The concept of self-confidence is commonly used as self-assurance in one's personal judgment,

ability, power, etc. One's self confidence increases from experiences of having satisfactorily
completed particular activities.[1] It is a positive[2] belief that in the future one can generally accomplish
what one wishes to do. Self-confidence is not the same as self-esteem, which is an evaluation of
one's own worth, whereas self-confidence is more specifically trust in one's ability to achieve some
goal, which one meta-analysis suggested is similar to generalization of self-efficacy.[3] Abraham
Maslow and many others after him have emphasized the need to distinguish between self-
confidence as a generalized personality characteristic, and self-confidence with respect to a specific
task, ability or challenge (i.e. self-efficacy). Self-confidence typically refers to general self-
confidence. This is different from self-efficacy, which psychologist Albert Bandura has defined as a
“belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task”[4] and therefore is the
term that more accurately refers to specific self-confidence. Psychologists have long noted that a
person can possess self-confidence that he or she can complete a specific task (self-efficacy) (e.g.
cook a good meal or write a good novel) even though they may lack general self-confidence, or
conversely be self-confident though they lack the self-efficacy to achieve a particular task (e.g. write
a novel). These two types of self-confidence are, however, correlated with each other, and for this
reason can be easily conflated.[5]

History[edit]
Ideas about the causes and effects of self-confidence have appeared in English language
publications describing characteristics of a sacrilegious attitude toward God,[6] the character of the
British empire,[7] and the culture of colonial-era American society[8] (where it seemed to connote
arrogance and be a negative attribute.)
In 1890, the philosopher William James in his Principles of Psychology wrote, “Believe what is in the
line of your needs, for only by such belief is the need fulled ... Have faith that you can successfully
make it, and your feet are nerved to its accomplishment,” expressing how self-confidence could be a
virtue. That same year, Dr. Frederick Needham in his presidential address to the opening of
the British Medical Journal’s Section of Psychology praised a progressive new architecture of an
asylum accommodation for insane patients as increasing their self-confidence by offering them
greater “liberty of action, extended exercise, and occupation, thus generating self-confidence and
becoming, not only excellent tests of the sanity of the patient, but operating powerfully in promoting
recovery.”[9] In doing so, he seemed to early on suggest that self-confidence may bear a scientific
relation to mental health.
With the arrival of World War I, psychologists praised self-confidence as greatly decreasing nervous
tension, allaying fear, and ridding the battlefield of terror; they argued that soldiers who cultivated a
strong and healthy body would also acquire greater self-confidence while fighting.[10] At the height of
the Temperance social reform movement of the 1920s, psychologists associated self-confidence in
men with remaining at home and taking care of the family when they were not working.[11] During
the Great Depression, Philip Eisenberg and Paul Lazerfeld noted how a sudden negative change in
one's circumstances, especially a loss of a job, could lead to decreased self-confidence, but more
commonly if the jobless person believes the fault of his unemployment is his. They also noted how if
individuals do not have a job long enough, they became apathetic and lost all self-confidence.[12]
In 1943, Abraham Maslow in his paper “A Theory of Human Motivation” argued that an individual
was only motivated to acquire self-confidence (one component of “esteem”) after he or she had
achieved what they needed for physiological survival, safety, and love and belonging. He claimed
that satisfaction of self-esteem led to feelings of self-confidence that, once attained, led to a desire
for “self-actualization."[13] As material standards of most people rapidly rose in developed countries
after World War II and fulfilled their material needs, a plethora of widely cited academic research
about-confidence and many related concepts like self-esteem and self-efficacy emerged.[14][15][16][17]

Theories and correlations with other variables and

factors[edit]
Self-confidence as an intra-psychological variable[edit]
Social psychologists have found self-confidence to be correlated with other psychological variables
within individuals, including saving money,[18] how individuals exercise influence over others,[19] and
being a responsible student.[20] Marketing researchers have found that general self-confidence of a
person is negatively correlated with their level of anxiety.[21]
Some studies suggest various factors within and beyond an individual's control that affect their self-
confidence. Hippel and Trivers propose that people will deceive themselves about their own positive
qualities and negative qualities of others so that they can display greater self-confidence than they
might otherwise feel, thereby enabling them to advance socially and materially.[22] Others have found
that new information about an individual's performance interacts with an individual's prior self-
confidence about their ability to perform. If that particular information is negative feedback, this may
interact with a negative affective state (low self-confidence) causing the individual to become
demoralized, which in turn induces a self-defeating attitude that increases the likelihood of failure in
the future more than if they did not lack self-confidence.[23][24] On the other hand, some also find that
self-confidence increases a person's general well-being[25][26] and one's motivation[27] and therefore
often performance.[28] It also increases one's ability to deal with stress and mental health.[29][30]
A meta-analysis of 12 articles found that generally when individuals attribute their success to a
stable cause (a matter under their control) they are less likely to be confident about being successful
in the future. If an individual attributes their failure to an unstable cause (a factor beyond their
control, like a sudden and unexpected storm) they are more likely to be confident about succeeding
in the future.[31] Therefore, if an individual believes he/she and/or others failed to achieve a goal (e.g.
give up smoking) because of a factor that was beyond their control, he or she is more likely to be
more self-confident that he or she can achieve the goal in the future.[32] Whether a person in making
a decision seeks out additional sources of information depends on their level of self-confidence
specific to that area. As the complexity of a decision increases, a person is more likely to be
influenced by another person and seek out additional information.[2] However, people can also be
relatively self-confident about what they believe if they consult sources of information that agree with
their world views (e.g. New York Times for liberals, Fox News for conservatives), even if they do not
know what will happen tomorrow.[33] Several psychologists suggest that people who are self-
confident are more willing to examine evidence that both supports and contradicts their attitudes.
Meanwhile, people who are less self-confident about their perspective and are more defensive about
them may prefer proattitudinal information over materials that challenge their
perspectives.[34][35][36] (see also Byrne, 1961; Olson & Zanna, 1982b; for related views in other
domains, see Tesser, 2001).

Relationship to social influences[edit]

An individual's self-confidence can vary in different environments, such as at home or in school, and
with respect to different types of relationships and situations.[37] In relation to general society, some
have found that the more self-confident an individual is, the less likely they are to conform to the
judgments of others.[38] Leon Festinger found that self-confidence in an individual's ability may only
rise or fall where that individual is able to compare themselves to others who are roughly similar in a
competitive environment.[39] Furthermore, when individuals with low self-confidence receive feedback
from others, they are averse to receiving information about their relative ability and negative
informative feedback, and not averse to receiving positive feedback.[40]
People with high self-confidence can easily impress others, as others perceive them as more
knowledgeable and more likely to make correct judgments,[41] despite the fact that often a negative
correlation is sometimes found between the level of their self-confidence and accuracy of their
claims.[42] When people are uncertain and unknowledgeable about a topic, they are more likely to
believe the testimony,[43] and follow the advice of those that seem self-confident.[44] However, expert
psychological testimony on the factors that influence eyewitness memory appears to reduce juror
reliance on self-confidence.[43]
People are more likely to choose leaders with greater self-confidence than those with less self-
confidence.[45][46] Heterosexual men who exhibit greater self-confidence than other men are more
likely to attract single and partnered women.[47][48] Salespeople who are high in self-confidence are
more likely to set higher goals for themselves and therefore more likely to stay employed.[49] yield
higher revenues and customer service satisfaction[50][51] In relation to leadership, leaders with high
self-confidence are more likely to influence others through persuasion rather than coercive means.
Individuals low in power and thus in self-confidence are more likely to use coercive methods of
influence[52] and to become personally involved while those high in self-confidence are more likely to
refer problem to someone else or resort to bureaucratic procedures to influence others (e.g. appeal
to organizational policies or regulations).[53][54][55] Others suggest that self-confidence does not affect
style of leadership but is only correlated with years of supervisory experience and self-perceptions of
power.[19]