a value for the average net thrust (Tavg) across the landing roll
speed range and reasonable values for the wheel braking friction coefficient (0.35<μ<0.5 for typical dry runway
max braking). The same equations for estimating ground effect also apply.
A direct approximation of takeoff air distance including the flare requires the desired lift and associat-
ed drag coefficients, the thrust, and the applied normal load factor during the landing flare (n = 1.15).
Page 12 - 12
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
W ⎛ CD T ⎞
⎜ ⎟
50 S ⎜⎝ C L W ⎟⎠
Sa = +
⎛ C D T ⎞ Tρ o g (n − 1)C L
(Eq’n 12.22)
⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ CL W ⎠
As with the takeoff case, this equation is usually broken into the air phase and the ground roll phase. Cal-
culation of excess thrust during the ground roll needs to consider the changing weight on the wheels and associ-
ated braking force. This requires a simultaneous solution of the three equations of motion along the aircraft’s
longitudinal & vertical axes and about the pitch axis, previously shown as Eq’ns 12.14-12.16.
Precise calculation of excess thrust during the air phase must consider the change in normal and longitudi-
nal load factor during the flare and the changes in lift and drag coefficients due to entering ground effect
(previously described).
If the desired flare technique is some schedule of flight path angle (γ) versus altitude, then the normal
load factor can be calculated from γ and the rate of γ using
.
V γ
N z = cos γ + T
g
. .
The longitudinal load factor can be calculated as H VT
Nx = +
VT g
.
H
where sin γ =
VT
Page 12 - 13
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
An alternate method of calculating distance is the fixed time increment approach. The following air distance
example is based on a constant angle of attack landing technique (ref 12.5).
Incremental calculations
(values with prime symbols represent the result of the previous iteration).
Page 12 - 14
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
This shows not only how climb rate or acceleration performance can be predicted, but also shows how the climb
and acceleration capabilities can be exchanged at any given specific excess power. Dividing this equation
through by V shows the relation between specific excess thrust and climb angle, γ
•
PS F − D H 1 dV
= n = + = sin γ (Eq’n 12.26)
V W V g dt
.
When predicting climb performance capability using this approach, iterations may be required because the re-
sulting climb angle affects the normal load factor (Nz = cosγ) and the therefore the induced drag.
Page 12 - 15
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
2) Equation 12.25 yields the climb rate correction that accounts for the change in power (or thrust) between test
and standard days (at the test weight and velocity)
• ΔP ΔFnV
ΔH = ΔPs = =
P W W
where ΔP or ΔFn comes from engine models. For reciprocating engines without models that can predict this
power change, estimate the correction using only a standard day power chart and the following
equation
• 550ηBHPs ⎡ Ts ⎤
ΔH = ⎢1 − ⎥
P Wt ⎣ Tt ⎦
3) A changing horizontal headwind with altitude will alter climb results. If this change (dVw/dH) is known, then
add the following correction to the tapeline climb rate
•
V ⎛ dV ⎞⎛ dH ⎞
Δ H hw = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
g ⎝ dH ⎠⎝ dt ⎠t
Usually the exact wind shear profile is unknown. In this case, fly perpendicular to the known crosswind direc-
tion and repeat each climb speed at the reciprocal heading. After completing the remaining corrections listed
below, average the reciprocal results to obtain a standard climb rate.
4) If the climb is flown at constant indicated airspeed or Mach, then true airspeed will change with air density.
Correct for any change in true airspeed with the following “acceleration factor” correction
• ⎛V
⎜ −V ⎞
⎟
ΔH = V dV = ⎜ final initial
V ⎟
g dt g ⎜⎜ time to climb ⎟
⎟
AF
⎝ ⎠
Page 12 - 16
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
5) Combine the previous corrections then multiply this by the “inertial correction” factor that accounts for the
inertial effects of changing the weight from test to standard conditions
• Wt
H =
I Ws
6) To the above result, add a correction for the change in induced drag due to weight change.
• 2 ⎡Wt 2 − Ws2 ⎤
ΔH =
Ind πAReρaltVT S ⎢⎣ Ws ⎥⎦
Equation 12.27 can also be used to correct descents, level accelerations, and level decelerations to a stand-
ard climb rate. The primary difference is that for level accelerations, the accelerations factor is the dominant
term while the indicated climb rate is near zero.
⎡ CDO CL ⎤
⎢⎣sin γt + CL + πA Re ⎥⎦Wt + ΔFn
Wmax =
CD CL
sin γ req 'd + O +
CL πA Re
where ΔFn (= Fnstd -Fntest ) comes from the engine model. To ensure accuracy, the test configuration (i.e., one
engine inoperative) must equal the standard configuration. Level acceleration results are not an acceptable sub-
stitute for actual climb data.
Page 12 - 17
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
1) At the desired speed, altitude, temperature, and throttle setting use the
engine model to determine the gross thrust (Fg). Sophisticated models may show this to be a function of the inlet
angle of attack as well.
2) At the same conditions, use the engine and airframe models to determine the ram drag (Fe).
3) Calculate net thrust as Fn = Fg cos αF +Fe where αF = (α + ιT) and is ιT the incidence angle of the thrust line
(TED positive).
4) The total lift is the sum of the wing lift and the thrust lift:
L = LW + Fg sinαF.
Page 12 - 18
SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
5) For any sustained turn, the net thrust equals the drag
⎡ ⎛ LW ⎞ ⎤
2
⎢ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢
Fn = D = qSC D = qS C D o + ⎝ qS ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎡
= qS ⎢C D o +
(n zwW − Fg sin α F ) ⎤
2
⎢ ⎥
πA Re ⎥ ⎢
⎣ (qS ) πA Re
2
⎦⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
Solving for load factor gives
1 ⎛ ⎧⎡ Fg cos(α + ιT ) + Fe ⎞
1/ 2
⎤ ⎫
nzw = ⎜ ⎨⎢ − CD o ⎥(qS ) πA Re⎬ + Fg sin(α + ιT )⎟
2
W ⎜ ⎩⎣ qS ⎦ ⎭
⎟
⎝ ⎠ (Eq’n 12.29)
For any combination of weight, altitude, and airspeed, calculation of the standard sustained load factor requires
⎛ drag polar (CD0, e), and angle1 / 2of attack.
knowledge of the gross thrust, ram drag,
⎧⎡ F ⎤ ⎫ ⎞
n zw = W ⎜ qS ⎨ ⎢ n − C D o ⎥π A Re ⎬ + Fn sin α F ⎟
6) To determine the standard angle of⎜attack, ⎟
⎝ ⎩⎣
qS with the⎦ lift curve
start ⎭ slope model ⎠
dC L
C L = C Lα = 0 + α = C Lα = 0 + C L α α
dα
⎛ n zwW − Fg sin (α + ιT ) ⎞
2
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − C Lα =0
C L − C Lα =0 ⎝ qS ⎠
α= = (Eq’n 12.30)
C Lα C Lα
Because α cannot be solved for explicitly, calculate it using successive iterations of Equations 12.29 and 12.30.
Fg n zw
In cases where sin α F <
W 10
the angle of attack can be roughly estimated without significant error to the final result.
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⎜
⎨⎜ nzwt
t t
⎟
− sinαFt ⎟ + ⎢ + + Fgstd cosαFstd − Fgt cosαFt ⎥⎬ (Eq’n 12.31)
⎪⎩⎝ Ws Ws ⎠ Ws2 ⎢⎣ g VTt ⎥⎦⎪⎭
Fg n zw
If sin α F < then the above equation can be closely approximated as
W 10
⎡ V&T W t H& tW t ⎤
n zw std =
1
(n zw t W t )
2
+ π A R eqS ⎢ t + + Δ Fex ⎥ (Eq’n 12.32)
WS ⎢⎣ g VT ⎥⎦
The primary difference between using turn, accel, or climb test data is the dominant term in the above correc-
tions. In all cases, the test and standard day thrust values come from engine models.
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[ ]
and
{(
ΔPs = Mao Fgs cosαFs + Fe ) θs
Ws
(
− Fgt cosαFt + Fe ) θt
Wt + SCDo
qt θt
Wt −
qs θs
Ws
+
Sqt θt ⎛ m[NzwtWt −Fgnt sinαFt 2
] + ΔC [ ]
⎞ − Sqs θs ⎛ m NzwsWs −Fgs sinαFs 2 + ΔC ⎞⎫
⎜ ⎟ Ws ⎜ Dtrims ⎟⎬
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠⎭
Wt qt S Dtrimt qs S
As with the sustained level turn case, one cannot solve explicitly for αF, so either assume an approximate value
or iterate until a solution converges.
In For the simplified case where δt = δs, cgt = cgstd , and sinαF = 0, then the above equation reduces to
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Power Best
End.
Required
Best Range
VT
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To correct the power required curve to any standard altitude/weight condition, the usual approach is to treat the
lift coefficient as the anchor (CL test = CL std). This leads to the following power and velocity standardization
equations
3 1 1
⎛W ⎞2⎛ σ ⎞2 ⎛W σ ⎞2
Ps = Pt ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ t
⎟⎟ VT s = V T t ⎜⎜ s t ⎟⎟ (Eq’ns 12.35)
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σ s ⎠ ⎝ Wt σ s ⎠
Because the drag polar of low performance propeller aircraft generally collapses (generalizes) well to a single
curve, it is often acceptable to correct all power required data to a single standard altitude/weight condition.
When this condition is chosen to be standard day sea level at maximum weight, the above correction simplifies
to what is known as the “Piw ~Viw” values.
3 1
⎛ W ⎞2 1 ⎛W ⎞2
Ps = Piw = Pt ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (σt )2 VT s = Viw = Ve t ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (Eq’ns 12.36)
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝ Wt ⎠
Although all points along the test day power curve can be standardized, the most useful points are those for best
range and endurance. When corrected to standard conditions, the performance of the test aircraft can be fairly
compared to that of another aircraft which has also been corrected to the same flight conditions.
Additionally, once the standard power and velocity are known and documented, the required power and airspeed
for any “mission” conditions can be predicted by reversing Equations 12.36 as follows
3 1 1 1
⎛W ⎞2⎛ 1 ⎞2 ⎛W ⎞2 ⎛ 1 ⎞2
Pm = Piw ⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ VT m = Viw ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (Eq’ns 12.37)
⎝ Ws ⎠ ⎝σm ⎠ ⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σm ⎠
The power & optimal speed for best mission range (and mission
endurance) are determined by applying the above equations to correct the points noted on the above figure. To
correct directly from test conditions to mission conditions, apply Equation 12.35 and substitute mission weight
and density in lieu of standard values.
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3 1 3
⎛W ⎞2 ⎛ σt ⎞2 ⎛W ⎞2
⎟⎟ (σ t )2
1
W& f s = W& f t ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ or W& f iw = W& f t ⎜⎜ s (Eq’ns 12.38)
⎝ Wt ⎠ ⎝σs ⎠ ⎝ Wt ⎠
Because BSFC is affected by engine RPM (due to friction losses), fuel flow results at one engine RPM are never
corrected to another RPM. Separate tests must be performed for each engine speed of interest. BSFC may also
be affected by ambient air pressure and temperature. If the relation between fuel flow and power can be repre-
sented with a model as shown, then the fuel flow is a linear function of BSFC.
test
Fuel
Flow W& f std
W& f = b + BSFC • BHP
BSFC
b
BHP
If the values for b and BSFC are known for both the test and standard conditions, then test fuel flow can be more
exactly corrected to standard weight and density conditions as follows
3 1
η BSFC s ⎛ Ws ⎞ 2 ⎛ σ t ⎞ 2
W& f s = bs + (W& f t − bt ) t ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (Eq’n 12.39)
η s BSFC t ⎜⎝ Wt ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ σ s ⎟⎠
Note that this correction requires only a knowledge of the ratio of test and standard BSFC values. If both values
have the same percent error, then the effect is self-canceling. The above equation also corrects for changes in
fuel flow due to changing propeller efficiency.
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RPM = xxx
SEP =
(n Wt
zt )
3
2
W& ft
Max end.
2nz Wt
CL =
ρa (VT )2 S
t
The maximum endurance occurs at the peak of the SEP curve. The associated lift coefficient is the optimum
endurance condition for the aircraft (at that same RPM). The results of this test change with engine speed. If
the aircraft operates at this optimum CL or any other constant CL , then the total endurance time (t) while at con-
stant altitude can be calculated from this test day data using
1
⎛σ ⎞2 ⎡ 2 2 ⎤
t = SEP ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ ⎢ − ⎥ (Eq’n 12.40)
⎝σt ⎠ ⎣⎢ W F W I ⎦⎥
where the SEP comes from the above test day curve at whatever CL is chosen. WI is the total aircraft weight at
the start of the endurance segment and WF is the final weight of the endurance segment. This equation accounts
for the effect of how a change in air density alters the power required and the subsequent fuel flow, but does not
account for changes in propeller efficiency, BSFC, or the fuel flow intercept, b.For endurance at a constant CL
and VT, use the following equation and the SEP and test weight associated with the lift coefficient at the start of
the endurance segment.
SEP WI
t = ln (Eq’n 12.41)
Wt WF
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RPM = xxx
V Tt W t
RF =
W& ft Max Range
2nz Wt
CL =
ρa (VT )2 S
t
The maximum range occurs at the peak of the RF curve. The associated lift coefficient is the optimum range
condition for the aircraft (at that same RPM). The results of this test change with engine speed. If the
aircraft operates at this optimum CL or any other constant CL , then the range at constant altitude can be calculat-
ed from this test day data using
WI
R = RF ln (Eq’n 12.42)
WF
where the RF comes from the above test day curve at whatever CL is chosen. WI is the total aircraft weight at
the start of the range segment and WF is the final weight of the range segment. Although not explicitly shown in
this equation, the correction does account for changes in air density, but does not account for changes in propel-
ler efficiency, BSFC, or the fuel flow intercept, b.
For cruise at constant airspeed and altitude, use the following equation and the RF associated with the lift
coefficient at the start of the cruise segment.
⎡ WF ⎤
⎢1 − W ⎥
−1
R = RF • 2 tan ⎢ I
⎥ (Eq’n 12.43)
⎢1 + W F ⎥
⎢⎣ W I ⎥⎦
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Thrust Best
End.
Required
Best Range
VT
Because jet aircraft typically cruise at speeds where changes in Mach number affect the drag polar, it is custom-
ary to treat both the lift coefficient and Mach numbers as anchors (CL test = CL std , M test = Mstd). In terms of
Mach number, cruise (nz = 1) lift coefficient is calculated as
W
CL = δ (Eq’n 12.44)
1481M 2 S
From this relation, the only way to match test & standard values for both CL and M is to match test & standard
values for W/δ . In this case, the test day net thrust required curve can be corrected to standard conditions as fol-
lows
Ws θs
Fn s = Fn t V T s = V Tt (Eq’ns 12.45)
Wt θt
Although all points along the test day thrust curve can be standardized, the most useful points are those
for best range and endurance. When corrected to standard conditions, the performance of the test aircraft can be
fairly compared to that of another aircraft which has also been corrected to the same flight conditions. Addition-
ally, once the standard thrust and velocity are known and documented, the required power and airspeed for any
“mission” conditions can be predicted by reversing Equations 12.45.
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F
E
100 M D M
A B C N A B C N
θ θ
Thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC ) is defined as the fuel flow per thrust. At any given level of cor-
rected fuel flow, the above figures can be cross-plotted onto a single figure that relates corrected thrust (F/δ) to
corrected fuel flow at various Mach numbers.
.
F 200
δ F 150
w& f
E = 100
D δ θ
The slopes of the above figure exaggerate the typical case where TSFC changes with Mach number. If, at any
given Mach number, steady increments of corrected fuel flow are evenly spaced vertically, then
TSFC
≈ constant at that Mach number.
θ
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Standard fuel flow can be determined from these relations. If flight test data is to be corrected from test to
standard conditions at the same CL and M , then the CD will also be the same for both test &
standard conditions. Because thrust equals drag* during cruise, the
following relations show that corrected thrust (F/δ) must be the same for test and standard conditions
D F
CD = δ = δ
2
1481 M S 1481 M 2 S
• technically Fn cos(α+ιT)+Fe = D, where Fn = net thrust, Fe = ram thrust,
and ιT is the thrust incidence angle
If Mach number and F/δ are equal for both test & standard
conditions, then the previous cross plot shows that corrected fuel flow must also be the same for both conditions.
W& W&
=
ft fs
δ t θ t δ s θ s
δ θ
W& f s = W& f t s s if CL test = CL std , M test = Mstd (Eq’n 12.46)
δ t θt
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w& f
δ θ
W
δ
At any given W/δ , the maximum endurance occurs at the Mach corresponding to the bottom of the curve.
This optimal Mach and W/δ define the optimum lift coefficient for endurance (Eq‘n 12.44).
The corrected fuel flow for any desired Mach & W/δ combination can be interpolated from the above
figure. Calculate the actual fuel flow using Equation 12.46.
Even with simple turbojets, experience has shown that the above
curves do not generalize well if the desired standard altitudes
If the aircraft maintains flight at any combination of constant Mach & W/δ , then the corrected fuel flow
will be constant. For flight at a constant CL, endurance time can be calculated using
1 θ CL WI (Eq’n 12.47)
t= ln
θ c CD WF
where c is the thrust specific fuel consumption at sea level std conditions. WI is the total aircraft weight at the
start of the endurance segment and WF is the final weight of the endurance segment. Although not explicitly
shown in this equation, the correction process does account for changes in aircraft weight, and ambient pressure
& temperature.
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RF VTt M Wt
RF = SR t ⋅ W t = Wt = ao
&
W ft W& f t δt
δt θt
M (Eq’ns 12.48)
The optimum CL for range at any given W/δ occurs at the Mach corresponding to the top of the curve. The best
overall W/δ is the highest. These curves do not usually generalize well if the desired standard altitudes are more
than about 5,000 ft away from the test altitudes.
If the aircraft cruises at any combination of constant Mach & W/δ , then the range factor will be constant,
and range is calculated as
WI
R = RF ln (Eq’n 12.49)
WF
where RF comes from the above test day figure at whatever Mach & W/δ is chosen. It is often reasonable to
interpolate the above test data to define a RF for the desired standard conditions. WI and WF are the total aircraft
weights at the start and end of the range segment.
For cruise at constant altitude, fly at a constant CL by allowing the airspeed to decrease with weight. Cal-
culate range from test day results using
R = 2 Wt
VTt
W&
(W i − Wf ) (Eq’n 12.50)
ft
For this equation to be valid, use the VTt and fuel flow corresponding to the same CL and altitude of the desired
standard conditions. Both of the above correction equations account for changes in aircraft weight and
ambient temperature.
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12.9 References
12.1 Lawless, Alan R, “Fixed Wing Aircraft Performance Testing,” Volume III, Professional Textbook Series,
National Test Pilot School, Mojave CA, 1998.
12.2 anon, “Performance Flight Testing Phase” notes, USAF TPS , Edwards AFB, CA, 1991.
12.3 Lush, Kenneth J “Standardization of Take-Off Performance Measuresments for Airplanes,” AFFTC Tech-
nical Note R-12, USAF Air Research and Development Command, Edwards AFB, CA, circa 1955.
12.4 Roberts, S.C., Light Aircraft Performance for Test Pilots and Flight Test Engineers, NTPS publication
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Section 13 Acoustics
13.6 References
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Abbreviations
ANSI Acoustic National Science Institute
dB decibels
f frequency, cycles/sec
Hz Hertz
nm 10-9 meters
P sound power
p pressure
pW 10-12 Watts
x RMS value of quantity
xo reference value of quantity
μPa 10-6 Pascals
Terminology
decade band with the upper frequency x10 that of thelower.
decibels measure of a magnitude, dB = 10log10(mag).
far field beyond the near field (region where sound level drops -6 dB as distance from the source
doubles).
Hertz frequency in cycles/second.
narrow band band whose width is less than one-third octave but less than 1% of the center frequency near
field range within a distance equal to the wavelength of the lowest frequency emitted or twice
the greatest dimension of the subject.
octave a band with the upper freq exactly twice the lower freq. (common octaves include .0375-.075,
.075-.15, 15-.3, .6-1.2, 1.2-2.4, 2.4-4.8, 4.8-9.6 kHz).
pink noise has equal energy in each octave from 20 to 20,000 Hz, or with an energy content inversely
proportional to frequency.
random noise does not have a uniform frequency spectrum and has an amplitude, as a function of time, consis
tent with a Gaussian distribution curve.
third-octave highest frequency =1.26 x lower frequency (ratio= 21/3)
white noise has a constant spectrum level over the entire band of audible frequencies (need not be random).
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frequency (Hz)
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Transmission Environment Lp
Free Field LW + log Q - 20 log r - 10.8 dB
Reflecting Plane LW + log Q - 20 log r - 7.8 dB
Reverberant Room LW + log Q - 20l og R - 6.2 dB
Acoustic Intensity
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13.6 References
13.1 Beranek, Leo L., Acoustic Measurements, John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York, 1956.
13.2 Peterson, Arnold P.G. and Gross, Ervin E., Jr., Handbook of Noise Measurement, GenRag Incorporated,
Concord, Massachusetts, 1978.
13.3 Measuring Sound, (Pamphlet), Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum, Denmark, September 1984.
13.4 Pocket Handbook, Noise, Vibration, Light, Thermal Comfort, Bruel & Kjaer, Naerum, Denmark, 1986.
Additional Reading
Hunter, Joseph L., Acoustics, Prentice-Hall Incorporated, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1957.
Page 13 - 7
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NOTES
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14.2 Abbreviations
A Area m2
c Speed of Light 3.0E8 m/s
E Electric Field Intensity Volts/meter, V/m
f Frequency Hertz, Hz
H Magnetic Field Intensity Ampere/meter, A/m
I Current Ampere, A
L Inductance Henries
Q Charge Coulomb, C
V Electric Potential Volt, V
XC Capacitive Impedance Ohms
XL Inductive Impedance Ohms
λ Wavelength meter
14.3 Terms
AC Alternating Current
DC Direct Current
EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility
EMI Electromagnetic Interference
Far Field Distance beyond 10λ
HIRF High Intensity Radiated Fields
RF Radio Frequency
DecibelLogarithmic (base 10) expression for amplitude ratios.
dB(power) = 10 Log10 (P1/P2)
dB(voltage) = 20 Log10 (V1/V2)
dB(current) = 20 Log10 (I1/I2)
Commonly used decibels for EMC:
dBm decibels relative to 1 milliwatt
dBW decibels relative to 1 watt
dBμV decibels relative to 1 microvolt
dBi antenna gain relative to an isotropic antenna
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Power V or I
dB
Ratio Ratio
0 1 1
3 2.0 1.4
6 4 2
10 10 3.2
20 100 10
30 1000 32
Common Decibel Values
The sensitivity of a radio receiver can be on the order of 1 µV/m, while RF field strengths for HIRF can
be 1000V/m, a factor of a billion or 180dBµV/m.
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14.4 Fundamentals
+q
N S
Transferring charge Q, i.e. DC current on a wire creates both a constant magnitude Electric and
Magnetic field.
i wire
i wire
An amplitude varying charge, i.e. changing current (AC) will generate a time varying Electric and
Magnetic Field in different planes.
y y
z z
x x
Electric Field ‘E’ Magnetic Field ‘H’
Plane Waves that are self sustaining Electric and Magnetic Fields and combine in the far field, are
commonly called an Electromagnetic Wave.
y
E
H
x
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14.4.2 Antennas
Antennas can transmit and/or Receive RF equally well. Electrical length determines
effectiveness.
Frequency, f Wavelength, λ
3 MHz 100m
30 MHz 10 m
150 MHz 2m
300 MHz 1m
3 GHz 0.10 m
Common Wavelengths
Slots that have favorable electrical lengths are effective antenna elements also, i.e. hatches, doors,
avionics metal enclosure seams and ventilation holes.
Loop Area is the area encapsulated between the signal line and its return path that can be an effective
antenna. The larger the loop (capture) area, the better the antenna effectiveness is.
14.4.3 Spectra are the frequency content of the electronic signals and are an important consideration in
understanding EMI issues. Periodic signals contain energy at various frequencies and as such, a
frequency domain approach is needed. How much energy at what frequency depends largely on the type
of periodic signal, (i.e. square wave or sine wave), initial frequency and rise/fall times of the signal. The
faster the rise/fall times are, the more spectral content will be developed in the signal, most of which will
be unintentional and unwanted. This is mathematically demonstrated by the use of a trigonometric
Fourier series.
14.4.4 Non-Ideal behavior of components can exists in discrete components such as resistors,
capacitors, inductors and even wire when operated at off nominal conditions, for example temperature.
Another condition is frequency. For example, a short grounding wire from a DC perspective is a dead
short, neglecting the extremely small inductance. But at some frequency, this inductance gets large
enough to be a factor, for example on a bonding strap for lightning protection. A 26 gauge wire, 1 inch
above a ground plane will have 0.028 µH per inch of inductance (L).
Where: XL=2пfL
For f = 150 MHz; XL=26.4 Ohms per inch of wire which can be significant. To reduce this, replace the
ground wire with a wide strap.
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Sources of interference can be clocks, switching power supplies, CPUs, data buses, network systems,
relays, local oscillators, and transmitter harmonics.
Coupling Paths can be signal and power lines, radiating wires, apertures or slots on LRUs, windows,
door and hatch openings or antennas themselves.
Front Door coupling is meant to be interference coming in the normal path to the system, i.e. through
the antenna ports to the radio, and can cause interference at extremely low power levels (-100dBm).
Back Door coupling is interference coming into the system with the wires leading to the system and is
of relatively higher power.
Capacitive coupling primarily involves electric waves in the near field and is due to voltages on wires.
Inductive coupling primarily involves magnetic waves in the near field and is due to current on either
wires or chassis.
The aircraft fuselage is sometimes incorrectly thought of as a Faraday Cage encapsulating the RF energy
inside or preventing it from entering because of its aluminum structure, but actually it is not. All of the
windows, doors and hatches allow RF energy to travel through quite easily.
Victims of interference can be radio receivers, VHF, HF, VOR, ILS, ADF, Display systems, Audio and
Passenger Address system, smoke and fire detection circuits, fuel quantity systems. Typically, low
energy systems can be susceptible.
The reduction or elimination of EMI can be done in three areas; the systems end; by modifying the
emissions and/or susceptibility requirements; or at the aircraft end by modifying the aircrafts wiring or
structure.
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Differential Mode current is made up of the intended signal or information and/or noise that goes out
on the signal wires and comes back on the return lines.
Common Mode current is usually just noise that goes out on two or more signal/return lines and returns
via some other path. This is usually the most troublesome in terms of emissions and should be
eliminated whenever possible.
Band Frequency
ADF 190–1750 kHz
HF 2–30 MHz
Marker Beacon 75 MHz
VHF Nav 108-118 MHz
VHF Comm 118–138 MHz
Glideslope 328-335 MHz
DME, ATC, TCAS 960-1220 MHz
GPS 1227, 1558, 1575
MHz
Glonass 1609 MHz
Radio Altitude 4.2-4.4 GHz
MLS 5.0-5.25 GHz
WXR 5.4, 8.8, 9.0-9.3
GHz
Aviation Frequencies of Interest
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14.6 Testing
Radiated emissions are tested by using the aircrafts antennas hooked to test equipment to
determine how much RF energy is getting into these sensitive systems. Again, a list of frequencies that
exceed an established limit is the result.
Software changes typically don’t affect EMI unless software controls/switches hardware related
functions, i.e. speeds, options, peripherals etc.
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14.7 Lightning
Lightning is a very large electrical transient that can impart thousands of Amperes of current
through an aircraft structure. The structure needs to present a low impedance path for the lightning
current so that no damage causing arcing and/or over-heating occurs. Additionally nearby wiring needs
to be shielded to protect against the induced current produced by the ever changing magnetic fields.
The systems themselves are designed and tested to be immune to a particular level of RF. These
levels are determined by the criticality of the systems and are specified in regulatory material. Testing is
usually done in a laboratory environment.
From the aircraft side, the internal wiring for critical systems is protected with appropriate
shielding and grounding. Aircraft ground testing is done at special facilities that can radiate the vehicle
with large RF fields with instrumentation inside to measure the penetration and to verify correct system
operation.
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Typical causes are access panels (composite and metal), cowling and fairings that are not properly
grounded. Ground straps do a good job of not isolating parts. (Note: these straps should not be used for
lightning protection as they usually are not sized to handle the current).
10.1) Paul, C. R., “Introduction to Electromagnetic Compatibility”, John Wiley & Sons Publishing,
1992
10.2) Ott, H. W, “Noise Reduction Techniques in Electronic Systems”, John Wiley & Sons Publishing,
1988
10.3) Hrehov, D. W. and Walen, D. B., “What Flight Test Crews Need to Know About EMI/EMC”,
34th Annual SFTE Symposium Workshop, 2003
10.4) Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 25
10.5) RTCA DO160D, “Environmental Conditions and Test Procedures for Airborne Equipment”,
1997
10.6) Hrehov, D. W., “What Instrumentation Engineers Need to Know About Lightning”, 31st Annual
SFTE Symposium, 2000
10.7) Fisher, F. A., Perala, F. A., and Plumer, J A., “Lightning Protection for Aircraft”, Lightning
Technologies Inc., 1990
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15 Handling Qualities
Figure 15.1-2 Undesirable step input responses and pilot compensation to achieve
desired response
a) Lag compensation, b) lead-lag compensation.
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Figure 15.1-3 Optimum Short Period Frequency and Damping Based on Pilot Opinion
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2) Define mission tasks. Tasks should be repeatable, require sufficient control input frequency to stress the sys-
tem, and they should be of adequate duration to differentiate transient from steady state responses.
3) Establish desirable and acceptable criteria for task performance. Criteria established should be quantifiable,
recordable, and realistic. Desirable criteria specify a satisfactory level of performance. Acceptable criteria speci-
fy the level of performance that is marginally adequate.
5) Record task performance relative to the criteria established (comments, video, audio, pipper movement, etc.)
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Figure 15.1-5 Cooper Harper Workload and Handling Qualities Rating Scale
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NOTES
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16.3 References:
Padfield, G.D., (2007), Helicopter Flight Dynamics, 2nd Edition, Blackwell Publishing, UK.
Cooke, A., Fitzpatrick, E., (2002), Helicopter Test and Evaluation, Wiley Blackwell, UK.
Leishman, J.G., (2006), Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, UK.
Page 16- 5
SFTE Reference Handbook 2017 Addendum to Third Edition
16.4 Helicopter Performance Parameters
Compiled by Mark Roots
Helicopter Performance
Turbine engine helicopter performance can be expressed as non-dimensional parameters known as referred or
reduced parameters [1][2]. This allows correcting test measurements to conditions other than those tested. The
power to maintain a flight condition can be expressed in the general form
=
,
,
, Ω, R, Z, , (1)
Including ambient temperature above allows investigating Rotor Tip Mach Number (RTMN) effects if
required. Non-dimensionalizing the above leads to
= , , , ,
√
(2)
√
To investigate RTMN effects, testers must adjust rotor speed to maintain constant .
Fuel flow is required for range & engine performance testing and power. Fuel flow (G) replaces P from
equation (2)
!
= " , , , ,
√
(2a)
General equations (2) and (3) can adapt to the specific performance test (i.e. hover, level flight, engine).
Hover performance
During hover, equation (2) simplifies to
= # , ,
√
(4)
If rotor speed is fixed, then RTMN cannot be accounted for and the term can be dropped, further reducing
√
equation (4) to
= $ , (4a)
Alternatively from equation 3:
√
= % , ,
√
(5)
√
Any rotor speed effect shows as increased power at the same referred weight for increasing .
In the USA different notation (and units) may be used and for the hover the groups may be presented in the
form
× '
= . / , , 0
√
* *
(6)
() - )- () - )-
+, +,
Or more succinctly,
1 = . 12 , ,
√
(7)
Alternative referred groupings can be used, but consult the literature to determine the most appropriate [3][5].
Practical guidance on the use of referred groups for flight test is readily available [5]. Figure 1 illustrates a plot
of equation 4a across various heights and referred weight combinations.
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SFTE Reference Handbook 2017 Addendum to Third Edition
= , ,
√ √
(9)
Equation (8) has the rotor speed in both the weight () and rotor speed ( ) parameters, thus it is not
√
possible to make independent adjustments by changing altitude and rotor speed. Figure 2 presents typical
results using this method.
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SFTE Reference Handbook 2017 Addendum to Third Edition
Equation (9) is only used when the rotor speed can be varied which allows for a systematic assessment of
RTMN. At each test point the referred weight is kept constant by increasing altitude after each test point and
√
the rotor speed is varied to keep constant. With sufficient data this method lends itself to the production of
a power carpet for each RTMN, ( ).as shown in Figure 3.
√
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SFTE Reference Handbook 2017 Addendum to Third Edition
45-
Specific Range: 5
= !
For fixed values of W, Hp and T the variation of these parameters with airspeed can be plotted as shown in
Figure 4. This figure shows how the speeds for maximum range and maximum endurance are determined.
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SFTE Reference Handbook 2017 Addendum to Third Edition
Figure 4; Specific range and specific endurance for constant weight altitude and temperature.
Engine Performance
Engine power depends on compressor speed, engine configuration (∆ - guide inlet position, bleed air, etc),
rotor speed (e.g. power turbine speed), and atmospheric conditions.
= ' 78, 9 , Δ, Ω, ;, ) (10)
Referred power is
<
= , , Δ
√ √ √
(11)
Referred fuel flow follows as
! <
√
= , , Δ
√ √
(12)
Referred engine temperature such as power turbine inlet temperature (PTIT) or jet pipe temperature (T4) is
2=>? <
= , , Δ
√ √
(13)
<
Figures 5 illustrate how test data can be presented as plots of referred engine speed versus referred
√
2=>? !
power √, referred engine temperature , and referred fuel flow .
√
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SFTE Reference Handbook 2017 Addendum to Third Edition
Referred Engine Speed, (Nc ) Referred Engine Speed, (Nc ) Referred Engine Speed, (Nc )
Careful test planning may collect data across much of the flight envelope with a relatively small test program.
An understanding of aircraft limits allows testing to those limits. Evidence with advanced aerofoil sections
shows that a greater element of “non linearity” may be seen if results are extrapolated too far. A sensible guide
may be ±5000ft or ±20 °C unless there is solid evidence to support further extrapolation. Further guidance on
helicopter performance testing and planning is readily available [1][5][6].
References:
1. P A Knowles – The application of non dimensional methods to the planning of helicopter performance
flight test and the analysis of results, Ministry of Technology, UK, Jan 1966.
2. ESDU 73026 –Introduction to non dimensional methods for the measurement of performance of
turbine engined helicopters, Engineering Science and Data Unit, March 1977
3. ESDU 73027 – Non dimensional methods for the measurement of hover performance of turbine
engined helicopters, Engineering Science and Data Unit, March 1977
4. ESDU 74042 – Non-dimensional methods for the measurement of level flight performance of turbine
engine helicopters, Engineering Science and Data Unit, November 1974
5. A Cooke and E Fitzpatrick, “Helicopter Test and Evaluation“, Blackwell Science, 2002
6. Mark Roots & Richard Blake, “Level Flight Performance – an Engineers Guide”, AHS Forum 58,
June 2002
Acknowledgement
This summary would not have been possible without the generosity of Gerhard Jordaan, Antoine Van
Gent, & Carl Ockier and Al Lawless for proof reading and offering their many suggestions to improve the
content.
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Three basic types of aircraft turbine include turbojets, turbofans, and Turboshafts.
Turbojet Turboprop
The primary advantage of turbojets is their efficiency at high speed/altitude and small diameter.
Turbojets are less efficient at low speed and are currently only used in older aircraft (B-52, T-38, Boeing
707).
A turbofan engine is essentially a turbojet to which a second compression system has been added.
Turbofans are further divided into low bypass and high bypass engines, where bypass describes the
amount of air used by the fan that bypasses the compressor. In low bypass (0-1 bypass ratio) engines, most
of the thrust comes from the nozzle. In high bypass (1-11+ bypass ratio) engines, most the thrust comes
from the fan. Turbofans are the most popular engine for new medium and large aircraft due to the range of
bypass ratios available, allowing optimization for most flight regimes. Turbofan advantages include: high
thrust and low fuel consumption at low airspeed (subsonic), lower engine noise compared to turbojets, and
generally lower operating temperatures allowing the use of lower cost materials. Turbofan disadvantages
include large engine diameters that can increase aircraft drag and cause ground clearance issues and
slower engine response compared to turbojets.
Turboprops generate the majority of their thrust by driving an external propeller. They generally
operate at slightly higher altitudes and faster airspeeds than conventional piston driven aircraft, but
performance at higher mach numbers is limited due to compressibility effects at the propeller tip. The
primary advantages of turboprops compared to reciprocating engines are fuel consumption improvements
and increased reliability.
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Aircraft turbine engines generally operate on the Brayton thermodynamic cycle. A simplistic
explanation is provided using pressure-volume (P-V) and temperature-entropy (T-S) diagrams.
In the real case (solid/dashed line), the inlet and compressor induce increased entropy (friction losses),
the combustor has pressure losses, the turbine and exhaust nozzle do not perfectly expand the air to free
stream pressure, and the exhaust jet is still at a higher velocity and temperature than the inlet. All of these
factors decrease the efficiency of real turbines.
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Inlet (Station 0 to 2)
Inlets usually provide laminar, subsonic flow with minimal total pressure loss across a variety of
Mach numbers and angles of attack. Subsonic inlets are typically simple with fixed geometry and
supersonic inlets range from simple to complex using variable bleeds and bypasses depending on the
operating conditions.
0 2
Complex Supersonic Inlet Simple Subsonic Turbofan Inlet
The high pressure compressor provides airflow to the combustor and turbines. It can have many
stages, each stage consisting of a rotor and a stator. The rotors impart kinetic energy into the airflow,
while the stators convert the kinetic energy to a pressure rise. For improved operation, stators can also
have variable geometry. Overall compression ratios can be 10 to 40 times ambient and the temperature
rise more than 600 deg F. Bleed air from later compression stages can also be extracted to cool the turbine
blades and provide airflow for auxiliary power or ice protection. Shaft power is also extracted through an
engine mounted gearbox attached to the high pressure spool to power electrical and hydraulic systems.
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Combustor (Station 3 to 4)
Fuel is injected, ignited, and burned in the combustor. Modern combustors are annular, while older
designs consisted of multiple cans surrounding the shaft. Combustors slow the airflow entering the
chamber to allow fuel-air mixture and prevent combustion outside the chamber. If air velocities are too
great in the combustor, combustion stability is affected.
Igniter
3 Dilution
Diffuser Primary
Burn 4
Liner
Compressor Exit
Swirler
Dome
Turbine (Station 4)
Turbines extract energy from the combustor exhaust to
drive the compressors. Extreme blade and vane temperatures drive
special materials and/or active cooling requirements. State-of-the-
art turbines may include single crystal nickel based alloys with
thermal barrier coatings, internal cooling passages, and external
film air cooling.
The high pressure turbine powers the high pressure
compressor, and the low pressure turbine powers the low pressure
compressor.
Augmentor (Station 6)
Afterburning burns fuel between the turbine and the exhaust nozzle to reheat the airflow. This
reheat increases flow velocity and thus thrust, but because the temperature increase is not recovered as in
the turbine, afterburners are very inefficient. While an increase in thrust can be obtained from a larger
engine, the commensurate increase in weight and drag is not economical for short period requirements
(e.g. aircraft takeoff).
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Accessories
Turbine engines require a variety of accessories to support engine and aircraft functions. Engine
control can be managed by hydro-mechanical, analog, digital, or a combination of the control types.
Modern engines use a full authority digital engine control (FADEC) to schedule engine operation
throughout its operating range. Engine or aircraft sensors (e.g. Tt2) provide operating conditions to the
engine controller. An anti-ice valve can supply bleed air to the engine face struts to prevent ice build-up.
A gearbox also extracts power from the high pressure compressor shaft to run electrical generators and
aircraft hydraulic systems.
Typically, a propulsion system’s operation is segregated into the five sub-categories or disciplines.
1. Overall: Integrated System Utility (Does it meet the users’ needs?). Topics include adequate
engine bay ventilation, anti-ice, gun or gas ingestion, and inlet compatibility.
2. Performance: The ability to produce thrust at a prescribed level with a specified fuel flow. Usually
prescribed over the life of the engine and is modeled with a propulsion system simulation. If an
inlet rake is used for testing, we can calculate inlet recovery, which is an integral part of
engine/aircraft performance.
3. Operability: The ability to resist or recover from an engine instability. These instabilities primarily
refer to compressor stall or surge, which are aggravated by inlet temperature and pressure
distortions. However, operability can include several other aspects, such as flameout, overspeed,
overtemp, engine starting, and afterburner lighting and stability.
4. Response: The ability to change thrust conditions within a prescribed time in response to a
commanded change.
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5. Life/Durability: The ability to withstand extended operating conditions (pressure, temperature, and
rpm) over a prescribed lifetime (usually described in terms of engine operating hours or Total
Accumulated Cycles) at a specified level of performance and operability.
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Due to varying atmospheric conditions, engine tests are rarely conducted at the same flight
conditions. Therefore, to compare tests results, data must be standardized to a common flight condition.
By applying standard day corrections, the effects of changes in temperature and pressure can be removed
from test results.
Quantity Normal Corrected
Air mass flow rate
Fuel flow rate
2 2
Rotational speed
Thrust
0
θi=total temperature ratio ( ) and δi=total pressure ratio (
)
[Values can also be found in the standard atmosphere table, Section 3-14. Reference is sea-level, standard
day. These values are also corrected for Mach number in Figure x-11.]
Two of the main inputs to a propulsion system are engine face pressure and temperature (Pt2 and
Tt2 respectively), yet the flight envelope is defined in altitude, airspeed, and Mach number. Consequently,
it is helpful to be able to translate from one to the other. Unfortunately, because many engine inlets are
variable, and therefore introduce varying pressure and temperature losses, the handbook assumes Pt2=Pt0
and Tt2= Tt0. The following chart is useful when describing the engine operating conditions relative to
flight conditions.
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
45,000
600 KCAS
40,000 0.30
35,000 0.40
700 KCAS
0.60
Altitude (ft)
25,000
0.70
0.80
20,000 0.90
1.00
15,000
1.10
1.20
10,000
5,000
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5
Mach Number
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 20 13
Various formulae exist to calculate gross engine thrust (Fg). However, modern engines are too
complex for standard textbook formulas to accurately predict thrust; this is normally left to complex
computer algorithms. The current standard for new models is the Numerical Propulsion System
Simulation (NPSS). Despite this, a control volume approach relying on conservation of momentum will
provide gross engine thrust if the required parameters are known.
(ri29 + mfuel)v9 - ~ O V O
Thrust = + (P9 - P0)A9
9c
Where subscript 9 represents the nozzle exit and subscript 0 represents the freestream conditions.
m, V, and, P represent mass flow rate, velocity, and static pressure respectively.
Atmospheric temperature, Mach, and altitude also sigmficantly affect engine thrust and efficiency.
I n . . . . . . . . . . .
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Compressor maps allow engine operation evaluation, showing corrected engine airflow (fan or
core) versus pressure ratio. It is critical to know where an engine is operating within the compressor map
in order to avoid stalls and flameouts. The following sections review compressor operation during several
maneuvers and geometry changes.
Pressure
Ratio Transient Operating
Line
Surge margin
remaining Mil/Max
Constant
Corrected
RPM, N/√θ Steady-State Op-Line
•Raised by power extraction
Idle • Lowered by airbleed
Airflow (pps) * √θ/+
Above is a typical engine acceleration compressor map. As the engine accelerates from idle to
maximum power, the engine follows the transient operating line scheduled by the engine controller. This
usually includes surge prevention logic (e.g. pressure ratio limits as a function of airflow). Engine surge
susceptibility is generally determined by either component bench tests or from altitude development tests
of the full scale engine. Once the surge region is determined for the baseline engine, it can be further
reduced by inlet distortion, power extraction, manufacturing tolerances, deterioration, or thermal
transients, which affect compressor tip clearances. These affects are considered when determining the
transient acceleration schedule needed to provide sufficient surge margin in the most demanding
situations.
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Steady-State
Operating Line
Mil/Max
Pressure
Ratio
Blowout prevention:
Idle
Deceleration
• Fuel to air ratio minimum
Transient • Engine Deceleration Rate
Operating
Line
Blowout Region
Above is a typical engine deceleration compressor map. As the engine decelerates to idle power,
the engine follows the transient operating line. To protect from combustor blowout during the
deceleration, transient operation schedules usually include blowout prevention logic that schedules a
minimum fuel to air ratio within the combustor as a function of engine airflow. This blowout region is
usually determined by combustor bench tests or from altitude development tests of the full scale engine.
Once the blowout region is determined, the engine schedules are set to include margin to account for
engine-to-engine variability.
Open
Start
Bleed
Position Closed
Additional
Stall Margin
Blowout Region
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β1 α1
W1
α1
C Cambered throat area C1
Ca1
1
Vane Axial Cw1
Stator • • • rω
Vane Cambered
Rotor
Cambering stator vanes
• Reduces airflow passage area
• Reduces airflow and increases surge margin
• Reduces relative velocities (W2 vs. W2’ )
• Decreases incidence to rotor blades (i2 vs. i2’ )
`
Above are typical engine compressor stator and rotor velocity diagrams. Stator vanes control
engine surge margin and thrust; as they are cambered closed, the throat area between the vanes is reduced,
thereby decreasing airflow. Cambering the vanes also decreases the incidence angle of the rotor blade.
These lower airflows and reduced incidence angles increase engine surge margin.
Stators
Cambered
Pressure
Ratio Stators Mil/Max
Axial
Additional
Stall Margin
√θ
N√
Idle
Above is a compressor map illustrating how variable geometry and stator vane cambering can be
used to affect engine operation and performance. The solid lines show how the compressor would operate
if the stator vanes remained fixed in the axial position. The dashed lines show how the compressor would
operate if the stator vanes remained fixed in the cambered closed position. When the stator vanes are
cambered closed, additional surge margin is provided, and when the stator vanes are axial, additional
airflow capability (or thrust) is provided. As a result, engines typically camber closed stators at low
airflow to increase surge margin and acceleration capability, then camber the vanes axial open to
maximize performance at higher engine rpms.
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√θ
N√
Above is a compressor map illustrating impacts to stability margin from opening and closing the
engine exhaust nozzle for a single-spool engine (e.g. J85 engine in T-38 aircraft). In this example, it is
shown that stall margin is insufficient at lower airflows with the smaller nozzle area. Opening the nozzle
for this single spool configuration moves the engine away from surge. As a result, a typical engine might
run nozzle open at idle power to reduce thrust and keep the nozzle open until engine stability was no
longer a concern.
Above is a compressor map illustrating stability margin impacts from opening and closing the
engine exhaust nozzle for a turbofan engine (e.g. F100 engine in F-16 aircraft). Closing the nozzle moves
the fan away from surge, which is opposite from the turbojet application. The high pressure compressor
(HPC) is not impacted by the nozzle opening or closing (assuming the low pressure turbine [LPT] is
choked). The fan and compressor’s independent reactions to nozzle movement allow the ability to set
airflow and thrust independently. This is an important feature for flutter vibration or stability issues at
particular rpm ranges.
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Above is a combustion stability plot showing engine airflow versus fuel-to-air-ratio. These plots
are generally developed during component bench testing and are then used by engine designers to
schedule combustor or augmentor fuel flow. The plot shows regions of stable and unstable combustion.
Also, the engine operates closer to a blowout region at low air mass flow (high altitude and low Mach
number [ULHC]). Combustion instabilities can have various effects on engine operation, including
blowout, running rough, and vibrations that can reduce part life.
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Engine station designations provide a consistent definition of the process the gas undergoes, regardless of
the type of engine cycle
The six main processes specifically isolated are:
a. kinetic compression (inlet/diffuser)
b. mechanical compression/work addition/fluidic compression (compressor/propeller)
c. heat addition or exchange (combustor/augmentor/heat exchanger)
d. mechanical expansion/work extraction (turbine)
e. kinetic expansion (nozzle)
f. mixing (mixer/ejector/eductor).
Notes:
1. Incremental (or sub) stations may be indicated with suffix nomenclature (e.g. 2.5 to indicate fan
discharge on a dual spool compression system).
2. There are a multitude of variations on this theme. SAE ARP-755 includes descriptions for most
turbine engine configurations.
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Aerodynamic Interface Plane - A defined plane of intersection between the inlet and the engine.
Afterburner - Any type of auxiliary (post turbomachine) combustion to enhance propulsion system thrust.
Also known as the augmentor or reheat.
Compressor Loading -The general ratio of work across the compressor stages. Forward compressor
loading indicates the forward stages are more loaded (higher pressure ratio) than the aft stages.
Compressor Map - A compressor’s total pressure ratio defined by corrected airflow and corrected
rotation speed.
Corrected - An adjustment for standard day temperature and/or pressure (at an engine station) to an
engine parameter (like rotational speed, air flow or fuel flow). Also see referred.
Delta - Pressure ratio,
,
, where i is the reference station.
Flame-out - Can be synonymous with blow-out; however, it is more typically used in reference to the
main combustor flame extinguishing.
Gross Thrust - The momentum change at the nozzle exit or aft side of the propeller. The first term in the
thrust equation.
Horsepower Extraction - Any form of removal of power (bleed or mechanical) from a turbomachine
other than for the generation of thrust.
Inlet Compatibility - A type of test used to determine if the combined effects of inlet distortion and
engine stability are compatible (e.g.; no stalls occur).
Inlet Distortion - The measurement of variation in pressure, temperature, or vector at the aerodynamic
interface plane.
Inlet Recovery - The average total pressure at the Aerodynamic Interface Plane divided by the free stream
total pressure.
Instability - Can be used in many contexts. The two main contexts are in combustion stability and
compressor stability. The former refers to a flame’s (either combustor or augmentor) ability to stay lit and
the later to compression system flow disturbance.
Operability - The sub-discipline of propulsion related to a turbine engine’s characteristic operational
limits. This includes but is not limited to the regions of the flight envelope where stalls or flame-outs may
occur, where augmentation is limited, or where airstarts can be accomplished.
Recycle - A full no-light or blowout and relight sequence where the engine control continues to try to light
the combustor or augmentor. Most typically refers to the augmentor.
Referred - An adjustment for standard day temperature and/or pressure (at an engine station) to an engine
parameter (like rotational speed, air flow or fuel flow). See also corrected.
Reynolds Number Index - Ratio of actual Reynolds Number to standard atmosphere Reynolds Numbers
assuming a constant length scale.
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Rotating Stall - A cyclic disruption of airflow (surge) across one or more fan or core compressor blades.
May or may not be noticeable by the operator, but can produce cycle fatigue damage to the compressor
blades.
Rumble - A low frequency augmentor induced vibration.
Screech - A combustion induced acoustic vibration in the augmentor. Usually in the several hundred
Hertz frequency range
Stagnation - A series of stalls that have become non-recoverable (no response to engine control inputs—
requires the disruption of fuel flow to clear). The series of stalls has disrupted the airflow through the
compressor so severely that ram flow will not recover the engine. Characterized by no engine core
response and increasing exhaust gas temperature.
Stall - A disruption of airflow across one or more fan or core compressor blades. Also known as surge.
Stage - A blade (or rotor) and stator pair.
Station - Defined locations within a propulsion system. See Section 20.2.1
Stator - The non-rotating blades of a stage within a turbomachine compressor or turbine.
Swirl - Non-axial vector of inlet airflow.
Temperature Profile - Usually used in reference to the span wise temperature distribution across the
turbine inlet guide vanes.
Theta -Temperature ratio, ,
, where i is the reference station
Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption - The amount of fuel required to produce a unit of thrust,
Wf
TFSC =
Fn
Total Accumulated Cycles - A conglomerate measurement (based on an empirical relationship) of the
number of cycles an engine has experienced. It is used as a measure of engine health or life.
Upper Left Hand Corner - An area of the flight envelope chart (Mach Number on the x-axis and altitude
on the y-axis) characterized by areas of low speed and high altitude.
Windmill - The free rotation of the rotational components of the engine driven solely by ram airflow.
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Military Aircraft
Designation Name Engine
A-10 Thunderbolt II TF34-GE-100/-100A
AC-130 Gunship T56-A-15
AH-1 Cobra T400-CP-400, T53-L-703
AH-64 Apache T700-GE-701C
AV-8 Harrier F402-RR-401/402, F402-RR-406A/408
B-1 Lancer F101-GE-102
B-2 Spirit F118-GE-100
B-52 Stratofortress J57-PW-43WB, TF33-PW-3/103
C-12 Huron T74
C-130 Hercules T56-A-15/7/7B/9D, RR-AE2100D3
C-135 Stratolifter J57-PW-59W, TF33-PW-5
C-141 Starlifter TF33-PW-7/7A
C-17 Globemaster III F117-PW-100
C-20 Gulfstream III F113-RR-100, F126-RR-100
C-23 Sherpa T101-CP-100
C-37 Gulfstream V RR-BR710A1
C-5 Galaxy TF39-GE-1A/1C, F138-GE-100
CH-3 Jolly Green Giant T58-GE-1/3/100
CH-47 Chinook T55-L-5/7/11/712/714
CH-53 Sea Stallion T64-GE-412
CV-22 Osprey T406-AD-400
E-3 Sentry TF33-PW-100A
E-8 Joint Stars TF33-PW-102C
F-14 Tomcat TF30-PW-412A, F110-GE-400
F-15 Eagle F100-PW-100/220/220E/229/229A
F-16 Fighting Falcon F100-PW-200/220/220E/229/229A, F110-GE-100/129/132
F-18 Hornet F404-GE-400, F414-GE-400
F-22 Raptor F119-PW-100
F-35 Lightning II F135-PW-100, F136-GE-100
F-4 Phantom II J79-GE-2/8/10/15/17, F103-GE-100
F-5 Tiger/Freedom Fighter J85-GE-13/21, F404-GE-400
KC-10 Extender F103-GE-101
KC-135 Stratotanker J57-PW-43WB/-59W, TF33-PW-102, F108-CF-100
MQ-9 Reaper Honeywell TPE331-10
MQM-107 Streaker J402-CA-700/702
MQM-74 Chukar J400-WR-400/401
RQ-3 DarkStar F129-WR-100
RQ-4 Global Hawk F137-AD-100
SR-71 Blackbird J58-PW-4
T-1 Jayhawk PW-JT15D
T-2 Buckeye J85-GE-4
T-33 Shooting Star J33-A-5
T-37 Tweet J69-T-25A
T-38 Talon J85-GE-5/H/J/L/R/S
T-6 Texan II PW-PT6A-68
U-2 Dragon Lady F118-GE-101
X-31 F404-GE-400
X-47 Pegasus JT15D-5C
Civilian Aircraft
Boeing 737 PW-JT8D, CFM-56
Boeing 747 PW-JT9D, GE-CF6, RR-RB211, GEnx
Boeing 757 RR-RB211, PW-2000
Boeing 767 PW-JT9D, PW-4000, GE-CF6, RR-RB211, RR-800
Boeing 777 GE-90, PW-4000
Boeing 787 GEnx, RR-1000
Airbus A300 GE-CF6, PW-JT9D, PW-4000
Airbus A310 GE-CF6, PW-JT9D, PW-4000
Airbus A320 CFM-56, PW-6000, IAE-V2500
Airbus A330 GE-CF6, PW-4000, RR-700
Airbus A340 CFM-56, RR-500
Airbus A380 RR-900, GP-7000
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NASA EngineSim
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/ngnsim.html
AeroFiles
http://www.aerofiles.com/home.html
NASA Smithsonian
http://www.nasm.si.edu/
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SFTE Reference Handbook Third Edition 2013
In accordance with experienced FTE feedback from across industry, below are suggested best practices
for communications between flight and ground crews. This guideline uses the following terminology
• “Ground station” is a generic term for any station providing radio support, whether it is a
simple radio, fixed‐base TM control room, mobile TM station, or other.
• “R/O” is a generic term for the ground station radio operator. Different organizations may use
different job titles for the person commanding the ground station (i.e., TM Chief, Test Director,
Test Conductor). The radio call sign for this role is typically “TM” or “Control”
• “Flight crew” to refer to whichever test aircraft crew member (pilot‐in‐command, copilot, or
other) is designated to communicate with the test ground station.
Overall Guidance
Unless otherwise established during the preflight briefing, radio operations between the test aircraft
and ground station should use some standard phraseology established by the testing organization. The
following are presented as radio transmission terminology between designated participants. The same
phrases equally apply to communications within the telemetry (TM) room during a test. This
phraseology is not necessarily applied to any communication with air traffic control (ATC).
“Stand by” ‐ Instruction issued by any participant to direct others to stay on established flight
conditions and remain prepared for continuing, but to not execute the next action. Used when
everything is OK, but the caller requires more time for some reason (e.g. ATC conversations, data
analysis, airspace maneuvering).
“Cleared for ___” ‐ Transmitted by the R/O to authorize proceeding to the specified condition,
typically the next planned test point, but sometimes a out‐of‐sequence test point, airspeed, or flight
condition. The flight crew will typically “parrot back” the same phrase to acknowledge clearance.
When in doubt, the flight crew requests “Confirm clear for ___.” Routine operations generally do not
require clearance; these transmissions are typically used only when the flight crew requires clearance
for saefty of flight (SOF) or technical reasons – as established during the preflight briefing.
“On Condition” – Normally transmitted by test pilot to announce the aircraft is properly trimmed or
otherwise set up to beginf the test.
“Hold” – Instruction by R/O to maintain current flight condition to either extend data collection period
or emphasize critical parameter (e.g “Hold condition” or “Hold altitude”).
"3,2,1, HACK" – countdown to event.
Silent countdown “ Five, four, three ___ ___” ‐ an intentional silence at the end of a countdown to
allow other participants a chance to call for an abort. Most common with ordinance employment.
"Condition Complete" or “Test Complete” – Call from test conductor or pilot to announce a normal
completion.
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"Continue" – transmitted by R/O when there is a series of steps in the maneuver and flight crew is
cleared to continue to the next one.
"Recover" called by either participant at test point completion or non‐urgent cessation of a test point.
Instructs the flight crew to smoothly return to a normal flying condition.
“Copy” – Routine shorthand reply meaning “I understood your previous transmission.” This single
statement is generally preferred. This can be replaced by a non‐verbal radio double‐click (zipper) to
acknowledge simple statements. Some organizations may also aknowledge a transmission using
“Roger.” Flight testers do not use CB radio slang such as “10‐4”
“Stop Test” or “Knock it Off”‐ Instruction transmitted by flight crew or R/O to stop test underway using
normal means. There is no implied requirement to change flight conditions. Used when testing does
not present SOF concerns but continuing will not provide useful data. The R/O would typically make
this call if witnessing incorrect execution or experiencing critical data dropouts or other technical
difficulties. The R/O would also make this call on behalf of a participating engineer who does not have
radio access. The flight crew would make this call if testing is invalidated by ATC or weather
interference or in the case of an improperly executed procedure. The caller should state the reason for
stopping the test (e.g. reaching __ limit).
“ABORT, ABORT, ABORT” ‐ Emergency instruction transmitted by flight crew, chase aircraft, or R/O to
stop test immediately and recover to safe flight conditions as soon as possible. Used when continued
testing presents SOF concerns. The R/O may make this call if witnessing a dangerous situation or if
unable to confirm SOF because of critical data dropouts or other technical difficulties. The flight crew
would make this call to advise the R/O of actions they are taking. In certain cases pre‐arranged at the
prebriefing, a ground station participant other than the R/O may be authorized and physically
positioned to make radio abort calls. The caller should state the reason for stopping the test (e.g.
reaching __ limit).
“BAIL OUT, BAIL OUT, BAIL OUT” ‐ Emergency instruction to or between the flight crew to leave the
aircraft. Nominally used when out‐of‐control aircraft descends through a pre‐set minimum or other
briefed altitude. In circumstance leading up to any potential bail out call, the R/O will transmit “__
altitude” callouts every thousand feet during attempted recovery of an out‐of‐control aircraft.
“Terminate” is the instruction to destroy or otherwise incapacitate a flight vehicle. Applies to vehicles
with a flight termination system designed to quickly end its flight and limit possible damage to the
surroundings.
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Call sign designation. Depending on prior agreements, ATC may communicate to an aircraft by
referencing its registration (a.k.a. tail) number or by an accepted call sign such as “Zoom 86.” Call signs
potentially have the advantage of being easier to say & understand and bringing familiarity between
operators. The R/O may use this same call sign if so arranged prior to the flight, but will otherwise
refer to the test aircraft as “Test” and a chase aircraft as “Chase.” The call sign for the ground station is
“Ground” and is “[Company] Weather” for the mobile ground weather station. The call sign for any
other mobile radio‐equipped ground crew is “[Company] Mobile” unless otherwise specified during
the pre‐flight briefing. The dispatcher’s radio station, is “[Company] Dispatch.” Security personnel
employed who control the gate at the taxiway and are called “[Company] Security.”
Call sign use. When initiating radio communications at the beginning of a flight or after a period of
silence, the caller will first state the receiver’s call sign then his own (e.g. R/O transmits “Test –
Ground”). This is an abbreviated version of the formal “Calling Zoom 86, this is Ground, Over” which is
not useful unless radio transmission quality is poor. After two‐way communication has been initiated,
each transmission need only to begin with the recipient’s call sign.
Thumbs Up. A convenient non‐verbal communication between control room participants is the
“thumbs‐up” hand signal. During active testing, this signal is preferred for routinely acknowledging a
message or for indicating readiness. Not only does this signal eliminate unnecessary discussion, but
allows all ground station participants to signal simultaneously and continuously if needed.
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NOTES
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n 19 - The Electromagn
Section E netic Spectrrum
1
19.1 Electro
omagnetic Waves
W
Figure
e 1 - The Ele
ectromagne
etic Spectru
um
1
19.2 The Ele
ectromagne
etic Spectru
um
F
Figure 2 illusttrates several concepts relaated to the eleectromagneticc spectrum
Many aircraft
ft and spacecraft systems operate within n limited regioons of the elecctromagnetic spectrum. C Common
examples include radar, ellectro-optical sensors, radios, data linkss, electronic w
warfare, and nnavigation sysstems.
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One of the most heavily used regions of the electromagnetic spectrum is the radio frequency or RF spectrum,
from ~3 kilohertz to ~ 300 gigahertz. The RF Spectrum encompasses an array of telecommunications devices
including radios, television, satellite communications, data links, radio-navigation aids, and radar. Table 1 shows
how the RF Spectrum is subdivided into frequency bands.
Depending on the type of RF system, additional subdivisions of the bands also exist. Table 2 applies to radar
systems.
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Electromagnetic wave propagation does not stop at national boundaries. Most governments regulate radio
frequency band use via frequency or spectrum allocation. For technical and economic reasons, governments try to
harmonize and standardize RF band allocation. A number of forums and standards bodies address frequency
allocation. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations agency for information and
communication technologies. The ITU allocates global radio spectrum and satellite orbits and develops technical
standards that ensure networks and technologies seamlessly interconnect. There are numerous users and spectrum
allocation is complicated to implement and regulate. Figure 3 illustrates the United States frequency allocations.
[Editor’s Note: Figure 3 is highly detailed and not legible in either 8.5 x 11” or 11 x 17” format. Posters may be
purchased via http://bookstore.gpo.gov/products/sku/003-000-00694-8. A high resolution online version is
available at http://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/spectrum_wall_chart_aug2011.pdf ]
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1
19.4 Opticall Frequency agnetic Radiation
y Electroma
ÅOptical Spectrum
mÆ
JJust as the RF
F spectrum can n be subdividded into variouus special bannds, Table 3 sshows bands in the opticall
sspectrum. Th he visible, neaar infrared (NIIR), mid wavve IR (MWIR)), and long w wave IR (LWIR R) bands are most
ccommonly useed for airborn ne electro-opttical sensor sy
ystems. All bbands can be uuseful, depending on the sppecific
mmission and operational
o reqquirements. [EEditor’s Notee: Some bandd nomenclaturre and boundaaries depend oon author
aand text. SFTEE has not estaablished standdards on this subject]
TThe most fam miliar examplee of electromaagnetic radiatiion is the lighht spectrum hu
humans see. D
Different coloors of
vvisible light have
h different wavelengths,, ranging from
m violet at thee shorter wavvelengths (0.4 µm) to red aat the
longer waveleengths (0.7 µm m). Aerospacce vehicles emmploy many vvisible light seensor systems. Visible lighht sensors
pprovide useful and highly recognizable
r images,
i ogically enouugh, do not woork well in pooor visibility or at
but lo
nnight without some sort of artificial illum
mination or im
mage intensiffication.
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IInfrared sensoors are useful in numerous civil and military remote ssensing appliications. At wwavelengths bbeyond
aabout 14 micrrons, infrared radiation is not
n useful for most airbornne remote senssing applicatiions due to thhe earth’s
aatmosphere atttenuation. Thhis is especiallly true in hott and humid aatmospheric conditions witth extreme inffrared
rradiation atten
nuation.
1
19.5 Atmosp
pheric Tran
nsmission Windows
W
T or source of naatural energy across the eleectromagnetiic spectrum annd its radiatioon
The sun is thee earth’s majo
bbombards the atmosphere constantly.
c The
T earth's atm mosphere prottects its life fr
from excessive exposure too a range
oof higher enerrgy waves succh as Gammaa rays, x-rays, and some ulttraviolet waves. These are "ionizing" raadiation
bbecause they have
h sufficien
ntly high enerrgy to knock electrons
e out of atoms, alteer atoms and molecules, annd
ddamage organ nic cells. Figu
ure 5 shows attmospheric op pacity (blockiing) across a wide wavelenngth spectrum m.
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Figure 5 - Atmosphe
eric Opacity
y vs. Wavele
ength
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Quick Index
Tab Section______________________
1 General Information
2 Mathematics
3 Earth and Atmosphere
4 Pitot Statics
5 Aerodynamics
6 Axis Systems and Transformations
7 Mass Properties
8 Motion/Vibration Analysis
9 Material Strength (Loads)
10 Reciprocating Engines
11 Propellers
12 Fixed-Wing Performance Standardization
13 Acoustics
14 Electromagnetic Compatibility
15 Handling Qualities
16 Rotary Wing
17 Gas Turbine Propulsion
18 Radio Communications
19 The Electromagnetic Spectrum