S P W L A 43 ra Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002
N E T S A N D A N A L Y S I S IN T H I N L Y B E D D E D T U R B I D I T E
RESERVOIRS - CASE STUDY INTEGRATING ACOUSTIC IMAGES,
DIPMETERS AND CORE DATA
David A. L a w r e n c e - TotalFinaElf
ABSTRACT
Acoustic borehole images often do not provide
sufficient resolution for thin bed analysis. In this case
study good hole conditions, favourable acoustic
contrast and moderate consolidation have resulted in
excellent quality images in a multi-layered deep-water
reservoir interval. Thinly bedded facies dominate in
proximal and distal levee, splay and lobe margin
settings.
Initial core calibration comprised loading of core
photos to the workstation, and detailed depth shifting
to match acoustic images. Ultraviolet core photos
show good contrast between hydrocarbon-stained
sandstones and shales. Histograms of UV staining
intensity were generated on a bed-by-bed basis, to
which thresholds were applied to generate a
continuous sand-shale ratio curve. A manual sand
count was then performed integrating acoustic images
and dipmeter curves, with a minimum bed resolution
of 2-3cm. This works well in bedded intervals, but
was particularly difficult where shale is dispersed or
image quality is poor.
Net sand counts from core, acoustic images and using
petrophysical clay volume (VCL) cut-offs were
compared by facies association. Core and image log
data are in close agreement (within 5% error) apart
from shale-clast rich channel lag deposits. Image-
derived net sand counts in massive sandstone-
dominated facies correspond to conventional log cut-
offs of 30% VCL, whereas thinly bedded facies
calibrate more closely with cut-offs of 35-50% VCL.
Log-derived VCL cut-offs are unable to reproduce the
true distribution of net sand, due to thin-bed and bed
boundary effects. Moreover, cut-offs are very
sensitive to variability of bed thickness, overall NTG
and the nature of bed boundaries.
A common tendency in conventional log analysis is to
underestimate the proportion of thinly bedded sands.
This study shows that the effect on volumetric
calculations is marginal (10-20% NTG
underestimation compared to 20-30% quoted in
literature examples). Most of this 'missed' sand is in
low NTG very thin beds, partly compensated by an
overestimation of net sand in higher NTG dm-scale
bedded sands. This is accentuated in proximal levee
settings where deformation leads to more bed
amalgamation. HH
1. I N T R O D U C T I O N
Quantification of thinly bedded sands in turbidite
reservoirs is critical for accurate estimation of
hydrocarbon in-place and construction of realistic
dynamic reservoir simulations. This is especially
important during early field appraisal, where data are
limited and uncertainties greatest. Evaluation of thin
beds using conventional petrophysical techniques has
received much attention recently (e.g. McGann et. al.,
1988; Sovich et. al., 1996; Hansen & Fett, 2000).
Thin beds are defined as those beds with a thickness
of 1 to 60cm (McKee & Weir, 1953). For beds thinner
than the practical resolution of logging tools, true
resistivity cannot be determined and hence
hydrocarbon saturation incorrectly calculated.
This case study demonstrates how integrated
evaluation of acoustic image logs, dipmeters, core and
wireline logs enables accurate representation of thinly
bedded sands in terms of volumes in a reservoir
model, and their distribution for dynamic reservoir
simulation.
Three wells were drilled during the exploration and
early appraisal stage (Wells 1 to 3), with a spacing of
2 to 3km. Initial data acquisition comprised 180m of
core from Wells 2 and 3, 2375m of acoustic image
logs (UBI TMl) and 3140m of oil-based dipmeter logs
(OBDTTM~). Net sand evaluation was carried out in
1 Trademark of Schlumberger
SPWLA 43 r'~Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002
the context of construction of a static reservoir model
incorporating all well and seismic data.
Compared to resistivity imaging tools, acoustic
images do not normally give sufficient resolution for
detailed sedimentological study, since they are very
sensitive to borehole conditions (Hansen & Fett
2000). However, until recently, they were the only
viable imaging tool in oil-base muds. The following
factors in this case study have contributed to excellent
acoustic image quality:
• Slow logging speed (650-850ft/hr)
• Favourable acoustic contrast between sand and
shale
• Generally excellent hole quality, limiting hole-
related artefacts
• Moderate degree of formation consolidation,
reducing the effect of washout and poor hole
The images used in this study were acquired in near
vertical holes of both 121A and 8V2-inch diameter with
an oil-base mud (density of 1.15 - 1.19 g/cm3).
2. G E O L O G I C A L B A C K G R O U N D
The case study is from a Tertiary (Miocene) deep-
water succession from offshore West Africa. The
reservoir-bearing succession averages 1000m thick,
with multi-layered reservoirs present (13 in total).
Two gross depositional settings have been
characterised (Fig. 1);
1. Channel-levee deposits: in these systems, reservoir
sands are restricted in width (1 to 1.5km) often
stacking vertically to form composite reservoirs 150
to 250m thick. Reservoir architecture is complex,
with individual highly sinuous channels present (100
to 350m in width and 5 to 20m thick). Facies
associations include channel axis, channel margin,
proximal and distal levee and splay deposits.
2. Channelised lobe deposits: these comprise
extensive lobate sand bodies 1 0 - 15 kilometres in
width and 3 0 - 70m in thickness, generally developed
at the mouths of channel-levee systems. NTG (net to
gross) is typically high (60-90%) with connectivity
decreasing towards lobe margins.
Figure 1 illustrates the distribution of thinly bedded
sands within the context outlined above. In channel-
levee complexes, thin beds are encountered in channel
margin and levee settings both internal and external to
the channel. They are also present in splay and sheet
sands resulting from poorly confined flows capping
channel fills and in overbank settings (crevasse splay
lobes). In channelised lobes, thin beds are well
developed towards lobe fringes, and capping massive
sandstones following phases of lobe abandonment.
They may also be present associated with distributary
channels that traverse the axis of the lobe.
Figure 2 shows the location of thinly bedded sand
intervals in the two cored study wells. In the upper
channelised reservoirs, channel margin deposits
comprise approximately 20% of estimated hyrocarbon
in place, with proximal levee and splay deposits
accounting for 55%. In the lower channelised lobe
reservoirs, thinly bedded lobe margin deposits contain
around 25% of hydrocarbon in place.
3. NET SAND C A L C U L A T I O N
In two of the three wells studied, there is good
acoustic contrast between sand (softer = dark brown
on acoustic images) and shale (harder = pale yellow
on acoustic images). This enables differentiation of
thin sand beds down to a resolution of ca. 2-3cm.
Very thin beds around l cm thick can be imaged, but
their thickness not clearly resolved. Core calibration
was essential, and this was carried out in two steps:
1. An initial approximate depth shift of cores to
images was carried out, to enable lithological
calibration of image response.
2. Colour core photos were then loaded to the
workstation, and depth shifted in detail to image
logs. A net sand count from core was then
carried out using UV core photos.
Core Net Sand: Core examination shows that the
distribution of sand/shale interbeds is irregular, and
not always well bedded. Several modes of shale
distribution can be defined (Figure 3). Whilst shale
content can be easily quantified in the well-bedded
case, it is more difficult where shale is dispersed as
clasts, lenses or within deformed beds (e.g. slumps).
A sand-shale ratio curve was derived for the entire
cored interval in Well 2 (132m) using a fluorescence
threshold technique (similar to Sullivan & Schepel,
1995) as follows:
• Ultraviolet light core photos were loaded to the
workstation, and depth-matched to acoustic
images.
• Histograms of colour distribution were generated
on a bed-by-bed basis, to discriminate shale
(grey/black) from sandstone (light brown/yellow).

The aim was to produce a sand-shale ratio curve
at a detailed enough scale to capture all
hydrocarbon-stained sand beds and laminae (in
practice, a minimum laminae resolution of 2-
3ram)
Application of thresholds to UV colour
histograms enabled conversion of the core image
to sand (white) or shale (black) shown in Figure
4. Sand-shale ratio was then calculated on a bed-
by-bed basis.
Sand-shale ratio was estimated across plugs and
preserved samples using X-ray core scans.
It should be possible to automate this procedure, using
pre-defined colour thresholds for hydrocarbon-stained
sand and shale. However, in practice, the histogram
method is very dependent on both the quality of the
photos, and the intensity of hydrocarbon staining. It is
difficult to define a fixed histogram threshold for the
entire cored interval. Since the aim was to
differentiate net sand down to low permeability (ca.
l mD), it was necessary to account for even weak
hydrocarbon staining.
Acoustic Image Net Sand: In contrast to resistivity-
based images (e.g. Trouiller et al 1989) it is difficult
to calibrate acoustic amplitude data directly with other
sand indicators to enable automatic net sand
calculation. Previous attempts using cut-offs of
average amplitude (Hackbarth & Tepper 1988) and
transit time data as an indicator of mudcake buildup in
permeable sands (Firmansjah et al, 1997) have been
applied with some success, though core calibration is
essential.
An approach similar to the UV core photos, using
histograms of amplitude data, was ruled out since
there are many borehole-related artefacts. The various
images shown in this paper show vertical grooves,
stabiliser marks and other features that prevent a
quantitative image analysis approach.
The acoustic image net sand count presented here is
essentially based on visual criteria with initial core
calibration. Sandstones consistently appear dark
brown on images, and shales light brown/yellow (Fig.
4). A simple "oinary' curve of sand or shale was
generated (Fig. 5). This approach is applicable where
sand/shale alternations are regular, though it is less
reliable where bed boundaries are irregular or
deformed, or shale dispersed as clasts. The practical
lower limit of bed resolution was around 2-3cm.
Where bed contacts are less evident on acoustic
SPWLA 43 r'~Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002
images, dipmeter curves were used to give more
precision in cm-scale thinly bedded reservoir
intervals.
Acoustic image response is a function of both porosity
and sand content, and hence the images only resolve
potential reservoir quality sandstones. Cemented
sandstones, siltstone or clay matrix supported muddy
sands (e.g. debris flow facies) were not counted in the
net sand image analysis. This was confirmed by
detailed core comparison, showing that these facies
are not usually hydrocarbon-stained in core and hence
do not show reservoir potential.
Petrophysical VCL analysis: Three clay indicators
were calculated in petrophysical interpretation, based HH
on gamma ray, neutron-density and resistivity. Taken
separately, each indicator tends to overestimate clay
volume, and hence the minimum of the three
indicators is used to generate a VCL curve. A clay
point variable was defined as a function of depth for
application to the neutron-density logs.
Clay volume was calibrated with quantitative core
measurements based on volume of the solid fraction
from X-ray and thin-section analysis (Ventre &
Levallois, 2001). The result is that the computed VCL
is an indicator of mineralogical clay. The non-clay
fraction includes both reservoir quality sand and non-
reservoir lithologies (i.e. silt and cemented sandstone,
sand dispersed in mud). This is important when
comparing VCL curves to NTG generated from core
and acoustic images.
Mineralogical calibration of quantitative petrophysical
interpretation is an essential quality control. A 'core
petrophysical log' is generated, based on detailed
facies, lithological and petrophysical zonation of the
entire cored interval. A continuous core VCL curve is
then constructed using representative plug data (XRD
mineralogy, grain size, thin-section analyses), which
is then up scaled to match the log sampling.
4. C O M P A R I S O N OF RESULTS
Figure 5 shows a comparison of NTG calculation
using the various methods (core, acoustic images,
petrophysical analysis) from a thinly bedded proximal
levee interval. Net sand analysis of both core and
image logs was aimed at identifying sandstones that
potentially contribute to flow, regardless of thickness.
Since the core-derived net sand curve is based on
visual estimation of hydrocarbon staining, it
represents effective reservoir only.
S P W L A 43 r'~Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002
Calibration of acoustic image logs with core shows
that a similar textural and reservoir quality range is
counted as net since the greatest acoustic contrast is
between porous sandstone and shale. The only
difference is the lack of precision in quantifying sand-
shale ratio compared to core (beds are either counted
as sand or non-sand), and the lower vertical
resolution.
Both the core photo and acoustic log net sand counts
are based on 'area under curve' calculations (area of
core photo, or 'unrolled' acoustic image considered as
net sand). The notion of cut-off is already built into
this using histogram threshold (core photos) or visual
image criteria (acoustic images). This is then
converted on an interval basis to net sand thickness or
NTG.
Petrophysical VCL analysis represents a volumetric
calculation a certain distance around the borehole, and
hence it is not directly comparable to the area method.
Also, since it is calibrated with core mineralogical
data, the non-clay fraction (or 'sand volume', VSA)
includes both reservoir and non-reservoir lithologies.
This is illustrated by comparing net sand from core
photos with petrophysical VSA (Figure 5). In this
example, from proximal levee facies VSA includes an
estimated 30% non-effective 'sand' (mostly silt from
grain-size analysis). VSA from petrophysical analysis,
if used directly, will lead to significant overestimation
of NTG. The above problem is typically overcome by
using a fixed cut-off on the VCL curve. This has the
advantage of being easily applied, and can be
calibrated with core on an interval basis (Fig. 5 shows
a 30% VCL cut-off).
Core vs. Acoustic Image Net Sand: In Figure 6, the
first two columns show a comparison of NTG from
core with and acoustic images for the cored interval in
Well 2. For most facies associations there is a very
good match, with perhaps a slight overestimation of
net from acoustic images (a few percent to 5%
maximum). Some thin silt and non-reservoir very fine
sand layers that appear as net on acoustic logs seem to
account for this overestimation. The degree of
accuracy is in line with previous comparative
core/acoustic image studies in thinly bedded
reservoirs (e.g. Hackbarth & Tepper, 1988).
The main discrepancy is in the Channel Axis facies
association from this well, where NTG from acoustic
images is twice that calculated from core (80%
compared to 40%). This difference is mainly within
localised coarse-grained ~oasal lag' facies, where
dispersed shale clasts are difficult to resolve on
images (Fig. 3).
Apart from limitations related to specific facies
(shale-clast conglomerates, debris flows) the acoustic
image NTG has a high degree of accuracy in
predicting core NTG. In detailed bed-by-bed
comparison, some very thin beds (<lcm) are not
resolved on acoustic logs, but this is compensated by a
slight overestimation in thicker beds (Fig. 5).
Acoustic Images vs. Petrophysical VCL analysis:
Figure 7 shows a comparison of NTG from acoustic
images with petrophysical analysis using various VCL
cut-offs (30%, 40%, 50%, and 60%). It is
immediately apparent that certain facies associations
are much more sensitive to cut-offs than others. The
largely massive sandstones (channel axis and
channelised lobe association) are less sensitive due to
fewer bed boundary effects. In contrast, the thinly
bedded facies associations (e.g. proximal levee and
splay) show wide ranges of NTG as a function of
varying VCL cut-offs. This range of possible NTG
values is a major source of uncertainty in estimation
of hydrocarbon in-place, and merits a different
approach to NTG estimation in thinly bedded facies
associations (Sovich et al., 1996).
The effect of varying VCL cut-offs is illustrated in
Figure 8 in a channelised lobe reservoir interval. A
30% VCL cut-off accurately predicts the NTG of the
massive sandstones exceeding 0.5m, but many of the
thinner beds are not counted. A less restrictive cut-off
(50% VCL) overestimates the thickness of massive
thicker beds, and leads to artificial bed amalgamation.
In the thinly bedded intervals, although NTG with a
higher cut-off may approximate acoustic image sand
counts on an interval basis, the vertical distribution of
sand is not reproduced. This highlights the problem
of applying average VCL cut-offs to different facies
associations. In fact, the use of VCL cut-offs only
works in relatively simple, 'thickly bedded' reservoirs.
5. E F F E C T OF BED T H I C K N E S S & B E D D I N G
STYLE
Core and acoustic image analysis shows significant
variability within thinly bedded associations with
respect to bed thickness (mean and range), overall
NTG, the nature of bed contacts and bedding dip. The
effect of this variability is examined in the following
sections. Mean bed thickness data are derived from

acoustic images, and hence very thin beds (<lcm) are
not accounted for.
Bed thickness and overall NTG: Bed thickness clearly
has an affect on NTG calculation, since it is
fundamental to the vertical resolution of the logging
tool (in this case typically 15cm wireline log
sampling). Bed boundary effects are evident on
wireline logs below a minimum bed thickness of ca.
50cm. Figure 9 shows three examples of relatively
undisturbed thinly bedded facies with variable bed
thickness and overall NTG. Between a) and b) NTG
is constant, but bed thickness variable. In comparing
b) and c), bed thickness is constant but overall NTG is
variable.
In Figure 9a), although bed thickness averages 9cm,
there is a bimodal distribution with occasional thicker
beds exceeding 50cm. This bedding style is typical of
the splay facies association. The petrophysical VCL
curve shows some activity, reflecting largely the
thicker sand interbeds and amalgamated intervals of
thinner beds. Using a VCL cut-off of 30%, a NTG of
20% is calculated, reflecting only the proportion of
the thicker beds. Approximately half of the net sand
from acoustic images in this interval is in beds thinner
than the resolution of the wireline logging tools.
In Figure 9b), average bed thickness is less than in 9a)
and is relatively constant (average 6cm), typical of
proximal levee facies. The result is a much less
variable VCL curve, which is consequently more
sensitive to cut-off. By applying the same constant
cut-off of 30%, very little net sand is calculated
(~0%).
Figure 9c) shows similar mean bed thickness to b), i.e.
5-6cm, but an increase in overall NTG to ca. 50%.
Also, NTG is not constant within this interval, with
dm-scale alternations of sand-rich and sand-poor beds.
These alternations are reflected on the VCL curve,
and as a result there is good correspondence on an
interval basis between NTG calculated from acoustic
logs and using a VCL cut-off of 30%. Nonetheless,
there is a tendency to overestimate the thickness of
amalgamated beds, and underestimate beds less than
5cm.
Bedding style & nature o f bed contacts: In the
previous examples (Figures 9a-c), bedding dip is
relatively constant (5-15 °) and bed contacts are
undisturbed and generally concordant. Figure 10
shows two intervals with a NTG from acoustic images
of ca. 50%, comparable to Figure 9c). Bed contacts
SPWLA 43 r'~Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002
are, however, disturbed by basal loading and
slumping, typical of channel margin and proximal
levee settings. This results in fewer 'sharp' bed
contacts, and the resulting petrophysical VCL curve is
relatively constant. Using the same 30% VCL cut-off,
NTG is overestimated by 25% compared to acoustic
images.
Figure 10b) shows similar deformed thin beds but
with decreased bed thickness and less pervasive
deformation. Overestimation of NTG using a 30%
VCL cut-off is less marked (12%).
The examples above illustrate that using a constant
VCL cut-off (30%) defined in massive sandstones, the
tendency is to underestimate sand content in very HH
thinly bedded lower NTG facies, and overestimate
sand content in more thickly bedded higher NTG
facies, especially with deformed bed contacts. The
notion of a constant VCL cut-off should therefore be
abandoned in thinly bedded facies.
6. I M P L I C A T I O N S FOR NET SAND
E S T I M A T I O N IN TURBIDITE SUCCESSIONS
Some general lessons can be concluded from the
above analysis both on the use of VCL cut-offs in
turbidite successions, and the importance of
understanding variations in bed thickness and bedding
style. Some of the bedding styles mentioned in
preceding sections are common to specific
depositional environments and facies associations.
These can be grouped into three main types:
1. massive sandstone - dominated associations (e.g.
channel axis & channelised lobe)
These associations are dominated by metre-scale to
amalgamated (tens of metres thick) massive
sandstones with thin intercalated shales. In general
NTG is high, typically 70-100%, and some bed
boundary effects are seen on VCL curves at the
margins of thicker beds. Also, degraded facies (basal
lags, debris flows) may be present at bed boundaries.
The different NTG calculations show little sensitivity
to cut-off values. Calibration with acoustic log net
sand confirms that a VCL cut-off of 30% reproduces
net sand with an error of <5%. There is good
correspondence between VSA and acoustic log net
sand, possibly indicating that non-effective net sand is
very minor (only a few percent).
SPWLA 43 r'~Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002
2. Interbedded associations (channel margin and
channelised lobe margin)
The proportion of massive to thinly bedded facies
varies, and overall NTG averages 40-50%.
Application of a 30% VCL cut-off will discriminate
massive sandstones thicker than 50cm, but will
underestimate the proportion of thin beds which may
increase overall NTG in this association by 5-15%.
An accurate NTG can only be calculated by using
additional information from either core or image logs.
3. Entirely thinly bedded associations (proximal to
distal levee, splay, shale-filled channel)
In these facies associations, average bed thickness is
dm-scale, i.e. below the resolution of conventional
logs. Although average NTG in proximal levee and
splay associations is 30-40%, on a metre-scale there is
a wide variation in NTG from ca. 10% in distal to
60% in proximal levee facies.
An 'average' VCL cut-off can be applied (VCL 35%
seems to be representative) for use in volumetric
calculations, but this will lead to overestimation of
NTG in more sand-rich cases, and underestimation in
sand-poor cases. More importantly, it will not
accurately reproduce the vertical distribution of net
sand. In such intervals, it is not possible to dissociate
NTG from porosity and saturation calculations. For
thinly bedded intervals typically several metres thick,
hydrocarbon pore volume calculations will be
accurate on an interval basis, but VCL, porosity and
saturation will not be representative on a bed-by-bed
basis.
Subtle variations in bedding style can lead to further
complications in applying VCL cut-offs in these
facies. As a general rule, splay facies associations
show slightly thicker interbeds (up to metre scale), are
more regularly bedded and show less evidence for
deformed bed contacts. This reduces uncertainty on
the application of VCL cut-offs. Proximal levee
facies may, however, show variable bed thickness for
the same NTG range, plus complications of deformed
bed contacts. In high NTG cases (>ca. 50% NTG),
this can lead to significant overestimation of net sand
using fixed cut-offs.
Implications for reservoir modelling: For construction
of a deterministic reservoir model used in
hydrocarbon in-place estimation, less precision is
required in understanding the distribution of net sand.
In this case, average parameters based on the ranges
of NTG on an interval basis can be applied, using
appropriate log-derived VCL cut-offs.
However, the situation changes significantly when
considering construction of a grid block-based
stochastic model, where spatial distribution of
reservoir parameters is critical. Here it is vital to fully
understand the vertical and lateral variations in NTG
within thinly bedded facies, and for well calibration
an accurate interpretation of log-based data is
essential. Considering the case of Figure 9c), by
using an inappropriate VCL cut-off (40%), the lower
ca. 14m of thinly bedded reservoir may be
misinterpreted as massive sandstone. Also, thinly
bedded facies in the upper part will be overlooked.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Comparison of acoustic image log net sand counts
with core shows that the method is robust, with a
prediction error of ca. 5%. There is a slight tendency
to overestimate, and specific facies types (shale-clast
conglomerates, debris flow facies) are difficult to treat
quantitatively using acoustic images.
It is essential in petrophysical analysis of similar
turbidite reservoirs to use appropriate methods of
NTG determination according to facies association
(see also Sovich et al, 1996), reflecting variations in
bed thickness and bedding style. Fixed VCL cut-offs
work well in dominantly thickly bedded sandstones,
but are entirely inappropriate for thinly bedded
intervals where image log net sand counts offer an
accurate alternative. If image or core data are not
available, uncertainty in prediction of NTG using
average VCL cut-offs will dramatically increase as the
intervals of interest decrease in thickness. If
petrophysical VCL has to be used in thinly bedded
facies, it should not be dissociated with porosity and
saturation on an interval basis.
There has been much emphasis in the literature on
thin-bed analysis recognising 'overlooked' or 'by-
passed' pay. A review of literature shows that actual
NTG is typically 20-30% higher in thinly bedded
intervals compared to standard petrophysical methods.
Our analysis shows a more conservative
underestimation of 10-20%. Intuitively, one might
expect this underestimation to be greatest in the
entirely thinly bedded facies, but this is not the case.
The same range of underestimation is applicable
where significant proportions of thicker sandstone
beds are present.
The reason for this is that the underestimation in
lower NTG thinner bedded sands is partly

compensated by overestimation in higher NTG dm-
scale bedded sands. This overestimation can be
accentuated by soft-sediment deformation particularly
in proximal levee and channel margin settings.
Most of the 'overlooked' pay in this case study is in
low NTG, very thinly bedded sands that may never be
produced. There is, therefore, only a marginal impact
of thin-bed analysis in volumetric calculations for this
case study. The major impact is in dynamic flow
simulation, and drainage strategy. Petrophysical VCL
analysis tends to systematically underestimate
heterogeneities in higher NTG thinly bedded sands,
leading to overestimation of thickly bedded intervals
(preferential drains). In reality, the net sand is
distributed over a larger vertical thickness and vertical
connectivity will be much lower.
In conclusion, the volumetric gains from accurate thin
bed analysis are marginal in this case study,
potentially leading to a 10-20% increase in
hydrocarbon in place. Additional volumes are likely
to be mainly located in lower NTG settings marginal
to the main reservoirs. It is extremely difficult,
however, to assess inevitable recovery losses through
'overlooked' heterogeneities. A change of focus is
required to address not only the volumetric upside, but
also the serious reservoir management issues
associated with thinly bedded turbidite reservoirs.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank the management of
TotalFinaElf and license partners for permission to
publish this paper. The work benefited significantly
from technical input by J-B. Ros (borehole imaging)
and C. A. Ould Ahmed Benan (depositional model).
Comments from B. Mathis and B. Lalanne greatly
improved the content of the manuscript. I also thank
Bernard Duriez for figure drafting.
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Sovich, J., Klein, J., & Gaynor, N., 1996, A thin
bed model for the Kuparuk River Field, North Slope,
Alaska: SPWLA 371h Annual Logging Symposium,
June 16-19, 1996.
Sullivan, K.B. & Schepel, K.J., 1995, Borehole
image logs: applications in fractured and thinly
bedded reservoirs: SPWLA 36 th Annual Logging
Symposium, June 26-29, 12pp.
Trouiller, J-C., Delhomme, J-P., Carlin, S., &
Anxionnaz, H., 1989, Thin-bed reservoir analysis
from borehole electrical images: SPE 64 th Annual
Conf. & Exhibition, San Antonio, Paper SPE 19578,
pp. 61-72.
Ventre, J.B., & Levallois, B., 2001, New log and
core analysis methods for an enhanced shaly sand
saturation, using a 'm*' varying with the clay content:
SP WLA 42 ndAnnual Logging Symposium, June 17-20,
11 pp.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Da v i d L a w r e n c e is a senior sedimentologist with a
BSc from the University of Wales (UK) and PhD
from Bristol University (UK). He is a currently
working in TotalFinaElfs Field Evaluation Group in
Paris as a reservoir geologist with borehole image
analysis expertise on specific applications to deep-
water reservoir characterisation. He has worked for
over 16 years in exploration and field development
teams in the North Sea and worldwide, mainly on
depositional modelling in nearshore clastic and
turbidite reservoirs for BP, Fina and TotalFinaElf. As
a consultant with Z&S he developed new
interpretation techniques for sedimentological dip
analysis from borehole images and dipmeters. His
main interest is in the application of borehole image
logs to clastic reservoir characterisation.
SPWLA 43 ra Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002

Splay Channel Margin Channel Axis Proximal Levee Distal Levee

A)

E
|

100 - 350m
"1
Channelised Shale filled Channelised
Lobe Margin Channel Lobe Axis
B) -]g---
• • • m . . . . n-

O
E
b--

d~
CO

2L
I,, 5 - 10km
I-"

Figure 1" Schematic illustration showing the distribution of thinly bedded sandstones according to depositional setting.
Two main depositional systems are illustrated: A) Channel-levee complexes and B) channelised lobes.
Note the difference in horizontal scale between the two systems.

WELL- 2

- 100 -~_,,
'l Figure 2: Summary well logs
i

• Fig. 9a (gamma ray) for Wells 2 and 3.

WELL- 3
_ _ . r - _
The distance between these two
0 wells is ca. 2km.
¢.)
- 100 - - 200
• Fig. 10a
ILl Thinly bedded facies are mainly
-
encountered in the proximal to
200 - 300
• Fig. 10b distal levee and splay associations,
with minor amounts in channel
• Fig. 9b
• Fig. 9c margin, lobe marginand shale-filled
300 - ~- 4 0 0
channel environments

Figure numbers of examples used in

1
this paper are labelled.
- 400 - ~]i uj 500

(¢1
o=,
LEGEND
- 500 - 600
,.j I:°:°:.l Channel Axis I i Channelised Lobe

Channel margin I J Lobe margin

- 600-
i - 700

I I Proximal Levee Splay Shale-filled Channel

Distal Levee &

700 - 800
non - reservoir

• Fig. 8

800 -- 900
~Acoustic Cored Interval
log Interval I
Depth o GR 1, Depth o GR 17
(m) (m)
 SPWLA 43 r'~ Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002

A) SHALE CLASTS B) LENSES C) BEDDED / D) SLUMPED /

& INJECTIONS LAMINATED DEFORMED

HH

Figure 3" Core photographs (UV light) showing the various types of shale distribution encountered in
the reservoirs. Pale brown to yellow indicates hydrocarbon-stained porous, permeable sandstones and
black indicates shale

UBI dynamic image (lm) UV Core photo Sand-Shale

0 ratio 1

Figure 4" Illustration of net sand

calculation from UV core photographs,
for a l m thinly bedded interval. The first
column shows a dynamically normalised
L :i,ll:!:, i,: 'unrolled' acoustic image (0-360°).
:m Dark colours indicate sand and pale
colours shale. The limits of resolution
can be shown by comparison with
the UV core photo. Histograms were
i generated from UV photos, and thresholds
applied to differentiate sand (white)
from shale (black). This is done on a
bed-by-bed basis. The percentage of
sand/shale is then calculated to generate
the sand-shale ratio curve from the core
i~:,!!ii~, (column on fight).
SPWLA 43 "~Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002

GR NPHI VCL PHI NTG from NET SAND NET SAND

0.6 0 ~,
VCL (30% cut-of) (UBI) (UV Core)
0 170 1.7 RHOB 2.7 0 _ 0 1 0 1 0 ..... 1
......~:~,!::i:!ii~:ii;':}%11ii~,~;,!; iii!k:2"::':,,:i~

,,=,
,,>,
_J

,,=,
,,>,
- 5

F i g u r e 5: C o m p a r i s o n of net sand calculation from core photos, acoustic i m a g e s and petrophysical

V C L analysis for a thinly bedded interval. Net sand count calculated from U V core photos has a vertical
resolution of a few millimetres. The two left tracks show g a m m a and neutron-density logs. Petrophysical
V C L analysis is s h o w n both without cut-off (sand v o l u m e or V S A , to the right of the V C L curve) and
with a 30% V C L cut-off.

[] NTG Core
lOO%
.-:-/
m - . = -

m
[] NTG UBI
9o% i!i!i!iil [] NTG (VCL30) LL. i
.:./
80% --7-~- ;L ;i [] NTG (VCL40) -:.:/ t~,,:,,;: m

/_ [] NTG (VCL50) !:!/

70% --/ !;/:ii • ,• /

/
-<.......
[] NTG (VCL60) :::/
60% --/ :::/
/ H :;:
.:./
50% -/ :::/
/ i i :.:/
40% .-~./ "'' ,,4__ ! rx~i?:,'i :::/
:.:/
°

"•° /

30% :i:i/
i!i;iiii?i
~:£,!!i~ / / I
!!!;!!)i
!;;:,:::),
:::/ m

:.:/ i;!i~!!;il / :::/

20% :::/ if!iJ!!!! / /4 :.:/
::::/ /
lO% :::/ / /
m

4 ! /
0% ":':/ 1

Channel Axis Channel Margin Proximal Levee Distal Levee Channelised

Lobe

F i g u r e 6: C o m p a r i s o n of N T G (vertical axis - percent) by facies association in W e l l 2 for the cored

interval ( 1 3 2 m ) . The first bar represents N T G calculated from core, and the second bar N T G calculated
from acoustic images. T h e s e were calculated using an 'area under curve' methods, converted to
equivalent thickness. The third to fifth bars represent N T G from petrophysical V C L analysis, with
various cut-offs applied (30%, 40%, 50%, 60%).

10
 SPWLA 43 ''~ Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002

100 [] NTG UBI

90
I-;,-
A ]1 [] NTG (VCL30) /
/
,
,
7 [] NTG (VCL40) I
80. - - / - - ! - - / !
/ [] NTG (VCL50) I
70. - / ...... I
/ [] NTG (VCL60)
60 -/ t
/ t
/ !
50- /
/
i~i;l:!;
F /
~,., ~iiii!ili
40- / 7 /
/ / =
30-
/ /
/
_1- t
/ f
/ / / HH
20-
7!?
'....,
/ /
/ /
I
10- /
/ / 7ili /

0-1
d i
./I /
/

Channel Axis Channel Prox. Levee Distal Levee Splay Channelised

Margin Lobe

100 • - - ..,, ,...,

,-'
80
/
/
/
!-i /J

/ I"
70 /
/

60 -
/

5o - /
/ F]/
/ / /
4o /, --,,i--
- / i /
30 / _ / / --/
/ / /
/
20 / / E / --/
/ / 'i'i:'i'l
/ _/ --/
10 /

0
/
' [ i
/
/ i:::,t /
R ~-~1~ ,
l
/
t n
Channel Channel Prox. Levee Distal Levee Channelised Ch. Lobe Shale-Filled
Axis Margin Lobe Margin Channel

Figure 7: Comparison of NTG (vertical axis - percent) by facies association for Well 2 (A) and Well 3 (B).
The first bar represents NTG calculated from acoustic images. The second to fifth bars represent NTG
from petrophysical VCL analysis, but with various cut-offs applied (30%, 40%, 50%, 60%). It is clear that
a single VCL cut-off cannot be applied to all facies associations

11
SPWLA 43 "~ Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002

0.6~GR~170 0.6~NPHI~ 0 VCL VCL PHI

UBI Facies Cut offs (%)
RHOB
UBI Net Sand 1.7 2.7 30 40 50 60 3

. . . . . ° o °
y
° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° o

z "'1"1-1-1"1"1-1"1"1"1 /
O
tw
< iiB, ....:!iiiiii!
~ ~ : . . .
U.I
~'..'.:.:.:.:.....
~k:, ~
O
_,1
~~::. - - . :::
: . .-- :,:..
..
° . . . . . . o o o
°o°°°o°° ° ° ° ° ° ° /

LLI
,--I

Li.I
Z
Z
<
O
~. '.'.'.'1":'1":':'1"1'I
•...:.:.:.:.:.:.
¢
N :i: . . . . . ~ V
N~-'::::.'.'.'.'.'. /

I.t.I
~ 1 . 1 . :-:. 1.1.1-i."'~
O ,
,--I ~, °° ° ° °•° ° ° °° ° ° °.° ° . . . o° °
i~;~,, ° **°*°°°°°°°°**o*o~

Key to UBI Facies

I °" "'1 Conglomeratic sst. I I Laminated sst. I - - - 1 Muddy heterolithics F-", I Mixed Sand/mud

r-.--i:}~l Massive sst. ["~-'1 Sandy heterolithics ~ Laminated Shale

Figure 8: Example illustrating NTG estimation in channelised lobe reservoirs. The first track shows net sand
from acoustic images, alongside a gamma curve and facies derived from image analysis. Massive and laminated
sandstones are invariably counted as net, whilst heterolithic facies contain large proportions of thin beds.
Clast-bearing intervals and debris flow facies may be counted as net or non-net, depending on the amount of shale.
Various cut-offs have been applied to the petrophysical VCL curve. Note that the use of a restrictive cut-off
(VCL 30%) is valid for sandstones thicker than ca. 0.5m, but thinly bedded heterolithics are not counted.
A less restrictive cut-off (e.g. VCL50%) results in 'artificial' amalgamation of beds.

12
 SPWLA 43 ~dAnnual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002

0 ~ G R ~ 170 VCL PHI NET SAND

UBI Facies UBI dips
VCL (30% Cut
UBI Net S a n d
0 off.)
1 o
O

50 °

I,,,,,,,=

,0,=,,,=

HH
Fig. 9a: Acoustic image example, and NTG analysis in well-bedded splay
association (between arrows). Bed thickness is variable (bimodal).
50cmI Mean bed thickness = 9cm; NTG Acoustic images = 36.9%
NTG VCL analysis (30% cutoff) = 19.8%

) 5m

Fig. 9b: Acoustic image example, and NTG analysis in well-bedded

proximal levee association (between arrows). Mean bed thickness is
relatively constant in this example. Mean bed thickness = 6cm
NTG Acoustic images = 38.7%; NTG VCL analysis (30% cutoff) = 10.2%
50cmI
~'~i~i
It, !ii!~i~i~! ~:i~i~!l:'!:l~rL'*:~' • . . . . " ".H , ~'..........................................................................

~.~_,~ i!iiiii!!ii~ ! :::: ~:i!i::i~ii.;~_:i:::;:::~!ii!i:::::::'~i!i!!!ii~;~: 5 rn

,0,,=,,,=

Fig. 9c: Acoustic image example, and NTG analysis in well-bedded

proximal levee association (between arrows). Mean bed thickness is
similar to 9b, but overall NTG is higher. Note that NTG using a 30%
50cmI VCL cutoff is comparable to that calculated from acoustic images.
Mean bed thickness = 5.5cm; NTG Acoustic images = 49.4%
NTG VCL analysis (30% cutoff) = 43.3%

13
S P W L A 43 r'~Annual Logging Symposium, June 2-5, 2002

o GR ~ 1 7 0 VCL PHI NET SAND

UBI Facies UBI dips
UBI Net Sand
.~.',-."~...,;.:,
........-y

5m

Fig. 10a: Acoustic image example, and NTG analysis in deformed

proximal levee association (between arrows).
50cm] Mean bed thickness = 20cm
NTG Acoustic images = 51.0%
NTG VCL analysis (30% cutoff) = 75.5%

5m

Fig. 10b: Acoustic image example, and NTG analysis in deformed

proximal levee association (between arrows).
Mean bed thickness = 12cm
NTG Acoustic images = 52.9%
50cm] NTG VCL analysis (30% cutoff) = 65.3%

14