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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Introduction
Solar panels require a strong, durable foundation. In most cases, using helical piles for solar panel
foundations and mounting is the best option available. In suitable soils, properly installed helical piles
offer substantial benefits and can increase productivity considerably.

Given that the utility sector has driven much of the solar growth in recent years, it is easy to forget that
large-scale ground-mounted PV power plants are a relatively recent phenomenon. Veteran project
developers might have a decade of experience in designing and deploying solar farms.

Further, the market has changed dramatically, in terms of both typical project capacity and average
installed costs. As a result, solar-specific geotechnical engineering is in its infancy compared to
geotechnical engineering for more conventional applications such as vertical construction, buildings,
bridges or dams.

Types of foundation (based on soil type)

1. Driven piles

2. Helical piles

3. Earth screws

4. Ballasted foundation

Fig. 1 Types of foundation

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

A site should first be checked by digging test pits at approximately 5 to 10 locations for each
megawatt of installation. Enough test pits should be dug so that the number is statistically
relevant.

They should be bored or dug to a depth of typically 15 feet and the type of soil, rock or ledge
which will prevent helical piles or driven piles from penetrating (which is called “refusal”) and
water table level should be noted at one foot increments.

A complete geotechnical study should also be conducted by an engineering firm which will
include a limited number of test bores noting soil type, refusal, and water table. Also the
geotechnical report will note corrosive factors to help in selecting the correct type of corrosion
protection needed for the foundations.

Geotechnical reports often tend to be very conservative in their embedment depth

recommendation, and a pull test should be conducted after selection of foundation type in
order to attempt to minimize embedment depth, and thus length and cost of screwed or driven
foundations. A pull test uses a strain gauge to measure vertical and lateral resistance up to
the forces required by the PV support structure engineer’s calculations for wind and snow
load requirements.

If a site contains loose sand and a high water table or otherwise very low soil cohesiveness
which would make driven piles or earth-screws unpractical due to requiring extreme
embedment depth, and no refusal is encountered, then the preferable foundation type would
be a helical pile or ballasted foundation.

A helical pile is a post shape with a pointed bottom and a large split disc near the bottom
welded onto the post at an angle such that when the post is rotated the split disc will worm its
way into the ground. The helical pile is typically hot dip galvanized with corrosion resistant
zinc after fabrication. The helical pile is ideal for locations with poor soil cohesion since it can
be easily installed with auger attachments on bobcats, excavators or other equipment which
rotate it into the sand. Although soil conditions little cohesiveness such as sand with high
water table provide little pullout resistance, the disc is held by the mass of the column of sand
above it, creating strong pullout resistance. In order to determine embedment depth of the
helical pile a pull test should be conducted which will measure the vertical and lateral forces
at various embedment depths to see where the helical pile will have sufficient resistance to
satisfy the requirements of the loads determined by the PV support structure vendor’s
structural engineers.

Ballasted foundations are typically precast or less expensive Pour-in-Place concrete

foundations to or in which the PV support structures are mounted. Historically these
foundations have been too expensive to consider them as a viable alternative to driven or
screwed foundations, but recent price declines made possible by Pour-in-Place solutions and
some declines in precast solutions have driven the cost close to other foundations in some
instances. Ballasted foundations are good options where a combination of high refusal rates
and low soil cohesiveness such as loose sand with high water table are present, making
installation of both helical piles and earth-screws alternately not effective as earth-screws are
not effective in soils with poor cohesiveness and helical piles will not install if refusal is
present. Ballasted foundations are also good options for sites which would otherwise be good
for helical piles or earth-screws if the ballasted foundations are as cost effective as the other
foundations in these cases when the total of install cost, ballast cost, and system cost are
calculated.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

If a site has substantial refusal near at many locations the optimal foundation type would be
earth-screws or ballasted foundations.

An earth-screw is a steel post shape with threads welded onto or machined into it to create a
large screw. After fabrication, earth-screws are typically hot dip galvanized with corrosion
resistant zinc. These earth-screws are usually installed after predrilling holes into the rock or
ledge and then screwing them into the holes with bobcats, excavators or other equipment
using auger attachments. They can also be installed without predrilling if there are no refusal
issues. The cost of installation is high due to the need for separate equipment to predrill.
However, since the threads of the screw are very sticky and create substantial pullout
resistance, they are less expensive then driven pile installation in sites with high amounts of
refusal which typically require expensive over sized holes to be drilled and the driven piles to
be installed with concrete poured around them.

Driven piles are the simplest and least expensive foundations, and are typically I beams, hat
or channel shaped steel sections. These are commonly galvanized to prevent against
corrosion and ensure long life under environmental conditions. Zinc is a metal which is highly
effective is preventing rust, and is permanently applied to the surface of steel in a process
called galvanization. Galvanization can either be applied to the sheet or coil steel in the steel
mills prior to fabrication (pre-galvanizing) or to the fabricated part afterward, which it is dipped
into a bath of hot zinc (hot dip galvanizing).

In conclusion, it is critical to carefully investigate a site prior to selecting the foundation type to
be utilized. Test pits at many locations are an inexpensive method of determining what will be
encountered beneath the ground and should be combined with a geotechnical study. Failure
to properly understand the site conditions can result in costly change orders and significant
delays to projects, resulting in lost revenues as well. Measure twice and cut one is critical
here more than anywhere in your PV support structure foundation selection process.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Types of foundation (based on mount type)

1. Rooftop installations
2. Canopy installations
3. Ground mount installations

Illustration diagram:

Fig. 2 Rooftop installation

Fig. 3 Ground mount installations

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Fig. 4 Canopy installation

1. Rooftop Installations – Rooftop solar energy systems are one of the most popular and affordable
solar energy solutions on the market today. From small peak, roof-mount systems for municipal
facilities to large ballasted rooftop systems for commercial and educational facilities, rooftop
photovoltaic structures can increase the value of your property by creating revenue from unused roof
space and hedge against rising utility rates. Rooftops suitable for a PV array should be flat or angled
to get good sun exposure (not shaded by mountains, trees or other structures) and relatively free of
obstructions in order to permit the PV installation. Flat roof solar panel installation is the easiest way
to go solar on your building, offering flexibility for orientation and tilting to gain ideal solar collection.
They are typically used on commercial installations with a ballasted mount (using weights to hold the
solar array instead of bolting it down), mechanically attached mount (attached to posts secured in the
roof beams), or via a hybrid mount (often referred to as a minimally attached system using some
structural attachments combined with typical ballasted design) .

2. Canopy Installations – Canopy-mounted photovoltaic structures are ideal for elevated solar power
systems above wastewater tanks, parking lots or open areas adjacent to facilities. Adaptable by
design, canopy solar panel installation accommodates all different types of topography contours.
Each system is uniquely engineered to optimize energy output in your available space – ultimately
maximizing your return on investment

3. Ground Mount Installations – Ground Mount solar systems provide the flexibility to install arrays in
open spaces when available roof area is limited, obstructed or nonexistent. The solar panel
installation for these types of systems involves a wedge structure made of steel that anchors the solar
panels to a concrete foundation. They can range in size dramatically and can be adapted to a variety
of locations offering different foundation and installation approaches for addressing uneven terrain
and various soil types and conditions. Adjusting the tilt angle and azimuth with ground mounts can
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

optimize performance. And while PV arrays don’t have to be cleaned, spotless modules do produce
more energy; ground mounted solar systems can be more easily washed than rooftop installations.
Ground mount solar systems are typically made of anodized aluminum, steel or a combination of
aluminum and steel components.

Different types of foundations are used in

accordance with the shape and terrain of the area:
FOUNDATION AND RACKING SYSTEMS

With information on geotechnical and civil issues, you can now choose the foundation and racking
type. The foundation design, in some cases, may dictate the racking type, since some racking
designs are limited to a few foundation types or are better suited to one type. Choosing the right
foundation and racking type for a site is among the biggest design decisions to be made.

FOUNDATION TYPES

Most solar installers have experience with cast-in-place concrete footings for ground-mounted
systems. On a small system, this may be the best option. As system sizes get larger, there are usually
compelling reasons to consider alternate foundation types, including ballasted foundations, driven-
steel piles and ground screws.

Ballasted foundation

This is a good option when the soil is difficult to penetrate or has considerable rocks or subsurface
contaminants. Even the uncertainty of what lies below may make a ballasted foundation preferable.
Precast concrete is probably the most common option. Care should be taken with a ballasted
foundation to allow for some soil settling, erosion or heaving. A large area of rigidly linked racking on
multiple-ballasted foundations could be subject to stresses with soil movement. Ballasted foundations
do, however, have limitations when it comes to sloped or uneven terrain. Work with the mounting-
system manufacturer and the civil engineer to make sure that the mounting system can accommodate
the slope and relative change in the finished grade.

Driven-steel piles

On many larger projects these days, driven-steel piles—generally, steel beam or pipe—are
increasingly the foundation of choice. While many designers in the US are just discovering these
products, German and Spanish project developers have had great success with them. The
advantages include speed of installation, accuracy of placement, lack of cure time and low cost when
employed on a large scale. For these reasons, many large-scale systems use driven-piles when
possible.

Specialized machinery is often needed, so a smaller project may not be able to benefit from the lower
costs that economies of scale bring. The fixed cost for bringing pile-driving equipment and personnel
with the necessary expertise to the site generally equates to a high cost per unit on small projects.

Ground screws

Helical piers and ground screws are another type of pile foundation. A smaller site may be able to
take advantage of a ground screw, which can be driven by small construction machinery, like a small
front-end loader fitted with the appropriate attachment.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

RACKING TYPES

For the lowest risk and, typically, lowest cost approach, purchase a racking system from a reputable
manufacturer with a good track record in supplying commercial product to the industry.

Pre-engineering is just one of the benefits of working with equipment available from reputable
manufacturers. Many mounting-system manufacturers have done extensive testing to validate that
their designs hold up to expected loads. Their designs may also allow for field adjustments that make
up for inaccuracies in the locations of foundations. These installation efficiencies are another benefit
of working with quality, commercially available racking systems.

Illustration diagram:

Fig. 5 Racking types

Wind factor
The main factor that determines foundation size (other than the location of the installation), is the wind
surface area of the equipment being mounted on the pole/ tower/ column. It is the wind surface area
that produces the wind force (kgf) that transfers itself to the foundation, for which the foundation
needs to be of sufficient size to overcome the 'over turning moment' produced by this lever force. The
greater the surface area of equipment at the top of the structure, the larger the foundation size
required, so it is very important that the 'Max equip surface area' shown in our technical tables is not
exceeded. An extreme example of this is a solar panel which can be very light - only a few kilograms,
but can have a large surface area and therefore require a much larger foundation size than the ones
we state.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Types of reinforcement used in foundation:

Reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) is the combination of ordinary concrete with the reinforcement to
increase its compressive and tensile strength to a great extent.

Concrete is a versatile material for modern construction which is prepared by mixing together well-
proportioned quantities of cement (even lime in some cases), sand, crushed rock or gravel and water.

It has been used from foundations to the rooftops of buildings, in the construction of highways roads
traffic, and hydro-power tunnels, irrigation canals, drains, and all other conceivable structures.

Purpose of Reinforcement in Concrete:

As you know that, Concrete is very high in compressive strength, but it is low in tensile strength.

Thus, when only the compressive loads are acting on the concrete surface, then there is no need of
using reinforcement in it, but where tensile forces are also involved, as in, beams and slabs, there is a
very risk of its failure when plain concrete is used.

Steel, however, as we know, has a very high tensile strength (and also as high compressive strength).

Hence when the two (concrete and steel) are combined together, a material of construction is
obtained that is capable of withstanding all the three types of forces likely to act upon a structure:
compressive loads, tensile stresses, and shear forces Such a material is known as Reinforced
Cement Concrete.

It has proved extremely useful and reliable in engineering construction.

Types of Reinforcement used in R.C.C:

Reinforcement used in concrete is principally made of steel of different types. Further, it may be made
in required shape and volume. Some common types of reinforcement are:

(i) Mild Steel Bars:

These come in various diameters and are required to possess a characteristic strength in tension
which is specified in relevant codes.

The steel bars used as reinforcement can be commonly bent easily without cracking at the bends.

(ii) Hot Rolled Bars and Cold Worked Bars:

They are specially prepared reinforcements. The first type has a characteristic strength in tension
which is almost double than that of mild steel bars.

Further, as these come commonly in thick sections.

They can be bent by heating (up to 100°C) without developing any defects. This is not possible with
the ordinary mild steel bars.

Similarly, the cold worked steel bars come in twisted or stretched forms having elongated ribs or such
structures along their length.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

They also have a much higher characteristic strength of the order of 425 N/mm 2 against 250
N/mm2 for mild steel bars. Such bars may not be heated for bending and re-bending.

(iii) Steel Fabric:

This is made from a variety of bars and wires. These may include plain round wires, indented and
deformed wires, deformed steel bars of cold-worked type.

The mesh from such wires is made by welding together straightened lengths very carefully and strictly
in accordance with the specifications.

Otherwise, the mechanical properties of reinforcement may be affected adversely.

Steel bars does not vary according to the structure. They vary according to loading conditions
imposed on the structure.

Illustration diagram:

Fig. 6 Commonly used bars

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Foundation Area:
One of the most important questions to ask when you’re considering solar panels for your home or
any building is “how many solar panels do I need?” It’s important because you want to make sure
your solar panels can provide enough electricity to offset your power bill and pay back their cost.

Below, we’ll work through how we get to the numbers we used for an average home. Here’s a step-
by-step list of preliminary questions you have to answer before you get to the number that will answer
the final question:

Step 1: Determine your energy usage

Looking at usage over a year, you can get a good picture of your total energy needs. In fact, many
utility companies base the total allowable size of your home solar panel system on how much energy
you used in the 12-month period prior to installation, so you and your installer need to know this
number.

Some utility companies make it simple to find your kWh needs by putting your year-to-date or last 12
months’ usage somewhere on your bill. Others make it more difficult by withholding that information,
forcing you to call them, go on their website, or (gasp) find all 12 of your last bills and add up the
monthly totals to calculate the annual usage.

Illustration diagram:

Here’s an example from one utility’s online portal that shows monthly and total usage in
kWh, along with the average daily temperature, which can illustrate why usage is higher:

Table 1
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Step 2: See if the panels will fit on your roof

Oh! Here’s the last wrinkle: will those 21 panels fit on your roof? Assuming you have a nice, un-
shaded, south-facing roof (west-facing in a pinch), how much space do you need?

Well, the average dimensions of a home solar panel like the 320-watt panel we quoted above are 39
inches x 65 inches. That’s 17.6 square feet each. Solar panels are installed in long rows on roof racks
connected to your roof by lag bolts, and they don’t need much more space than their dimensions. but
there are a couple rules about providing enough space on the edges of your roof and around
obstructions.

Solar panel setback

When it comes to solar panels, the term setback means a certain amount of space that needs to be
clear between the panels and the sides and ridgeline of the roof.

In California, for example, the rule states that a setback of 3 feet is necessary to allow firefighters to
access the parts of the roof that are essential to doing their jobs properly. As you can imagine, this
eliminates a good deal of available roof space. Most other states follow California’s lead here,
because they were the first to lay out these rules.

Here’s how setback looks in practice:

Fig. 7 Solar panel setback

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Bolt design:
Solar Panel Hold-Down Clamps

Illustration diagram:

Fig. 8 Solar panel hold down clamps

Solar Panel Grounding Washer

Illustration diagram:

Fig. 9 Solar panel grounding washer

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Experiment no. 01
Experiment name:

Safe bearing capacity of soil

Learning objective:

In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the
ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the
foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate bearing capacity is
the theoretical maximum pressure which can be supported without failure; allowable bearing capacity
is the ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety. Sometimes, on soft soil sites, large
settlements may occur under loaded foundations without actual shear failure occurring; in such cases,
the allowable bearing capacity is based on the maximum allowable settlement. This simple and quick
field test will give you a rough idea of bearing capacity of soil.

Illustration diagram:

Fig. 10 safe bearing capacity of soil

Materials required:

1. Shovel

2. Solid ball or Square Cube (of known weight and dimensions)

Procedure:

1. Excavate a pit of required depth. (preferably equal to the depth of foundation)

2. Take a solid ball or square cube of known weight and dimension.

3. Drop the ball or square cube several times, from a known height on to the bottom surface of
excavated pit.

4. Calculate the average depth of impression made several times on the bottom surface of the
excavated pit. Let “d” is the average depth of impression.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Calculate the ultimate resistance of soil ( R ) using the formula given below:

R = (w * h) / d

Where,

R = Ultimate resistance of soil (in kg)

d = Average depth of impression (in cm)

w = Weight of the solid ball or square cube (in kg)

h = Height of fall of solid ball or cube (in cm)

If “A” is the cross-sectional area of the solid steel ball or cube, then resistance of soil per unit area is
calculated using following formula.

Resistance of soil per unit area (in kg/cm2) = R / A

Safe bearing capacity (in kg/cm2) = R / (A * F.O.S)

Where,F.O.S = Factor of safety

Conclusion:

The bearing capacity of soil is defined as the capacity of the soil to bear the loads coming from the
foundation. The pressure which the soil can easily withstand against load is called allowable bearing
pressure.

Type of Soil / Rock Safe / Allowable Bearing Capacity (kg/cm

Rock 32.40

Soft rock 4.40

Coarse sand 4.40

Medium sand 2.45

Fine sand 4.40

Soft shell / Stiff clay 1.00

Soft clay 1.00

Very soft clay 0.50

Table 2 Different bearing capacity of soil

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Experiment no. 02
Experiment name:

Compressive strength of concrete cubes.

Learning objectives:

To find compressive strength value of concrete cubes.

Overall Strength of a structure such as flexural resistance and abrasion directly depends upon the
compressive strength of concrete.

Compressive Strength of concrete is defined as the Characteristic strength of 150mm size concrete
cubes tested at 28 days.

Illustration diagram:

Fig. 11 Apparatus required for the test

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Materials required:

 150 mm Cube Moulds (with IS Mark)

 Electronic Weighing Balance

 G.I Sheet (For Making Concrete)

 Vibrating Needle & other tools

 Compressions Testing Machine

Procedure:

Cube Casting

 Measure the dry proportion of ingredients (Cement, Sand & Coarse Aggregate) as per the
design requirements. The Ingredients should be sufficient enough to cast test cubes

 Thoroughly mix the dry ingredients to obtain the uniform mixture

 Add design quantity of water to the dry proportion (water-cement ratio) and mix well to obtain
uniform texture

 Fill the concrete to the mould with the help of vibrator for thorough compaction

 Finish the top of the concrete by trowel & tapped well till the cement slurry comes to the top of
the cubes.

Curing

 After some time the mould should be covered with red gunny bag and put undisturbed for 24
hours at a temperature of 27 ° Celsius ± 2

 After 24 hours remove the specimen from the mould.

 Keep the specimen submerged under fresh water at 27 ° Celsius. The specimen should be
kept for 7 or 28 days. Every 7 days the water should be renewed.

 The specimen should be removed from the water 30 minutes prior to the testing.

 The specimen should be in dry condition before conducting the testing.

 The Cube weight should not be less than 8.1 Kgs

Testing

 Now place the concrete cubes into the testing machine. (centrally)

 The cubes should be placed correctly on the machine plate (check the circle marks on the
machine). Carefully align the specimen with the spherically seated plate.

 The load will be applied to the specimen axially.

 Now slowly apply the load at the rate of 140kg/cm 2 per minute till the cube collapse.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

 The maximum load at which the specimen breaks is taken as a compressive load.

Compressive Strength of concrete = Maximum compressive load / Cross Sectional Area

Conclusion:

It an idea about all the characteristics of concrete. By this single test one judge that whether
Concreting has been done properly or not. Concrete compressive strength for general construction
varies from 15 MPa (2200 psi) to 30 MPa (4400 psi) and higher in commercial and industrial
structures.

Compressive strength of concrete depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio, cement
strength, quality of concrete material, quality control during production of concrete etc.

Safety aspects:

 The above experiment should be conducted at the temperature of 27° Celsius ± 2°.

 As per IS 516, the individual variation in compressive load should not be more than plus
minus 15% of the average value.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Experiment no. 03
Experiment name:

Non destructive testing of slab by using rebound hammer.

Learning objectives:

As per the Indian code IS: 13311(2)-1992, the rebound hammer test have the following objectives:

To determine the compressive strength of the concrete by relating the rebound index and the
compressive strength

To assess the uniformity of the concrete

To assess the quality of the concrete based on the standard specifications

To relate one concrete element with other in terms of quality

Rebound hammer test method can be used to differentiate the acceptable and questionable parts of
the structure or to compare two different structures based on strength.

Illustration diagrams:

Fig. 12 Operation of the rebound hammer

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Fig. 13 Rebound Hammer Positions for Testing Concrete Structure

Procedure:

Procedure for rebound hammer test on concrete structure starts with calibration of the rebound
hammer. For this, the rebound hammer is tested against the test anvil made of steel having Brinell
hardness number of about 5000 N/mm2.

After the rebound hammer is tested for accuracy on the test anvil, the rebound hammer is held at right
angles to the surface of the concrete structure for taking the readings. The test thus can be conducted
horizontally on vertical surface and vertically upwards or downwards on horizontal surfaces as shown
in figure below

If the rebound hammer is held at intermediate angle, the rebound number will be different for the
same concrete.

The impact energy required for the rebound hammer is different for different applications.
Approximate Impact energy levels are mentioned in the table-1 below for different applications.

Approximate Impact Energy for

Sl.No Applications
Rebound Hammer in Nm

1 For Normal Weight Concrete 2.25

For light weight concrete / For small and

2 0.75
impact resistive concrete parts

For mass concrete testing Eg: In roads,

3 30.00
hydraulic structures and pavements

Table 3 Impact Energy for Rebound Hammers for Different Applications As per IS: 13311(2)-
1992

Conclusion:

After obtaining the correlation between compressive strength and rebound number, the strength of
structure can be assessed. In general, the rebound number increases as the strength increases and
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

is also affected by a number of parameters i.e. type of cement, type of aggregate, surface condition
and moisture content of the concrete, curing and age of concrete, carbonation of concrete surface etc.

Moreover the rebound index is indicative of compressive strength of concrete up to a limited depth
from the surface. The internal cracks, flaws etc. or heterogeneity across the cross section will not be
indicated by rebound numbers.

Safety aspects:

1. The concrete surface should be smooth, clean and dry.

2. Ant loose particles should be rubbed off from the concrete surface with a grinding wheel or
stone, before hammer testing.

3. Rebound hammer test should not be conducted on rough surfaces as a result of incomplete
compaction, loss of grout, spalled or tooled concrete surface.
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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Experiment no. 04
Experiment name:

Tensile test of rod.

Learning objectives:

Tensile testing, also known as tension testing,[1] is a fundamental materials science and engineering
test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure. Properties that are directly
measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, breaking strength, maximum elongation and
reduction in area.[2] From these measurements the following properties can also be determined:
Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.[3] Uniaxial
tensile testing is the most commonly used for obtaining the mechanical characteristics of isotropic
materials. Some materials use biaxial tensile testing.

Tensile testing might have a variety of purposes, such as:

 Select a material or item for an application

 Predict how a material will perform in use: normal and extreme forces.

 Determine if, or verify that, the requirements of a specification, regulation, or contract are met

 Decide if a new product development program is on track: Demonstrate proof of concept

 Demonstrate the utility of a proposed patent

 Provide standard data for other scientific, engineering, and quality assurance functions

 Provide a basis for Technical communication

 Provide a technical means of comparison of several options

 Provide evidence in legal proceedings

Illustration diagrams:

Fig. 14 Tensile testing machine

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Procedure:

A material is gripped at both ends by an apparatus, which slowly pulls lengthwise on the piece until it
fractures. The pulling force is called a load, which is plotted against the material length change, or
displacement. The load is converted to a stress value and the displacement is converted to a strain
value.

Conclusion:

The carbon fiber composite material has a much higher tensile strength and modulus of elasticity than
the other materials. Note they all break in a “brittle” manner, as the curve is linear until it breaks or
fractures with no bending of the curve at high loads. Consequently, there is no permanent change in
original shape during this test, and hence no ductility.

Fig. 15 Universal testing machine

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Type, Size and Specification of foundation for Solar Panel setup

Experiment no. 05
Experiment name:

Universal testing machine.

Learning objectives:

Tensile testing is most often carried out at a material testing laboratory. The ASTM D638 is among
the most common tensile testing protocols. The ASTM D638 measures plastics tensile properties
including ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, elongation and Poisson’s ratio.

The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal testing machine. This type
of machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted for the length of the specimen and the other is driven
to apply tension to the test specimen. There are two types: hydraulic powered and electromagnetically
powered machines.

The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test specimen being tested. There are four
main parameters: force capacity, speed, precision and accuracy. Force capacity refers to the fact that
the machine must be able to generate enough force to fracture the specimen. The machine must be
able to apply the force quickly or slowly enough to properly mimic the actual application. Finally, the
machine must be able to accurately and precisely measure the gauge length and forces applied; for
instance, a large machine that is designed to measure long elongations may not work with a brittle
material that experiences short elongations prior to fracturing.

Illustration diagrams:

Fig. 16 Universal testing machine