General Chemistry II Study Notes for Third Quarter Exam

1. Hydrocarbon, any of a class of organic chemical compounds composed only of the elements carbon (C)
and hydrogen (H). The carbon atoms join together to form the framework of the compound, and the
hydrogen atoms attach to them in many different configurations. Found everywhere in the environment,
from petroleum and natural gas to explosives, rubbers, industrial chemicals and etc.
1.1 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
1.1.1 Alkanes, hydrocarbons in which all the bonds are single, have molecular formulas that satisfy the
general expression CnH2n + 2 (where n is an
integer). In order of increasing number of
carbon
atoms, methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6),
and propane (C3H8) are the first three
members of the series. Usually, the higher
the number of carbons, the higher the boiling
point.

1.1.2 Cycloalkanes, countless organic compounds are known in which a sequence of carbon atoms, rather
than being connected in a chain, closes to form a ring. Saturated hydrocarbons that contain one ring are
referred to as cycloalkanes. With a general formula of CnH2n (n is an integer greater than 2), they have two
fewer hydrogen atoms than an alkane with the same number of carbon atoms. Cyclopropane (C3H6) is the
smallest cycloalkane, whereas cyclohexane (C6H12) is the most studied, best understood, and most
important.

1.1.3 Alkenes and alkynes belong to the class of unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons. Alkenes are
hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-carbon double bond, whereas alkynes have a carbon-carbon triple bond.
Alkenes are characterized by the general molecular formula CnH2n, alkynes by CnH2n − 2. Ethene (C2H4)
is the simplest alkene and ethyne (C2H2) the simplest alkyne.

1.2. Aromatic Hydrocarbons

1.2.1 Benzene (C6H6), the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon, was first isolated in 1825 by English chemist
Michael Faraday. Arenes are hydrocarbon compounds that contain
a benzene ring as a structural unit. In addition to benzene, other
Note: Use your previous lesson notes for examples of Benzene derivatives -X

examples include toluene.

1.2.2.You can interchangeably use these 3 figures to represent a benzene
Some benzene Derivatives definition and uses
1. Aniline is a versatile benzene derivative used to make many products, from dyes to explosives, synthetic
rubber, photographic chemicals and even drugs. Aniline is used to produce acetaminophen, or tylenol,
another over the counter pain medication. Woodworking creates the beautiful furniture we see in our homes,
like tables and ornate chairs. Aniline is used to make many colorful finishes for these pieces.
2. Aldehyde is used in tanning, preserving, and embalming and as a germicide, fungicide, and insecticide
for plants and vegetables, but its largest application is in the production of certain polymeric materials. The
plastic Bakelite is made by a reaction between formaldehyde and phenol.
3. Perhaps the two best-known alcohols are ethanol and methanol (or methyl alcohol). Ethanol is used in
toiletries, pharmaceuticals, and fuels, and it is used to sterilize hospital instruments. It is, moreover, the
alcohol in alcoholic beverages.
4. Esters with characteristic odours are used in synthetic flavours, perfumes, and cosmetics. Certain volatile
esters are used as solvents for lacquers, paints, and varnishes; for this purpose, large quantities of ethyl
acetate and butyl acetate are commercially produce
5. Vapours of certain ethers are used as detergents, insecticides, miticides, and fumigants for soil. Ethers
are also important in medicine and pharmacology, especially for use as anesthetics.
6. Ketone behaves as an excellent solvent for certain types of plastics and synthetic fibres. It also act as a
paint thinner and a nail paint remover in acetone.It is also used for medicinal purposes such as chemical
peeling procedure as well as acne treatments.
7. Medicines based on amines such as Morphine and Demerol are commonly used as analgesics – medicines
that relieve pain.
8. Amides may be used to form resilient structural materials (e.g., nylon, Kevlar). Dimethylformamide is an
important organic solvent. Plants produce amides for a variety of functions. Amides are found in many
drugs.
9. Carboxylic acid is used in manufacturing soaps, soft drinks, food products and etc. It is also used in
pharmaceuticals.

2. Intermolecular Forces (IMF) are the forces which mediate interaction between molecules, including
forces of attraction or repulsion which act between molecules and other types of neighbouring particles,
e.g., atoms or ions.

2.1. Ion-Ion Forces is the strongest intermolecular force because

it involves formal charges of elements/compounds. Example of
this is how NaCl atoms are arranged in given space.

2.2. Ion-Dipole Force is an intermolecular attraction between an ion and

a polar molecule. Best example for this type of IMF is table salt (NaCl)
placed in water (H20).
2.3. Dipole-Dipole Force interactions are intermolecular attractions that
result from two permanent dipoles interacting. There is a special type of
dipole-dipole force in Hydrogen bonding where a Hydrogen atom is
connected to either of these 3 elements (Fluorine, Oxygen, and Nitrogen)

2.4. Van der Waals forces, relatively weak electric forces that attract
neutral molecules to one another in gases, in liquefied and solidified
gases, and in almost all organic liquids and solids. The forces are named
for the Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals

2.5. Arrangement of IMFs from strongest to weakest bond.

Ion-Ion > Ion-Dipole > Dipole-Dipole > Van der Waals
2.6. Surface Tension happens when water molecules at the surface are pulled inward by cohesion.
2.6.1. Cohesion happens when water molecules stick with other water molecules via Hydrogen bonding.
Example: The way water doesn't spread when placed in a coin
2.6.2. Adhesion happens when water molecules stick with other non-water molecules via Hydrogen
bonding. Example: The way water is delivered all throughout the plant body by sticking water molecules
with the Xylem (Water transport) through capillary action.

3. Solutions can be solid, liquid, or gas and it is defined as a liquid mixture in which the minor component
(the solute) is uniformly distributed within the major component (the solvent). All solids maintain a defined
shape and size if conditions remain constant.
3.1. Phase Change is most commonly used to describe transitions between solid, liquid, and gaseous states
of matter.
3.1.1. Melting is the process by which a substance changes
from solid to liquid.
3.1.2. Freezing is the process by which a substance
changes from liquid to solid.
3.1.3. Condensation is the process by which a substance
changes from gas to liquid
3.1.4. Evaporation is the process by which a substance
changes from liquid to gas.
3.1.5. Sublimation is the process by which a substance
changes from solid to gas
3.1.6. Deposition is the process by which a substance
changes from gas to solid.
4. Thermochemistry and Chemical Kinetics (Basics)
4.1. Entropy is the degree of disorder or randomness in the system. the measure of a system's thermal energy
per unit temperature that is unavailable for doing useful work.
4.2.1. Open system is a system that freely exchanges energy and matter with its surroundings. For instance,
when you are boiling soup in an open saucepan on a stove, energy and matter are being transferred to the
surroundings through steam. The saucepan is an open system because
it allows for the transfer of matter (for
example adding spices in the saucepan) and
for the transfer of energy (for example
heating the saucepan and allowing steam to
leave the saucepan).

4.2.2. Closed system is a system that exchanges only energy with its surroundings, not matter. By putting
a lid on the saucepan, matter can no longer transfer because the lid
prevents matter from entering the saucepan and leaving the saucepan.
Still, the saucepan allows energy transfer.

4.2.3. Isolated System does not exchange energy or matter with its surroundings. For example, if soup is
poured into an insulated container (as seen below) and closed, there is no exchange of heat or matter. The
fact that, in reality, a thermos is not perfect in keeping things warm/cold illustrates the difficulty in creating
a truly isolated system. In fact, there are a few, if any, systems that exist in this world that are completely
isolated systems.

4.3. Endothermic vs. Exothermic

A quick difference between endothermic and exothermic involves reactions in the environment. An
endothermic reaction takes place when energy is absorbed from surroundings in the form of heat, and
exothermic is when energy is released from the system into the surroundings.

4.3.1. Endothermic must be supplied with heat and is basically the opposite of exothermic. An everyday
reaction is in the cooking of an egg. There must be heat added or absorbed from the environment to cook
the egg or any other food item.

4.3.2. Exothermic reactions, on the other hand, make the surrounding environment hotter since heat
energy is released, radiating energy while it progresses. A campfire is an excellent example of this reaction.
The energy from the chemical bonds of paper and wood is released in the form of light, and of course,
heat. Those sitting around the campfire become warm as a result of the released heat.
Notes to remember:
-Calorimetry is the branch of thermodynamics that measures heat flow in a reaction.
-Chemical Kinetics is concerned with the rates of the reaction.
-The ΔH (enthalpy) value for an exothermic energy change is always negative
- According to the collision theory, particles must collide with correct orientation.