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Essentials of Biogeography PDF
Essentials of Biogeography PDF
Essentials of Biogeography PDF
H. S. Mathur
MA Ph D
,
Associate Professor
Department of Geography
University of Rajasthan
Jaipur
Pointer Publishers
Jaipur
© H S. Maihw
Distributed by
Printed in India at
—HS Mathur
Contents
Preface
Regions.
BIOGEOGRAPHY:
Scope and Development
phere but also an epitomist who has led the environment to epitasis
He is the main agent who has destroyed and altered the nature’s
equilibrium at every location and compelled the plants and animals
to adopt various modifications in their form and physiology Still
Phytogeograptiy
Zoogeography
dependent on plants for their food and sustenance and the comple-
living in tropical regions are devoid of the hairy cover and lead an
arboreal life
atmoSPHEReJ
8 OSPKEfi!
HISTORY OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
was Theophrastus (
327-288 B C )
who for the first time wrote
the Natural Histor ) of Plants distinguishing the forms of growth and
forms of life by means of comparative observation of different
countries He propagated the idea that the distribution of plants
depends upon climate, soil and water and that the period of matu
rity of fruits varies according to the geographical environment The
work Theophrastus was a landmark in botanical and biogeogra
of
phlcal studies which continued to have its pride of place till the
twelth century when further discoveries were made
ovet the earth He said that such a land connection musi have
existed between Europe and North America in the past which gave
rise lo ihe existence of ihe hypothetical continent ‘Atlantis
wilderness
fauna and t [ora over the globe led him to propound the epoch-
making theory of evolution which brought forth radical changes in
14 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
(1957) presents a good account of the animal world and its distn
button in the past and the present
FURTHER READING
records of these most primitive plants have been found in the rocks
of few places, as in Ontario (Canada) where traces of multicellular
Fig' 2.1 Evolution life in the Palaeozoic Age— 570 to 250 million
years before the present times.
20 ESSENTIALS OE BIOGEOGRAPHT
bians came into existence towards the close of this period which
lasted for 44 million years
very moist and the atmosphere had almost 20 per cent of oxygen
age Great river deltas and later vast areas of sivampv forest
in this
were few The insects in the form of giant dragon flies developed
and most of them evolved wings to fly over the swamps Fossil
records also indicate that land snails also evolved in this period for
the first time
Australia and India The Permian age, which lasted for 40 million
years, had left a few animal and plant species on the earth on acco-
unt of excessive warmth and dryness
period called Trwsuc (250 m veers ago) the hot, dry conditions
prevailed almost everywhere, which discouraged the development
of plant life. Later on wnh wetter conditions the growth of conifers,
animals. Small elephants with short trunks and tusks in both upper
and lower jaws came into existence. Other herbivores like the
hoofed animals— cows, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, camels etc.
with odd numbers of toes and giant rhinoceros evolved. Quite
probably, a tailless primitive ape related to the ancestors of man
had also evolved on the earth. In the oceans, new species of crabs
and mussels evolved, otherwise the maritime biota remained the
same as in the earlier period.
25
LIFE IN THE PAST AGES
also evolved at this time and the two forms coexisted Giant sharks
developed in the sea along with a variety of bony fishes in this
period
wmch the continents and oceans finally attained the present shape
and size and the orogenic activities subsided The climate was
much the same as today but Europe and North America were much
cooler, which led to the extinction of plants like maidenhair from
these continents Tropical parts had rich grasslands that encoura-
ged the development of forest apes in central Africa and their
Table 2.1
Recent
Pleistocene
95
100
U3 53
53
8,656
10,653
Pliocene 101 K# 53 10.705
Miocene 102 53 10,753
Oligocene 82 48 8,157
Eocene 70 24 5,164
parts of the world acquired their final outlines, and their faunas and
floras in their present distribution The Holocene is the present age
that started only 10,000 years ago
The effects of the end of the Cainozoic or Tertiary era and
the commencement of the Quaternary are marked in the entire
northern hemisphere generally, by a great refrigeration of climate,
culminating in the ‘Glacial age' or 7cc Age’. The glacial conditions
LIFE IN THE PAST AGES 27
prevailed as far south as 39“N. latitude and the countries which now
experience a temperae climate then had the arctic cold of the
polar regions, and were covered under ice-sheets radiating from the
higher grounds. Organic records of this period indicate extinction
§§
nmosoxsisj
Pig 2.4 Glacial Periods of Pleistocene Age
Table 2.2
glacial age
In some parts of the world, the existence of 'glacial man'
in the second and third glacial periods is well established The
Australo pithecus of South Africa was probably born one million
vears ago in the Gunz glacial period The Pilheco antliropiis of Java
and the Sinanthropus of China existed in the Mindel glacial period
some 600,000 years ago The Homo lieidilbergensis of Germany
had evolved 500,000 years before m ihe great interglacial period
when the climate of Europe had become warmer The Homo
neanderthalensis of Prussia existed in the Wurm glacial period about
100,000 years ago
It is believed that early man migrated from Africa into Asia
and Europe Slone tools used by man became more sophisticated
LIFE IN CHE FAST AGES 29
areas but nonetheless hardy healhs and herbs coexisted with them
The Atlantic period, starred fi.000 years ago, experienced the maxi-
mum postglacial temperatures and it is thus called ‘hypsitherma!'
There was a marked increase in the rainfall too, which terminated
a long period of boreal dryness, increased the soil moisture and
produced a sudden expansion of alder trees In this period alders
were the dominant species, although other trees like birch, hazels
and elm coexi-ted
The first invaders to the north were jack pine and red-pine
followed by spruce Broad-leaved deciduous trees followed later
about 5000 years ago in the mid Holocene, and consisted of oak.
maple, beech, hickory and chestnuts The conifers continued to
expand northwards with the gradual retreat of ice occupying the
newly exposed surfaces so much so that by about 3500 years ago
it was some 300 km north of the present northward limit
also believed that the ‘maquis' grassland vegetation of the Cape Pro-
vince of South Africa spread itself some 12,000 years ago replacing
the forests on account of amelioration in the climate
the Pleistocene age but during the cold glacial periods of the north,
the Notlwfagus forest vegetation of Chilean Andes mountains re-
treated northwards towards the equator Temperature oscillations
in the north also affected the rainforests of Brazil by restricting or
reexpanding the limits of tropical trees and thus some of the flora
and fauna got isolated in small pockets in this area, bearing no
resemblence to the neighbouring plants and animals
FURTHER READING
1 en FS and Shelford VE
S? L £
/
Wiley, New York
- (1939), Bw-Ecohgy,
rent from animals A typical plant has the green substance called
chlorophyll which helps it in carbon assimilation or photosynthesis
in the presence of sunlight As they are able to manufacture their
own food they are called ‘autotrophs' Plants have other characters
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
Rose Sunflower
Unit Common Name Common Name
1 . Kingdom Vegetable Vegetable
2. Division Spermatophyta Spermatophyta
3. Subdivision Angiospermae Angiospermae
4. Class Dicotyledonae Dicotyledonae
5 Order Rosales Gamopetalae
6. Family Rosaceae Compositae
7. Tribe Roseae Asterales
8. Genus Rosa Helianlus
9 Species Rosa gallica Hehanthus annus
Broadly, the vegetable kingdom can be divided into two
divisions :
I Cryptogams
It Phanerogams
parts All the higher plants which we see on the earth belong to
this division
methods
(i) Mlctoflora
waters. Bacteria do not have chlarophyll and so live upon living and
lit) Algae
Algae vary widely in size and form, from the unicellular micro-
scopic to the multicellular, filamentous or ribbon-ltke with a more
complex internal structure They always have chlorophyll and are
therefore, able to manufacture their own food Most of the algae
have green chlorophyll but others have blue-green (
Nostoc or
)
yellow and red, the last two forms being found in sea water
Simple examples of green algae are Ulollirix and Sftiiogyra The
terrestrial algae grow in ponds, tanks, rivers or live in damp places
of walls tree, trunk and tn sod The sea water algae are able to
grow in salty water and somenmes cover enormous space
(ill) Fungi
like structure, but they arc devoid of chlorophyll and hence unable
38 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
lo manufacture their own food They either feed upon the dead
remains of plants and animals or upon ihe living organisms
live
(iv) Lichens
They grow upon soil but occur also elsewhere on tree-trunks walls
and exposed rock surfaces Their shape and size are variable
They may beflat and leaflike or upright and branched in form
blue by an alkali
|v) Bryophytes
the male and female gametes combine to form the plant while in
the asexual method spores are formed which are able to germinate
into new plants.
(vii Pterldophytes
Today there are about 10,000 species of ferns, 600 species of club-
mosses and k5 species of horsetails They are all water-loving
plants that grow in shades and moist places.
PHANEROGAMS
(i) Gymnospcrms
(ii) Angiosperms
ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
upon their size and form On the basis of their height, he classified
higher than 10 It
the planis into3 categories viz trees, which are
in height, which range from 3 to 10 ft in height and herbs
shrubs,
Theophrastus also classified
which have a height ol less than 3 ft
of growth Thus ‘annuals' are those
planis according to their period
plants which grow only in one growing season From the stage of
takes place After flowering and fruit formation the plant dies e g
which continue to grow for more than two seasons and may be for
several years Thus neem, peepul, banyan etc are perennial trees
which have their lifespan of even upto a hundred years Every
year they shed their old leaves and grow new leaves and flowers
Red-wood trees of U S A have a life-span of over four thousand
years
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
in which they grow All plants need water to grow and perform
their metabolic activities They draw water from the soil which is
environmental conditions
42 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
(it Hydrophytes
so that the water does not stick to the surface and inhibit
(if) Mesophytes
to conditions of periodic
means by which mesophytes are adapted
or permanent water deficiency and
extreme warm and cold temper-
non is in abundance
trees new leaves sprout again with the coming of favourable con-
increase tn size and girth and form annual rings which can be
(111) Xerophytes
(Prosopis amenta) the roots are twice as long as the stem and
penetrate deep into the soil The stem of xerophytic plants is thick
and covered with bark to reduce any transpiration loss In some
<14 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHV
small and often spine like to reduce any water loss through stomata
Leaves of almost all desert plants are very small in size for the
same reason The stomata of xerophvtes are protected from ex
cessive exposure to sun-rays by bping sunk in pus’ below the level
of the leaf surface or by growing hairy leaves which help to mam
tain a layer of more humid air near their surfaces Rolling or
folding of leaves Is also noticeable In certain plants which is a device
bers During the day when the sun is bright and temperatures are
more, the stomata in the leaves of these plants remain closed 10
conserve water but in the morning and the evening they open widely
toperform photosynthetic activity The leaves of xerophytic plants
have a high density of veins which can conduct a large volume of
water when there is an abundance
their tissues If the water and nutrients are stored in stems and
roots, they are calledtubers and rhizomes e g potato and ginger
These plants can remain dormant for long periods of drought and
high temperatures and can reactivate their physiological activities
utth the coming of favourable season
Table 3 1
RAUNKIAEH'S CLASSIFICATION
(t) Phanerophytes
HEmletvptophytes
|lv) Geophytes
plants because their buds are small and concealed Geophytes are
found more in cold Arctic regions and areas having mediterranean
tvpe of climate, where summers are dry and hot and winters cold
and moist
(v) Therophytes
(vi) Epiphytes
Table 3.2
phytes tes
1. Arctic 1 20 60 18 1
-
2 Temperate 16 ! 58 21 4 —
3. Tropical And 8 13 19 7 53 -
4, Tropical Moist 60 5 10 6 18 1
5. World as a whole 48 9 25 5 n 1
Based on Raunkiaer, C, The Life Form of Plants and Statistical Plant Geography,
Clarendon, Oxford, 1934,
(i) Hydrophytes
(N) Saprophytes
All hough their number is small, they have a global existence and
( HI) Parasites
different.
GRIME'S CLASSIFICATION
(i) Competitors
(il) Stiess-Tolerators
0U) Ruderals
take for flowering and fruit production Certain weeds which are
unnamed by man and are not grazed by animals also suffer from
high disturbance In order to continue their species the weeds mau
often grow wildly in secluded undisturbed areas
rals will occupy that area In a similar way, several conditions can
FLORISTiC SURVEY
QUALITATIVE MEASURES
1 Sociability Attributes
2 Abundance Attributes
3 Vitality Attributes
QUANTITATIVE MEASURES
1 Density
2 Frequency
3 Foliage Cover
are regarded dense and thick others are open forests woodlands
scrublands savannahs, pasturelands etc Cover values can be
arranged into six classes viz less than 1% 1-5% 6-25% 26-50%
51-75% and 75-100% Here the last two classes show the abun
dance of flora in the area
4 Fidelity
area
Height Score
Week
25 cm 1
Growth Scon
26-50 cm. 2 Less than 0 30 cm. 1
51-75 cm 3 031 to 0.65 cm 2
76-100 cm 4 0 66 to 1 00 cm 3
100 cm. 5 1 10 to 1 35cm. 4
lb) Morphology More than 1 35 cm 5
tussocks 2 None 0
Perennials with Ttan teoTi\Tnuous
large tussocks 3 cover 1
Perennials with Thin continuous cover 2
diameter of 26-100crr 4 Litter 1 cm. depth
i
3
Perennials with Litter up to 5 cm
diameter o! over of depth 4
100 cm. 5 Litter more than
5 cm depth 5
On the basis of the
above scores, the dominance index of
following 10 species has been deterowncd in an aud
area
60 ESSENTIALS or BIOGEOGRAPMV
Table 3 3
Dominance Index Of Selected Plant Species
In An Arid Land
1. Acacia Senegal 5 5 1 I 12 60
2 Acacia nilolica 5 4 1 1 11 55
3 Acacia catechu 5 4 1 1 11 55
4 Acacia tortilis 4 4 1 1 10 50
5 Prosopis juliflora 4 3 I 0 8 40
6 Boswellia serrata 5 5 2 1 13 65
7. Anogeissus pendula 5 4 2 2 13 65
8 Zizyphus nummularia 4 3 1 1 9 45
9. Prosopis spicegera 5 5 2 2 14 70
10. Acacia babulantus 5 4 1 1 11 55
DOMINANCE INDEX
VERY
(p LOW LOW
r^y?
<?
9 ^
^ \V/
medium
?? v ?9 v
*- =tf
* O ^%
'?» c
r’
*
Fig. 34 Visual View of Dominance Index
plants and their classification 61
FURTHER READING
closely inter related and which affect plant growth either singly
or collectively For example, the growth of plants depends upon
soil-moisture which in turn is affected by not only the precipitation
but also by temperature, wind and evapo-transpiration. The most
significant factors of the environment can, however, be categorized
as follows
PHYSIOGRAPHIC FACTORS
mlluence the growth of plants Plants growing in shade may gel less
solar ladiations and these parts may show poor foliage cover
PLANTS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT 63
the sunshine is for less duration and the areas gel slanting sun-rays
received from the sun are critical to plant life and they exhibit large
aflect plant life On steep slopes, there is a thin cover of soil and
so the vegetation is sparse On such slopes water may also flow
down without penetrating into the soil and so the area may be dry
presenting a xeric vegetation On the other hand depressions may
have an accumulation of thick soil cover and profuse water, giving
rise to rich biggy soils and extensive vegetation In flat, ill-drained
sub arcnc regions, the thaw of ihe summer saturates the soils with
ice-cold water in which plants cannot grow, yet sloping land with
better drainage may exhibit a carpet of herbs and flowering plants
CLIMATIC FACTORS
Temperature
that grow m mid latitudes and alpine, which grow in cold arctics
and over high mountains
Sunlight
The
diurnal and seasonal duration of
sunlight has Us repe-
rcussions on plant life The duration of sunshine known as phoio-
perw/ determines the growth of plants
species in certain areas
6?
plants f nd their environment
Moisture
less in most parts of the year, the plants and trees may adopt such
modification as dwarfness, smaller leaves, reduction in the size of
But the melting ol snow and ice supplies water fur plants and the
arctic vegetation grows for brief periods in these areas In ice-
laden areas only hardly plants that can tolerate low temperatures
and have a short growing-penod can survive
Winds
EDAPHIC factors
nutrients from the soil and also depends upon it for anchorage
Plants derive about 16 major nutrients from soil chiefly the salts of
Similarly boggy areas and iidal areas have halomorphic soils, with an
abundance of sodium chlorate salts, where onlv haloplnles or plants
tolerant to varying degrees of salinity can grow
BIOTIC FACTORS
Table 4 I
Interaction Effect
Species Species
A B
cted
negative effect
symbiosis)
6 Protocooperation + + A and B benefit, but can
(Non obligatory survive separately
symbiosis)
7 Commensalism 4 0 A requires B to survive but
ntly
duce toxins and antibiotics that inhibit the growth ol other organ-
isms In this process the species A (e g Penicilllum) is benefmed
but oiher fungi or moulds, which try to develop there have a nega
plants can exist separately but they are useful in decomposing the
organic wastes A relationship between two kinds of organisms in
which one benefits from the relationship and the other is neither
helped nor hurt is called Commensalism The leguminous plants
having nitrogen fixing bacteria in their root nodules exhibit
tely as well
ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS
PLANT COMMUNITIES
Plant groupings, in certain areas, which are adapted to the
physical conditions of the habitat are known as Plant Communities
or Associations These communities are groups of plant populations,
ot species living in the same local area and interacting with
one
another, Plant communities are indicative of the sociology
of
plants and such studies are known as phytosociological The
structure of these communities depends on the daily and
seasonal fluctuations of the species— specific niche variables
Biotic communities are associated with certain types of sites,
soils,
ternan, climate and fauna and so the spatial
classification of the
potential natural vegetation is an indicator ot the physio-cltmatolo
gtcal characteristics of the landscape For instance, the analysis of
plant associations in weed communities not only allows a determina-
tion of the age of the cleared land surface
but also, by knowing the
course of succession, the future development
of that landscape
Many plant populations show characteristic gradients
which
correlate wit h environmental variables
Dependence of plants and
animals on geographtc-climattc factors
can be broadly generalized
as plants of arid regions have
spiny, short leaves and long
root
svstem an d those of mediterranean
regions have bulbous sclero-
phy lous stems These character,
site gradtenls of plant
populations
merS n9 fr ° m 0nG
'
to another are known
as
cco/mcl’
72 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEQGRAPHY
plant formations
Plant communities are recoqntzed bv the floristic composition
and the pin siognomy or the form of the vegetation cover Plant
forms depict the behaviour and adaptation of various species to
PLANT ASSOCIATIONS
When plant communities are characterized not only bv their
plant-forms but also by their floristic composition, they are called
PLANTS and THEIR ENVlROM,IES.r 7)
Congo and Amazon and the monsoon lands of India and Indo-
had primary plants in the initial stages that have now been removed
either by forest fires or defellmg of wees or clearances bv man
Such sites are not completely barren and have the seeds and spores
of plants that occupied them previously
PRIMARY SUCCESSION
The sere is extremely gradual on bare rocks and islands
which in the initial stages are totally devoid of vegetation and
animals The recent example of primary succession was studied
on Krakatoa island, an island m the East indies, which was blown
off bu volcanic eruptions in August 1883 leading to the disappear-
ance of two-third of the island and producing a caldera, 1000 ft
Table 4 2
1 2 2 4
I 2 3 4
hnertebrates—
192 insects
31 bettles
6 butterflies
2 dragonflies
2
21 anis
spiders, scorpions, wood-
lice and 2 snails
dominant 47 birds
5 reptile including a
snake, geckos and a
skink
mammals (bats)
Invertebrates—
2 earthworms
620 insects
40 ants
grasses crocodiles
2 mammals (bats)
Invertebrate—
3 earthworms
930 insecis
59 ants
island was quick The first coionizers must have been mostly
lizards,
scavengers and carnivorous animals such as snails, flies,
are found
attained
nial woody plants like shrubs which eliminate some weaker herbs
and eventually form a scrub community. A little later, some trees
may come in; especially those in which the dispersal of seeds lakes
SECONDARY SUCCESSION
in tropical lands crops may be grown for a few years but later on
with the abandonment of site by man, the original plants and weeds
may re establish and the landscape may resume its original cover
The sequence is also on the same pattern as
of seres in this case
the primary succession
CLIMAX VEGETATION
early stages but diminishes in the mature stages The food chams
between different plants and organisms become more and more
complex as the climax is reached Ecologists and biogeographers
regard two types of theories m the attainment of climax vegetation
Although both of them are overlapping and successive but the mam
emphasis is on the factors of causation
Monocllm.-iX theory
Polydlmax Theory
In all cases
FURTHER READING
Atmospheric Factors
Influencing the Biota
Plants depend directly upon oxygen and carbon dioxide Both the
gases, however, maintain a uniform and constant composition in
the free atmospere almost all over the earth. Plant growth is also
SOLAR RADIATION
hemisphere the ratio between land and sea is 39 61, while in the
that at which thev are broken down during respiration Thus lower
plants like uni cellular algae and plankion need very little daylighl
Table 5
Light Compensation and Saturation in Plants
1 Herbaceous plants
C4 plants 1-3 Over 80
Crop plants (C 3 )
1-2 TO 80
Sun plants 1-2 50-80
Shade Plants 0 2-0 5 5-10
2 Deciduous Trees
Sun leaves l-l 5 25-50
Shade leaves 0 3-0 6 10-15
3 Evergreen trees
Sun Leaves 0 5-1 5 20-50
Shade leaves 0 1-0 3 5-10
4 Mosses 01-2 0 10-20
5 Algae and Plankton - 15-20
(After Bannister, 1976) C3 and C4 refer to tile form in which carbon is fixed in
photosynthesis, in the first ihe ‘pathway’ invokes formation of acids with 3 carbon
molecules and in the latter with 4 )
plants because they need little light intensity. Most of the cereal
crops, large trees and herbaceous plants are heliophytrc, while the
algae, mosses, ferns and various other forms of thallophy tes, bry-
ophytes and ptendophytes are sciophytic In between the two
contrasting types, there exist some plants which can attain optimal
growth both in bright light as well as shade e g blue-bell flowers
A seedling or a young plant having less leaves needs less light than
a tall tree which is mature Seedlings of trees like willow, birch,
poplar and Scot’s pine are heliophytic while those of beech, spruce,
fir, oak, yew, elm and ash are sciophytic More light is required m
the flowering season of plants and trees because of the increased
hotosynlhetic activity at this stage of their life-cycle.
1981)
Marsh
After
(Redrawn
Earth.
the
of
Zones
Climatic
4
5
rig
ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 93
WATER
air. The critical values for the water content of leaves which guard
C 20 AO 60 80 100
II
11H
BEECH
1
BIRCH
1
OAK
H 1
1
1
1 M
SPRUCE
1
1 H 1
BLAEBERRY
cowberry
8 1 1
1 1 1 M1 1 1
— -
~LCTHAL VSLVES
H PERCENTAGE
1
Table 5 2
Transpiration Ratios of Selected Plants
Millets 275
Maize 369
Rapeseed 441
Potatoes 448
Wheat 507
Barley 539
Buckwheat 578
Oats 614
Rye 724
Peas 800
Lucerne 1068
After Penman HL (1963) Vegetation and H)dwhg)
96 ESSENTIALS OT BIOGEOGRAPHS
The loss of uater from the soil and the plants by the com-
bined processes of transpiration and evaporation is called evapo-
transpirauon Transpiration of water from plants depends upon wo
factors viz the avallabilitv of water to the roots system of the plant
Irom soil and the temperature of the atmosphere If the available
which the amount of water needed for transpiration and direct evapo-
ration Irom the soil exceeds the available water in the c oil and so the
Table 5 3
Plants Percentage
of uater
TEMPERATURE
mid latitudes-Aberdeen K
(U and Chicago (USA)
|
But the
Table 5 4
fable 5 5
QRjTtXSS"
Moisture Index and Climatic Types of the World
(Thornthwaite)
100
tree vegetation
(
t ) Warm — When the mean temperature of all the months
is more than 20°C and there is no risk of frost
(it
)
Cold — When mean monthly temperatures are less than
0°C and frosts are recurrent which are harmful to
plants
WINDS
FURTHER READING
New York.
SOIL FORMATION
basic forms viz solid, liquid and gas The solid material consists
and the gaseous parts are the atmospheric gases like oxygen and
nitrogen and other gases which are released by chemical and
biological activities of living organisms living in the soil. Soil ait
oxide than does the free afmosphere In the initial stages of soil
and microfauna constitute only 2-3 per cent of the total organic
material present in the sample In addition to these, the soil also
contains larger animals like earthworms, spiders, termites, snakes,
rats etc and number may exceed a million per hectare ol
their total
SOU PROFILE
This is the organo mineral lauer of the lop soil which can supply
nutrients to plant roots Below ihe Aj horizon, 'here is a compa
ratively thick layer of A: horizon of ihe soil which is called the
SOIL COMPOSITION
Soil Texture
silt 0 05-0 002 mm and in clay below 0 002 r m The size of the
111
EDAPHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA
drainage the
panicles affects the permeability and hence the
in
in 9 groups as below
Table 6 I
1 Sand 90 10 —
1 Sandy Loam 85 10 5
4 Loam 40 40 20
5 Silt loam 20 60 20
7 Clay Loam 28 37 35
8 Silty day — 90 10
9 Clay 25 30 45
can penetrate into the soil It affects the nutrient supplying ability
In sandy soils water holding capacity is the lowest It has low values
Soil Structure
Soil Consistence
(vn) Soft— When the soil mass is weakly coherent and fragile
and breaks to powder or individual grams on becoming
dry
(viit) Hard— The soil mass is verv resistant to pressure and can
only be broken with difficulty
cemented soils
bolt Reaction
surfaces that are freely exchangeable with cations in the soil water
solution Plants obtain much of their nutrition from exchangeable
Table 6.2
Neutral 6 6-7 3
oidal clay, and organic complexes thus reduce the nutrient status
of soil
the surface Other plants take a heavu intake of calcium and still
Soil Colour
rain-waier
ii
)
Yellow Soils— The yellow colour in soils is due to the
presence of hydrated iron oxides. Excessive moisture in the soil
and high humidity and cloudiness in the atmosphere add to the
formation of yellow colour So such soils are found in humid
areas.
( iii |
Biomi Soils — This is an intermediate stage betwen red
and yellow. Unhydrated iron oxides (red) while changing to
hydrated iron oxides (yellow) gradually turn brown before accom-
plishing the complete yellow stage. The presence of rich organic
matter in red or yellow soils and the fluctuating water table may
also make them brown
( iv )
Grey Soils — This colour may be assumed due to the
presence of several substances mainly quartz, kaolin, carbonates
of limeand magnesium, gypsum and compounds of ferrous iron
Sometimes the excessive amounts of ferrous iron may make the
soil blue in colour.
( v ) Light Gi ey Soils —
They indicate a very low content of
organic matter and iron, as in the A horizons of podzols or in sands
that consist whollv of quartz
India Soils having morn than 3 per cent of organic rratlei may
also look black on account of excessive humus Peat soils are aho
black Self mulching clays \Mih only 2-3 per cent organic matter
also look black This mac be on account of .he presence ol ekm
ental carbon, compounds of manganese, magnetite and iron
two nutrient cycles have been discussed below, but several more
exist
iSitiOgen Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
body of antmals
SOIL TYPES
These soils are of recent age and are not mature They do
not have a developed soil profile as they have not undergone cli-
These soils are half mature and have been formed under
inadequate drainge which produces alkalintv and salt accumulation
Such soils are found in between the main belts of zonal soils and
are hence called intra-zonal
ZONAL SOILS
Podsols
leaching these soils are unfertile and have limited use in crop culti-
vation They are acidic in character, having low pH values.
also suffer from leaching which imparts them grey colour in (he A)
horizon Deciduous trees shed their leaves before the commence
ment of winter [n winters snow falls upon this thick mantle of
dead leaves which undergo a slow process of decomposition to
yield mild humus on the top soil, and also return many bases to the
lower layers of the soil abstracted by plants The A2 horizon is
Prairie Soils
Chernozems
rainfall, lack of humus and general infertility such soils can hardly
be used for agriculture and are best ulilized as pasture
the underground salts to the top soil layer These soluble salts are
and fairly dense ground vegetation causing thick Inter But the
litter is easily decomposed by heavy bacterial growth and so the
humus formation much less On account of high rainfall the
is
The lop soil has a ihick layer of leaf Inter, below which
lies a very thin layer of black humus The Aj horizon is reddish
horizons.
The red soils may be grouped into four sub classes viz
older land surfaces withtn the tropics Pernsols, like the ferrallilic
having a clear dry season in some parts of the year. They are
poorlv-dramed and fine-textured In more dry areas, they display
Laterlte
Lateriles are red brick-like soils and the term was first
in which Ihe soils are heavily leached of silica and alkali sails,
lalerisaiion begins m the wet season But in the dry season the
Prolonged lalerisaiion may make the soils sterile Laterite soils are
1NTERAZONAL soils
groups
HydtomorpMc
HalomoTphlc
40 per cent of the and areas of the world are covered with these
the top layer are again washed down due to increased rainfall and
the alkalis get collected tn the B horizon
(
ni ) Soloths Also called as solods, these are former saline
soils which have undergone continued improved drainage and
leaching for long periods, leading to the removal of alkali salts even
from the B horizon, thus making them more fertile
Caldmorphlc
(
t ) Rendzmas They develop on limestone rocks under
moist conditions, as in southern Poland coastal parts of Yugoslavia,
Greece and Alabama (USA) They are also called "Brown
Earths,” because their A horizon is dark-coloured, friable and rich
in organic contents
(
n )
Terra Rosa They are heavy clayey soils rich in lime
and sesquioxides of iron, aluminium and silicon Thev are formed
in drier climatic conditions, as in the mediterranean climatic
zones
EDATHIC FACTORS INFLUENCING THE BIOTA 131
AZONAL SOILS
Llthosols
Rerosols
Alluvium
MJ1L tKUSlUN
culture or felling of trees for fuel and limber exposes the soil mantle
to the vagaries of weather and accelarales erosion. Grasslands
and meadows which have been browsed and over-grazed suffer the
mated that about 3.5 million tonnes of soil per km- is blown away
every year tn the arid parls of Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab
Water erosion is most acute in the mountainous areas and areas of
river catchments where denudation of forests has occurred on an
unprecedented scale
Running water causes high may accela-
soil erosion which
rate in periods of high may occur in the form of
erratic rains. It
‘sheet erosion’ in which both water and wind may remove the entire
sheet of lop soil leaving only hard rocks A second form may be
‘gully erosion' in which the excessive run off of water may cause
SOIL CONSERVATION
aeration
to be framed
tion and settlement Leaving the agricultural lands fallow for many
years increases the chances of wind and water erosion, as such
lands are bare of vegetal cover and the soil particles are loose
(he other hand in view of the nation’s resources the S million hectare
FURTHER READING
Anthropogenic Effects
on the Biota
years ago, the interaction between plants, animals and Homo sapiens
form of acquiring land for agriculture, burning of wood for fuel and
fire, grazing of domestic animals, and using forest resources and
fossil fuels for industrialization On the other hand man has mier-
played with the population of animals also Right from the stage of
ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE BIOTA 137
ana having two free hands, they soon evolved a process of dis-
covering iheir environment which culminated in tool-making, the
the distinctive activity of man During these years, the spread of
the humans also took place over various continents through land-
bridges Whereas Australopithecus the first homtntd had been
confined to Africa, Homo erectus the primitive man had spread out
from Europe to Indonesia Owing to lack of clothing for protection
against cold, the Homo c rectus did not spread out beyond 50°N
latitude His dispersal was conhnedto the old world with a popul-
i-p-caps fmallv, the human population over the globe had reached
the 4 million math, which soon started new food-chains In the
ecosystem, Man had discovered by then that allhough there were
only a few plants that he could eat, he could get enough of them
together to see him through the year If he planted them himself
This was the Neolithicage of man which started with humble
and fishing as the primary subsistence sources, did not interact with
nature to the stage of over-exploitation Solely dependent upon
natural resources, the Bushmen of kalahart desert even today
derive food from 84 species of plants including ihe mam Mongongo
tree (Riciiwdndroit rautmtnm) which accounts for half the weight of
the available plant food of the area, for the reason that many
species which are quite edible but less attractive areby-passed in the
Table 7 1
50 59
— 1 9
.0-i9 4 3 5
30-39 9 -
20-29 7 — 1
10-19 5 - 1
0-9 4 1
-
World 29 11 18
subcr) and the Japanese larch (Lam lapioleprs) are fire— resistant and
are used as a fire-break around new plantations Burning of
grasses and trees increases nutrient levels in soil
Cereals
Pulses
Oil crops
fibres
Forage Crops
(Oryza saina and Oryza g/«6errmifl)had its antiquity in India (4530 BC)
and in China (3280-2750 BC) Rice domestication also started
independently in West Alrica in the upper Niger region around
1500 BC or later
into existence which were more nutritious to man and animals The
cultivated plants lost their ability to disseminate by themselves and
acquired the tendency to become annuals
In the process of domestication, man selected a few useful
types of plants and weeded out the useless ones. Grasses like
vananls of this basic type had evolved in the irrigated areas of Nile,
Indus, Tigris Euphratus and China where cotton, date-palm, flax
and hemp were added to the bas lc subsistence crops But still some
areas in Africa. India, China and South America had shifting agri-
culture— the most primordial forrn of cultivation
olden limes till man started migrating from one place to another.
The Arab navigators who travelled in the Indian Ocean extensively
brought new plant species from India and the East-Indies But the
maior breakthrough in transplantations occurred only In the fif-
teenth century when the navigators of European countries sailed to
the west and east and discovered new lands. They brought with
them new plants of the old and the new world which could be suc-
cessfully grown m their country At the same time the colonists
m-
noduced the plants of their country to newi lands This human
146 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
brought rice and sweet potatoes from the east to their country and
these crops are now widely grown in Portugal as also in the entire
migration o! man
Star, mg hom up to 1750 AD til
the carlo fifteenth centurc
the pre-maustrial agrtcultutc, was no me e ImubNitlou
the to ho I
nscovetv of new lands had only provide <1 the mixing and CNhn
polanon ot several species of plants which w, re useful vo man and
animals Agriculture was dependent urtlielu upon pitman wrlnt
energy The human populations which could then he suppoitud by
such cropping systems were verv few. Shifting agllcultuio enn cup
port 40 persons per sq km while Aslan wet rice cultivation tan
sustain 400 per sq km Therefoie, in this cm ol dlw-owilcs the
population did not grow rapidlv and hlgliei densltu was allaltictl
IMPACT or INDUSTMALIZATION
The horse and ox were replaced by the tractor curly In the twen-
tieth century, with machine achieving dominance afnr llu<
the
1920s The use of machines is an accepted part of (It Vclopini'nl
today
Mechanization brought about an Intensification of Inml iiso
ecosystem
brought nee and sweet potatoes from the east to their country and
these crops are now widely grown in Portugal as also in the entire
duction of rubber oil palm, coffee, tobacco and cocoa in Asia took
place in late eighteenth century when the British, French, Duich
and Portuguese colonists brought these plants from Asia Cen'ral
America and South America to their new colonies and established
the system of plantation agriculture
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
and about 150 of these have entered the world of commerce. The
plants providing maximum sustenance to man in the form of food
today are rice, wheat, potato, sweet potato, cassava beans, soya-
beans, coconut, banana, sorghum and peanuts
West Germany, for example, uses more nitrogen fertilizers than the
whole of Africa. Ecological side-effects of fertilizers may be
naturally expected when the whole cvcle is pul to a faster rate
especially when nitrogen and phosphorus are limiting factors in the
natural ecosystem
tissues of plants which when eaten by men enter the body and
impair the physiological functions. Another aspect of biocide
application is the removal of vegetal cover which may lie as residual
matter on the soil surface and hamper the growth of new plants.
ment and pleasure and economic value, are uses to which exotic
fauna and flora have been put All these factors affected the native
of time.
Tabic 7 2
Central America 64 76 46 19
South America 19 26 524 30
North-West Afnca 100 100 295 6
South Asia 93 96 201 48
South-East Asia 44 57 47 47
Far-East 81 97 4 28
75 per cento! the irrigated land, and thus its importance for the
malnourished is greater than the world statistics imply. All such
expansions are therefore, unlikely to be easy, rapid or cheap
The oiher cereals widely used by man for food are barley,
a wide variety of roois and tubers which form staple diet in some
areas of the world They are less nutritious than cereal grains but
consumpuon they are also used for making glucose starch, alcohol
and wines The sweet potato however has a limited occurrence,
being cultivated in Souih Asia. South-East Asia and other tropical
countries
tubers of the plant when grounded up into flour are called cassava
lettuce etc are roots Others are either leaves like spinach,
cabbage, onion and garlic or stems like ginger, or flowers like
carrots, mangolds, turnips etc are also fed to animals The leaves
of a few trees have nutritious value for animals In the arid areas
of India the leaves of ber {Ziz) pints spp j, Khejrt {Prowpis sptcigera\
babul {Acacia arabica), wlayali babool (
Prosnpn juhflor/i), tamarind
etc are fed to the domestic animals
Phillippines are the other varieties of the jute grown Abaca, a plant
of the banana family, has also tough, water-resistant fibres, used as
packing cloth Flenequen and sisal fibres are grown in Central
America The pods of the silk-cotton tree ( Erwdendron anfractuosum)
yield smooth, flossy cotton used m bedding pillows and mats
ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE BIOTA 155
for making wood pulp which produces synthetic fibres like viscose,
cloth The conifers aho yield resins and terpentine which are
widely used for manufacturing paints and plastic Quite a few
plants yield perfumes and deodorants such as roses, mogra, laven-
(v) Fossil-Fuels
( vl) Mlcro-Orginlsms
used for fe r mentation of alcohols and liquors are very useful to man
The nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in soils and tn th° roots of
leguminous plant are highly useful for impor'ing soil fertility
aesthetic use Even small houses and cottages have their own small
ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE BIOTA 157
grown for their aesthetic use Love for nature is inherent tn man
and is found m all societies
antiferttlily in man
which are now used to cure chronic consiipanon and uterine disor-
FURTHER READING
struggle with stronger competitors and only a Few survive tor the
ultimate success to form new plants which are able to propagate
Further Even these new plants have to adapt to new environmental
conditions and modify their morphological and physiological func-
tions lo establish themselves successfully.
WIND DISPERSAL
orchid family are minute and extremely light Thev are sometimes
winged and can be blown away in the same manner as spores
These seeds stick to the branches and leaves of taller trees espe-
cially In tropical-moist regions and grow to form new plants
distances The seeds of pines firs, spruces and bigoma are dis-
persed in this wav Generally, all conifers do not have a fruit
covering around lhe seeds and so they adopt the method of air-
dispersal
PLAN r DISPERSAL AND FL0R1STIC REGIONS 163
Long haired Seeds and Fruits — These seeds and fruits have
long hair attached to them as in the case of cotton willows (Salix
spp )
and poplars (Poptilus spp In arid regions the seeds of Ak
{Colon opii piocera) are dispersed over several miles in summers
when strong winds blow, as these seeds have long silky hair
attached to them
Tumble Weed t— Certain seeds, which grow on the weeds
and get detached from the parent plants, tend to roll before the
wind or be blown across open country for dispersal These seeds
occur mosily in the grasslands of steppes and prairies or in the
deserts Examp'es include the Russian-thistle ( Salsola pestifer) in
crassipcs) have dilated leaf stalks which float and carry the
nded in places which are ideal for further growth and give rise
ves
water-lily ( Nuphar lulea) the pulpy fruit of which floal for a few days
before disintegrating and releasing the seeds which sink and later
and be taken to other parts of the lake with the drift of the melting
sno.v in summer In Europe and North America most of the vege-
tation consisting of hemlocks, aiders, elms, spruce, pine, poplars
and beech has occupied large areas with the drift of the ice in the
Holocene period Icebergs and ice-floes are also the carriers of
disseminules to large distances Today, huge icebergs flow down
in the arctic and antarctic seas but in the past, especially in the
Pleistocene age when most of the northern hemisphere was cov-
ered with snow and ice they were the mam agents of the trans-
continental dispersal of vegetation Sometimes, the arctic veget
ation may stick to an iceberg in its entireitu and be earned to
other parts to be deposited there
DISPERSAL BY ANIMALS
The lower animals like reptiles and fishes which are herb-
ivores spread ihe seeds of aquatic and semi-aquauc plants such as
bog-bean Men)aiillics IrifohaW and pondweeds.
( ) Fishes like perch
and roach retain the seeds of water plants in their viscera for near-
ly ihree days before being passed oui naturally. When ihese fishes
are eaien by such predaiorsas fishing eagles, herons, and pelicans
and after an interval of manv hours either reject anv contained
seeds in pellets or pass them in excreia, often still in a viable cond-
ition, the dispersal of many exouc plants may occur on new lands.
Algae and aquatic fungi are also eaten by fishes and reptiles and
iheir spores are dispersed in various locations of a pond, river or
the sea-coast
which adhere to their bodies, especially when the latter are densely
micro-flora.
PLANT DISPERSAL AND FLORISTIC REGIONS 167
DISPERSAL BY MAN
process some aliens flourish for a lime and then disappear, while
others, after many years of restriction to one locality, suddenly burst
forth all over the countryside
MECHANICAL DISPERSAL
ening, the wall of these fruits curls inwards violently shooting out
ihe seeds 20 ft. away In wood-soriels tfe ripe fiuit suddenly splits
FLORISTIC REGIONS
ous cultivated plants like wheat, oats and maize also fall in this
DISCONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION
ten regions
nzoffiana )
the Pacific in North America, Japan and China The common exa-
mples are torrey pine (Torrcia) and the skunk cabbage [Sjmplocar-
pm foetitlus)
North South American-These species are present both in
North and South America but they lack continuity e g pitcher
plant family (Sarrace niaceae)
cal regions of the old world and South America For example,
Buddleia (Loganiac^ae) and members of the familv Vochytaceae
South Pacific and also in New Zealand, South America and Austra
lia For example Joiellana
RELIC AREAS
These areas have the remnans of an earlier flora that have
been left behind when surrounding areas were vacated by the
dominant species They were once very extensive in having certain
dominant species but on account of geographical isolation ihese
species became relict The causa! lactors may be the Pleistocene
glaciation in the norihern Europe and North America or deserti-
fication in the and areas Such plants are found in fossil forms
today For example, water chestnut in Scandinavia and the giant
redwoods in the northern hemisphere are now relict species
the mesolhermic plants advanced into the boreal regions during the
in wet phases
dry phases and retreated to their original sites
VICARIOUS AREAS
regions and 37 micro regions. The major regions are m close asso-
ciation with the Zoogeographical regions of the world. The major
regions are
of each area and are quite reasonable for presenting the floristic
further reading
dence o( similarity
TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
FORESTS
Usually areas having a thick cover of trees are called forests while
those having open formations of trees are known as woodlands
Trees need more sunlight, greater warmth and more moistu-e than
other plant forms However, the requirements of these climatic
Table 9
forest lower
range
forest mountain
range
conifers
Tabic 9 2
( 000 hactares)
Europe 140,000 3
U.SSR, 910,009 13
China 76,600 20
Africa 639,000 15 5
Oceania 81,000 25
World 40 2S.OOO 100 0
GRASSLANDS
central Asia and the Canadian prairies They grow in the conti
DESERTS
terai region of India, Sudan and the American prairies. These areas
have contlnentality of climate and lower rainfall,
are subject to cold temperatures, winter snowfall and very low rams
Quite often on the western margins they are mixed with the deci-
forest belt, he the steppe grasslands of central Asia They are the
produc’s of extreme continental climate, marked by warm summers
and cold winters along with low precipitation, which is mostly in
TROPICAL RAINFORESTS
the Congo and the Amazon basin and in archipelagic and pentsular
Southeast Asia (Malaya and Indonesia) with extensions in Latin
America and Madagascar These forests suffered little disturbance
during Pleistocene times and so have been m situ since the Tertiary
They had a long time to evolve efficient mechanisms for the cycl-
ing of nutrients and partition of energy
Climatically theu are distinguished by both high and cons-
tant temperature and humidity, with precipitation of over 200 cm
per year and at least 12 cm in the driest months Due to plenty
of heat and moisture, prolific uninterrupted growth of trees takes
place These forests have rich floristic composition and the total
some parts of Brazil (here are about 300 different species of trees
Earili
(he
ol
Rtlis
Vcqsiational
Gcnorli^ed
3
9
ft'-:
MAJOR 3IOMES OP THE WORLD-FORESTS 187
light and air to the lowermost storey of trees By the time these
trees complete their process of fruit-making and seed dispersal, the
top storey again starts blooming So the canopy of the forest
always looks green on account of kaf rhythm, but it is irregular as
all the green trees are not of (he same height. There is very little
all the year round Tall trees are often inter-twmed with climbers
and lianes, having thick stems, which reach the upper parts of the
trees to get more light There is an abundance of epiphytes,
sticking to the leaves and branches of tall trees, where they get
sufficient moisture of the air and enough solar radiation to survive.
in the form of dead leaves over ihe ground These are m the form
of a variety ol fungi and orchids Parasitic plants like the pitcher
plant (Nepenthes) and buiterworts are common, as they feed on
insects which are abundantly found in the hot-moist climate.
Lianes, stranglers and woody climbers, enmeshing trees and hang-
ing down m great loops are often found m thick forests Some of
them like Ficus and Clusia are parasites as they strangle and kill
and blue-green algae which grow over the crowns of the trees
Sloths ( Choloepus hoffmanm) and other mammals living in the area
also return the nutrients to the soil by defaecattng Studies in this
regard show that nutrient recycling in these forests is far more than
the other btomes of the world and the accumulation of dry matter is
Cocao) Most of the trees have hard wood Common among them
are greensheart (Nectamim Rodiaei], logwood ( Haematoxyhn camps-
clnomm), acapur Voucapuoua amencana), a variety of palms, assai,
|
are more There is a wealth of plant species but it is less than that
forests are teak [Tec luma gramhs ). sal [Shorea robusta), banyan [Ficus
forests
moillu which are edible and palatable to livestock and wild herbi-
vores
THORNY FORESTS
year.
parts of the Thar desert and the ram-shadow area of the plateau of
metres high that tends to branch near the ground and brigalow
scrub ( Acacia harpophylla found )
in the woodlands and Australian
lent stems to store water The leaves of these trees are often hairy,
pical highs bringing hot, dry weather, whereas in winters, they are
subjected to the cyclonic rains of the moderate zones of westerly
winds Thus rains come in the season when plants are normally at
rest but in spring, with the rise in temperature, plants take full
northern Africa, Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria are the main coun-
tries In the near-easi, Israel, Syria and Lebanon have this type of
Sorest vegetation The other pans having this type of vegetanon,
lie scattered In North America, California, in South America,
Chile, in South Africa, the Cape region and in Australia the parts
around Melbourne and Perth have this type of climate, with minor
variations in tree species
over stems and the stem itself is thick and succulent to store water.
The root system is well developed, penetrating deep into the soil
oak [Q suber) and kermes oak [Q. Coccifera) are prominent in the
European parts of mediterranean coastlands. In areas of more
intensive summer, such as northern Africa and Palestine, evergreen
oaks tend to be replaced by wild olive ( Olca europaca), locust trep
hold any water in the soil and so only sage-bushes, lavender, thyme
and heathers are typical plants. In Asia Minor, these degenerated
scrubs are known ‘
as phrygana '.
DECIDUOUS FORESTS
wealth has been lost These forests are found in central Europe
eastern parts of North America and East Asia parncularlu Japan
Europe is covered with these forests but they have degraded too
much in Japan and China due to deforestation activities In North
America the rate of depletion is slow and the forests are found
mostly on the Appalachian mountains
These forests are characteristically found in the soils called
‘brown earths’ that have constant values of clay and iron compounds
These soils are usually of two types-eutrap/rre, having a rich subst-
unavailability of water
that of other types of forests Most of the trees are roughly globu-
Branching begins at a
lar or barrel shaped with a rounded crown
fairly low level m the trees and the bole or the unbranched section
of the trnuk is fairly short m comparison to the tree size In
(Casionca spp )
maples (,lrcr spp )
and hickories {Cana spp ), which
form different dominant associations in a variety of area Thee
form a dense canopy of crowns and the amount of light percolating
trees put on a dense foliage cover and slop the solar light horn
reaching them The other types of shrubs are 'aestnal' which can
tolerate freezing cold and can bloom and flower well in the cold
alders
I Nothofagus amareiica )
is found which is a tall graceful, green tree
CONIFEROUS FORESTS
fail steeply below the freezing point and the soils are frozen to a
depth of about 2 metres causing permafrost conditions But if the
soils have a thick snow cover then their insulating nature may keep
the soil temperature up to — 7°C which is sufficient to keep the
root system alive
the conical shape of ihe trees w.hich helps to slide down the falling
shallow soils and also helps to procure water from the thawing
snow and ice, the evergreen leaves which start the process of
dominant tree m dry soils and the Norwegian spruce {Picea c\cc!sn )
in the moisler regions The Scots pine tree has blue-green needles
needles and smooth reddish bark The silver birch IBetula pemltilu)
The Ob river inundates large areas around its banks due to earlv
thawing of snow and ice in its upper valley which is in low latitudes
Therefore, large swamps are formed in which the Sibeuan fir is the
dominant tree The fir trees are found in association with some
deciduous trees like aspen btrch, alders, poplars and willows
Siberian fir and stone pine are common trees In wet areas oak,
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD-FORESTS 203
elm, wild apple, maple, walnut and lime trees, whii.h are deciduous,
are also found
and alpine fir lAbies lasiocarpa) They are often mixed with deci-
duous trees like aspen ( Populus spp ),
canoe birch Bctula (
papyrifera),
The annual litter fall is only about 1-2 per cent of the above-
ground plant biomass
over 50 metres The Douglas fir may grow to about 100 metres
height with thick, rounded trunks, measuring 6 metres in diameter
The giant redwood trees (Sequoia wnperurans) which occur in the
most moist areas of Oregon State (U. S A and on the 'slopes ol )
FURTHER READING
1 Cloudsley-Thomson J L (1975)
,
Terrestrial Cm iron-
meats. Croom-Helm, London
2 Dicastrt, F; and Mooney, H A, (1973), Mediterranean
Tjpc Ecosystem Ecological Studies 7, Sprtnger-Verlag
New York
MAJOR BIOMESOF THE WORLD-FORESTS 205
TROPICAL GRASSLANDS
seeds can tolerate fire hazards in these lands and therefore propa-
gate endlessly. Many seeds of savanna plants tolerate temperatures
of over 100°C without diminishing their germination capacity, in
distinct season of drvness for 3 months for which the plants have
to store water
grasses are short and the area is sometimes referred to as ' Wooded
steppe. The most common grasses are Aristida spp , Cenchrus spp;
Tetrapogon spp. Daclyloelemum spp. and Heteropogon spp.. all
nuous and they are often found in the central parts of the Brazilian
plateau which have minimal rainfall and high summer temperatures
The pantaml grasslands have reeds and grasses, oflen resembling
boggy characteristics They are found m isolated spots having
abundance of ground or surface water and a thick layer of soil
TEMPERATE GRASSLANDS
triangular area in the mid-west of the continent now famous for the
cultivation of wheat
( i )
The Lons Grass Prairie— They are true prairies, having
tah grasses like Andropogen scoparms, Stipa sparlea, Sporobolus herle-
lolepis, Agropyrmn smillm and Koelleria cnstata The tall grasses
like Amhopogen get ardi or big bluestem and (Pamcnm urgalum ) or
switch grass reach a height of about 3 metres These areas get an
annual precipitation of 66 to 82 cm and have a well-moistened
soil These prairies are found from southern Alberta and Saskat-
chewan through North and South Dakota southwards to central
pampa and the dr) pampa, the former being mostly confined to
For the most part, Africa lies in the tropics and hence the
extension of lemperate grasslands is confined only to Ihe highlands
and the south African tip which has a temperate climate These
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD-GRASSLANDS 213
grasslands, called Veldts, are mixed with trees and shrubs. True
grasslands occur m the Cape Province as far north as the Limpopo
river In the north-east, as tn Transvaal and Natal provinces, they
are mixed with dwarf trees and shrubs and are callpd bush-veldts.
treeless patches of dwarf grasses on the sandy soils and are there-
fore called sand veldts. Above 1500 metres height, where droughts
are frequent and the seasonal changes tn temperature varied and
marked, the veldts are of short grasses and are called sweet high
veldts. Elsewhere they are mixed with xerophylic shrubs and
trees, they are known as mixed grass high veldts
which are found on the Olago plateau and lowlands of the Canter-
btirv Plains, generally in areas which arc less ihan 600 metres
high The second type is the tall-tussock steppe, having red tussock
fltni ums) which occur on molsl, high altitudes These grasses have
degraded due to two reasons First, ihese islands do not have anv
carnivores which can lessen the population of herbivorous animals
and so heavy grazing ol grasses by wild herbivores has been con-
tinuing since ancient times, Secondlv, with the occupation ol these
lands by ihe Europeans, sheep, goats, cows and rabbits, which are
graziers, have been introduced on a large scale, This has led to
THE DESERTS
both plants and animals, which enables them to tide over long
spells of drought or lack of access to free water. Evaporation Is
usually high and the relative humidity is the lowest of all biomes,
which may sometimes be lesser than 20 percent m day hours,
major uiomes of thb worud-qr/issunds 215
and shrubs are hardy and droughl-tolerant with thick barks, small
spiny leaves and a well-developed root system
better floral structure than the arid ones, and the number of species
is also large Hot deserts are the results of semi-petmanent high
pressure belts In the tropics from which air is warmed by compres-
sion on descent becoming very hot and dry The Sahara,
Arabia, That, Kalahari, Atacama and the North American Colorado
desert are examples of hot deserts The cold deserts are found in
HOT DESERTS
Table 10
and sandy desert with dunes are called ‘erg’ and ‘barchan}’.
including the Sahel zone south of the actual Sahara. In this desert,
I
C} perns papyrus ) and olive exists
The true deseris of Arabia are called Ruba-el-Khali and
Kalahari snad bush Over the granite hills the dominant vegetation
is kokerboom (Abe dichotoma ), meikboom ( Euphorbia drcgcana) and
Bushman's candle Sariocaulon burmann )
(
The gravel plains are
destitute of vegetation far manv miles The sand-dunes have
sparse growth of wary grasses and lumboa (Wehutschia nnrahihs )
COLD DESERTS
Iran, Turkestan, Takla Makan and Gobi The cold deserts of Asia
are marked with aridity on account of their locaiion in the interior
of the continent where the ratn-bearing sea winds seldom reach
Takla Makan in the Tarim basin. Karakum in Russian Turkestan
and Gobi in Mongolia and China experience the vagaries of seasons
which affect the vegetal growth in these areas These deserts have
drifting sand with interspersed areas of seasonal streams and drv
ruer beds.
The vegetation consists of artemisia camel sage, lov
thornv bushes, v irv grasses and tussock grasses In the courses
of ephemeral rivers tall trees as those of tamariks and some scrub
vegetation may be noticeable The semi desert areas of these
regions have good pastures which now exist in degraded forms
Altitudinal zonation of vegetation is most marked The higher
mountains of Gobi and Dash i Lut of Iran may have the vegetation
l
o v ild poplars while me lo Hands have a few sparse shrubs
THE TUNDRA
The tundras, often called the cold deserts, are found in the
219
MAJOR BIOMES OF THE WORLD-GRASSLANDS
and North America the boundary belween the tundra and the
borealforests lies further north in the west where climate is
starting from Norway in ihe west to the Pacific coast in the east
Thev are 50 to 300 km. wide and have wider extensions In the
which in the native language are called 'tmbola*'. They are transi-
FURTHER REARING
AMMAL CHARACTERISTICS
without light, and certain low r ammals like the worms inhabiting
ENVIRONMENTAL ADAPTATIONS
air, and apes and monkeys inhabiting the trees can jump, glide and
hop from one branch to another with the help of well-developed
muscles of the hind legs Terrestrial ammals have the immense
power to run fast, to chase their prey as is the case with tigers and
leopards, or to roam over vast areas, without exhaustion, in search
of food as is the case with deer, antelopes and goals A few land
animals residing on mouniams have well-developed hoofs to be
sure footed while negotiating the precipitous slopes and cliffs as
in ponies, llamas and yaks
pherlc air for a few minutes and then again swim in the water (or a
Cimoufloglng
having black stripes and yellow coloured skin, hides itself in the
grasslands and under the shade of trees and bushes in such a way
that it can hardly be located It Is in a way protective colouring
which helps it to escape detection both by its prey as well as ene-
mies The arctic polar bear has a white fur to escape detection
Most of the animals living in cold tundra regions have a white skin
and a thick coat of fur that helps them to harmonise with the sur-
roundings The zebra has stripes and patches ol dark-tan colour to
camouflage in the tall grasses or savannas Some reptiles, like the
lizardsand chamaleons and some of the frogs are also able to make
rapid colour changes according to the compulsions of the environ-
ment Some of the flat fishes which live on the sea-beds have the
rare ability to change their colour and the entire body patterns in a
matter of seconds
sits Many butterflies have exactly the same pattern of wings as the
flowers on which they sit to extract the nectar, a few others have
leaf shaped wings so that when they sit on a twig they look like a
leaf The various locusts found in deserts are yellow-brown colou-
red resembling the colour of the sand. Mimicry is found in the ani-
mals of the sea as well The sea-horse has long tentacles resembling
the fronds of the sea-weeds in which it lives Desert animals have
protective colourings of the sand colour or of dry bushes Manv
lizards and snakes living in ihe deserts like geckos, vipers and
sand snakes have the colour of the sand
Luminescence
Light production m
all such cases in on account
of phos-
phorus compounds that are present in luminescent
animals The
phenomenon occurs in three different ways It may take
place within
'he cells of the animals when called intracellular luminescence
it ts
,
or
the animal may discharge a luminous scretion when it is called
‘aura cellular luminescence, or the
light is produced by luminous
symbiotic bacteria within the animal
when it is called 'bacterial
luminescence'.
226 tsscntials or nioGioGRu>m
onfv alien they are touched. The fishes emit light to find their path
mating partner
Kingdom Anfmalla
Subkingdom Metazoa
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Mammalia
Subclass Euthena
Order Primates
Family Hominmae
Genus Homo
Species Sapiens
NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS 227
animals at the right place and to know the order of their evolution
on the earth Broadly, the animals can be grouped in two subgro-
ups viz Protozoa and Metazoa
PROTOZOA
They are small, microscopic, unicellular animals which may
live in a solu ary manner or m colonies The single cell is able to
perform all physiological functions such as food absorbing, loco-
motion and nutrition These animals are mostly aquatic, living in
fresh or marine water but while on land they inhabit moist, terrest-
rial habitats Amoeba pioleus is the common example of such
protozolc animals About 50,000 species of protozoans are
known today
Some protozoic animals are extremely harmful to man,
causing various fatal diseases Tiypansoma gambiense causes slee-
ping sickness, a fatal disease confined to central and west Africa,
particularly occurring near the lakes and rivers of Zaire and Nigeria
The chief vactor which transmits these protozons is the tse tse fly
METAZOA
These are large, multicellular animals, having complex
body structure and the various tissues and organs of the animal
body perform different functions Thus ihere is a physiological
division of labour among variou* cells According to the process
of evolution the metazoans can be broadly divided into two
phyla
INVERTEBRATES
These animals do not have the vertebral column and there-
fore their bodies are not strongThey do not have a developed
nervous system either
22S nssrNtiALS or moGcoGiunn
VERTEBRATES
Phylum Portfcrn
Phylum Coclcntrato
oceans The great barrier reef 160 km off the east coast of Aust
ralia is more than 1900 km long Fringe reefs are found near
every island in the Pacific ocean Atolls and lagoons are also for
med by corals
Phylum Platyhelmcnthls
Phylum Nematheheltninthls
10,000 species are known to exist in the world They have slender
cylindrical round body The worms may be parasitic or free-living,
fresh-water or marine Ascaris himbricotdes and Ancylosloma diiPile-
nales are the most familiar endoparasites inhabiting the large intes-
tines of man
Phylum Molluscs
Phylum Annelida
Phylum Echlnodermata
feather -star, etc Nearly all the animals are marine and some of
them live even in deep seas They have no excretory organs but
have a well-developed endoskeleton About 6,000 species are
known
Phylum Arthropoda
Phylum Homlchordalji
Vcrtcbruta
Class Pisces
this class are found today Pelagic fishes are sometimrs free-
swimming e g. herrings which swim in shoals in surface walers.
Others are demersal e g pluice, sole and halibuts which live near
the sandy sea-beds in shallow walers. The salmon fish spends part
of its life cycle in the ocean and partly in a river. Fishes like
plaice, haddock, cod, mackerel, hake etc. live in shallow seas, not
beyond 25 metres deep.
Fishes have scales over the body and gills for respiration.
They absorb the dissolved oxygen in water with the help of gills.
Some fishes like she lung-fishes have primitive forms of lungs and
can live tn marshy areas, absorbing oxygen partly from water and
partly from air.
Bony fishes occur from the polar seas to the equator, and
from depths of more than 12,000 ft. to shallow waters They live
and cave waters, and hot and cold springs. Most fishes migrate
from salt water to fresh water for spawning are called aiiadromns.
Those which migrate from fresh water to salt water for spawning
areknown as ‘caiadi omoud fishes. All fishes have great value for
man as they are rich sources of protewous food, oils and bones.
Shark liver oil, cod liver oil, halibut oil etc, have rich contents of
vitamm A.
Class Amphibia
in the Americas show strong parental care as they carry their eggs
m easculour pouclus underneath the skin The male midwife toad
t-f/i/cs) Citrrtes pggs, laid by the fi males on ns back III! the lorwk
hatch oui The Bufn toad is found up to a height of 3 000 metres
m the Htmaloyas Hyla, the ttee frog is widely distributed in India
and rocks Frogs and toads are tail less amphibians and are there
fore considered to be belter evolved animals than the neats and
salamanders The common frog [Ratio ngriiia) is generally iouno
In swampy areas or in ponds and wells Rlacophorm frog found
us front and hind feet It is known as flung ftog and can glide to
short distance'
Class Rcptllli
bodv for living on land Tliev have a dry scaly body adapted to
away from water
life They have strong limbs for rapid loco-
motion They are egg-laying (Ouparotis) animals showing parental
rare lor the offsprings Reptiles are cold blooded animals and so
their distribution is abundant in tropical and temperate
most
regions and [heir number goes on declining lowards the poles as
they cannot stand freezing cold In u inters, reptiles lead a
dormant life and undergo a period of hibernation, hiding them-
selves in crevices, burrows and other warm places
the last iwo being most common in Indian rivers and lakes. The
common house lizard [Hatmdaciylus) has a world-wide distribution
Iguana, having spines on its back and a long tail is the most common
lizard in Mexico and central America. The flying lizard (Draco) has
stimuli of the outer environment. The giant monitor lizard (Vat anus)
lizards They have scales on the body. Some of the common forms
are glass-snake (
Opliiosaurus ), Pythons and dhaman which are non-
poisonous The poisonous varieties are rattle snake (
Crotalus ),
vipers, pit-vipers, and cobra (Naja), which are found all over the
world The water -snake lives \n marine and fresh water Crocodiles
and alligators form a class of their own, the latter being disting-
uished by having a long snout They lead an aquatic h'e but are
terrestrial animals as they breath air with lhe help of lungs
Class Avcs
Class Mammalia
(I) Prototherla
the East-Indies and the opposum found only in South America They
are all primitive mammals
(II) Metnlhcrln
(tit) Eulherln
sub class Is also knoun as Placcnlaha All hoofed animals like deer,
Sri Lanka and India; squirrels, pangolin, the scaly ant-earter found
class All these animals have teeth for chewing food Except men
they are all four-legged animals and hence called quadrupeds The
highest evolved animal is man, followed by apes and monkeys, all
FURTHER READING
Zoogeographical Regions
of the Old World
j
I
)
The Palaemctic Region — comprising entire Europe,
(
)
The Boreal Region— This region included all the colder
I
parts of (he earth, chiefly the whole of the Palaearctlc and Nearctlc
regions of Sclater along with the whole chain of Andes starling from
Mexico through central America, traversing through Columbia,
Equador, Peru and Chile and terminating in Patagonia
(ii) The Columbian Region— This consisted of the remain-
ing parts of South America which are mostly lowlands and
plateaus
Ocean
(
u )
The Austral-Asian fiegton-This included the eastern
pans of India, the Indo China the East Indies, the New Zealand
and the entire continent of Australia
(
n 1 The North Temperate realm of ihe mid-latitudes exten-
ding from the arctic circle to about 40°N latitude
(in) The American Tiopical realm occupying most of the
tropical parts of North Amertca where animal hie is different from
cither parts of the torrid zones of the earth
climate.
coastal areas
5 Nearctic 74 24 32 169 52 31
Table 122
charncicrlsllcs
TRANSITION AREAS
(1) Indonesia
Lme extends from the Lesser Sunda Islands Celebes (Sulawesi) and
Lombok in the uest to the Molluccas (Halmahera). Kei and Am
Islands in (he east In the south it is separated by the L)ddkar
Lme from the Australian region
(4) Antaiclica
South America to the old south Fossil findings indicate that this
vegetation m these parts the faunal life is rich with many peculiar
forms
the Tien shan, Kunlun, Nanshan, Altai Pamirs and Sayan moun-
tains of central Asia, enclosing the intermontanne plateaus and
cold deserts of Dzungaria, Gobi, Smkiang and Tsaidam have special
lies the tundra region where permafrost prevails and the vegetation
isscanty and that too only during summers South of the tundra
zone and over the slopes of mountains lies the broad belt of coni-
ferous forests which abounds in animal life due to temperate climatic
conditions Central Asia is arid and continental in climate having
246 tssiNTiAis 01 moc.iOGK\rm
wild life
bounded on the south by the Pyrennees, the Alps, the Balkans, the
Black sea and the Caucasus mountains To the east its boundaries
are limited by the Ural mountains, the Caspian and ihe Irtish Sea
In the West it Includes the British Isles; and the farthest outliers are
possible
a climate for the most part that ts genial and free from extremes of
heat and cold No other part of the Palaearctic region enjoys
such a moderate climate as this. Hence there is a luxuriant growth
of foliage and the faunal life is in abundance
tocene ice-age. For the most part it consists of levelled plains and
undulating topography of moderate elevation, the chief mountain
ranges being those of Scandmavt3 in the north-west and the exten-
sive Alpine system of central Europe, Both these mountain systems
are of low heights with a small portion of their surface occupied by
permanent snow-fields or by barren uplands These mountains
a'ford perennial supplies of water in rivers and furnish in their
valleys suitable sites for every form of life Most of the northern
and much of the central parts of Europe are covered with vast belts
of coniferous forests, although much of the vegetal cover has now
been denuded on account of population sprawl.
Animal Life
mediterranean sub-region
Indus
In North Africa the valley of the Nile and the coastal plains
of Tripoli and Algiers are almost the only exceptions to the more or
less mountainous and plateau like topography of the region Much
o! this area is nou barren, desolate and arid due to the destruction
Anlnnf Life
fallen -deer Is today found only In South Furope and North Africa
Ctcnodacnlus . a rat-like animal Is found In Tripoli Tire oth r
of about 6000 km To (he cast of ihe Caspian Sea and the Ural
mountains the region Isa lowland which continues around the
of Sikkim, while the northern limits merge with the Arctic Ocean
The vegetal covering of this vast tract is well contrasted
and the rich vegetation that clothes the steppes in the spring is
Anlmnl Life
S' ill remain preserved tn some Ice cliffs near the mouths of great
rivers of Siberia In deciduous fo'ests, species of wild cat, brown
hear, wolf, deer and pika abound: while in mount atns wild goats and
sheep of several species live In the plains and deserts, wild hor$p$,
asses, gazelles, two species of antelopes, flying squirrels, ground
squirrels, marmots and camels arc found The most abundant mam-
malia are reindeers in the north, wolves tn the steppes, wild horses,
goats, sheep and antelopes on the mountains and plateaus.
Antmiil Ufa
'pcciis arc found here Among mammals some peculiar forms are
'o,,nd. Rlmppilhtcux monkcv Is a pamamnl resident of the high
forests of Moupm in the cold climate This monkcv has a vr re thick
fur. A mole comparable to the Panda of Nepal is found here ll is ns
large as a bear; the bodv is wholly cchlte, retth feet, ears and tip
but they are all of the European genera Among fresh-water fishes
there are a few peculiar genera. Salmonulae, in Japan and Ctpnwi/ae
tn China are common, representing both the Palaearctlc and Orien-
tal regions
t. glons
dissected bv the Nile and Niger rivers and their tributaries. It also
includes the highlands of Fthiopia which are over 6.000 ft. high and
Animat Hie
spmy rats and insectivorous mammals are also found over the enVve
sub region
mis reptiIo\aius), which has affinities with both ihe birds of prev
and the waders, is the most peculiar. It is common over almost all
with qlossv plumage and red coral bill is also found Ii is a peculiar
bird allied to the hoopoes and feeds on the msecis which n hunts
for among the branches of trees Shrikes ( H\pocobus ), and (he great
boat billed heron (
Bahemceps are lound | in the upper Nile region
Animal Life
r
q due's art! a 'milt decr-like anion! !l) ire rt-n arc also found 1 i
nsror.g.- forms of the crow famlh arc noticeable. Sun' Irds. Iloior-
peckers finches starlings. barbels, planum eVi rs, ktojflsh ’r“
envied hornbllls griv patrols ground thrushes and oriental paro-
quets arc other common buds which have Oricrilal and Malayan
affinities The moM characteristic forms of fauna! life arc fo ini',
remarkable for the enormous pl'imes with which the tall o' the male
bird Is decorated during the breeding season and the crested q-een
touraeos are most abundant birds on river sues
of tree frogs arc found The amphibians and reptiles arc allied to
Neotropical and Oriental forms
the most topical portion of it hardly contains more than the narrot
strip of territory limltpd bv the mountain range which forms the
boundary Cape Province and Natal
of tbe In the north it is botin-
drd by the Kalahari desert and the Limpopo river, while in the east
Animal Life
MADAGASCAR SUB-REGION
km. long and 400 km wide and is situated about 400 km to the
Animal Lite
mr oriental region
yerv rich in animal life and vegetation The region includes tin
towhich it is close ly related The fauna of all the three regions show
cio>e affinities to each other as they are joined by land, and migra-
tion of animals his constantly taken place through mountain pisses
ZOOGCOORAPH1CAL REGIONS OF THE OLD WORLD 261
its isolated position There can he little doubt that In the later
v.ards, uilh a richer and more peculiar fauna, parily Malayan and
partly Mascarene In character.
lands which abound with varied and peculiar forms of animal life.
lour sub-regions
1 Indian Sub-region
2. Ceylonese Sub-region
3. Indo-Cbmcse Sub-region
4 indo-Malayan Sub-region
INDIAN SUB-REGION
This includes ihe whole of Indian sub-continent except its
and the Oriental regions has made the Thar the crossroads for the
higher than 3000 metres in the east and lower than 2500 metres in
the north and west The central parts of the Indian subcontinent
have altitudinal variations ranging from 300 to 1500 metres which
do not cause any appreciable change in vegetal cover These
parts together with (he south have open deciduous lorests and
savanna grasslands, interspersed at places with degenerated
scrublands Due to extreme pressure of population the animals
have now retreated to higher zones on the mountains where
lorests still exist Elsewhere the fauna has been protected in
reserved forests where grazing and forest cutting have been either
to'ally stopped or limited to a bare minimum
Animal Life
(
Panther a tea persica ) found in the Gir forests of Gujarat, the lvn\
found in the desert tracts and the snoa leopard [Panther a wtcia<
widespread
CEYLONESE SUB-REGION
in tin rrcent past during the Pleistocene Ice-Age when the lew! o)
Animal Life
in particular seasons
INDO-CHINESE SUB-REGION
In rth
Artm.nl Life
fvngtn i), a beautiful animal with glossv fur of reddish colour, darker
feet and a somewhat cat-like white face Is found In the Himaluns.
It is distinctly allied to bears and more nearly to American racoons
Weasles {Ilehriis rrpalcnw), snow leopard, black bear, brown bear
and musk-deer are found in dense forests Musk-deer whose coudal
gland is highly valued for Its medicinal properties, has a wide range
of distribution up io Chinn.
species arc most conspicuous They are serow, qoral and lakltl
bttum has not yet set in. Esldencesol somow hfil earlier changes
of sen-level are markedly evident in the tertian 1
coal-formations
of Borneo ll Is also evident that during the Pleistocene Ice-Age.
e hen the sea levels receded by about 100 metres, the teglon
formed n land-bridge lor Inter-migration of Australian and Oriental
animals
Animal Life
is rurlous to find (ha! these islands separated far apart by sea have
tigers, wild pigs, elephants, wild cattle, scaly anleaicr and a variety
flaps Its wngs so violently that ll can be hpard a mile off. The Argus
pheasant has beautiful ocellaled wings which are so enormously
developed for display that they become almost useless for flight.
another peculiar bird, has dull plumage but with a beak more like
that of a boat bill than of a (ruit-eating bird The Gibbon bird swings
and gambols among the topmost branches of forests and is an ecst-
asy to watch
FURTHER READING
Zoogeographical Regions of
the New World
distant past from all other regions of the earth. Australia is the
largest tract of land in this region, being several times more exten-
sive than all the other islands combined It is here that the greatest
variety of peculiar types of animals has developed. It has a large
portion of its interior so parched up and barren as to be almost
destitute of animal life. The mosi extensive tract of fertile and
well-watered country is on the east and south east, in Victoria and
New South Wales provinces. The west coast is exceedingly dry
and hot. The northern portion is entirely tropical yet it nowhere
presents the luxuriance of vegetation to support fauna Taken
as a whole, Australia is characterized by an arid climale and a
deficiency of water, conditions which have probably long prevailed
ZOOGEOGRAPH1CAL REGIONS OF THE NEW WORLD 273
and under which ils very peculiar fauna and flora have developed.
Only in Tasmania, which is a detached island of Australia, a more
uniform and moister climate prevails but it is too small a tract ol
four sub-regions.
1. Austro-Malayan sub-regton
2. Australia-Tasmania sub-region
3 Polynesian sub-region
4. New Zealand sub region
AUSTRO-MALAYAN SUB-REGION
MARIANAS
Animal Life
About 350 species of birds are found here which are ex-
tremely peculiar The sub region is rich in various varieties of
parrots, pigeons, kingfishers, paradise birds, honey-suckers and
flycatchers. All the birds are bright coloured with gorgeous plum-
age The twelve-wired paradise bird ( Epimachus albus) has beautiful,
AUSTRALIA-TASMANIA SUB-REGION
Animal Life
boas of the old world The wombat is a root eating marsupial with
large incisor teeth The porcupine ant-ealer and the duck billeo
mouthed goat-suckers have their peculiar cry and are thus called
‘‘More pork" They do not capiure their prey on the wing like true’
goat-suckers but hunt about the branches of trees at dusk for largd
Insects Eudyptes ts a peculiar bird found here belonging to the pen-
guin family Emu, a flightless bird is, much alike to the ostrich of
slightly fermenting mass hatches the eggs When the young bird?
work their way out they take care of themselves and are able to rub
quickly and fly short distances This adaptation is necessaiy for
the parent birds in an arid land where their confinement during loud
periods of incubation would lead to starvation and consequent
death of off springs as well as parents The pigeons who lay their
eggs without any defence have been able to survive here in large
numbers due to the total absence of monkeys, cats, weasles, civets
and other arboreal mammals who are their animals Their greeO
colour conceals them m shrubs and trees and protects them from
being destroyed by birds of prey
and peculiar fauna are found in Fiji, 1 onga and Samoa groups of
islands All these islands have either volcanic or coral reel origin,
located far apart in the vast expanses ol the Pacific Ocean where
migration of terrestrial animals from one island to another is diffi-
cult
Animal Life
play a close affinity with the Oriental region Amphibians are far
too less but several species of tree frogs (H)!a) are found which are
also common in South America It is assumed that these amphi-
bians have reached these islands on logs of wood or floating trunks
of balsam trees which are common to both the Neotropical region
and these islands
habited the forests here but has now become extinct because ihe
having massive feet for walking and running and a red coloured
bill The most remarkable bird is crook-billed plover Anarhuiehiis
|,
frontalis) having its bill bent stdeuays Kakapoe or the owl parrot
is a nocturnal burrowing parrot that feeds on fern shoots, roots,
berries and occasionaly on lizards It climbs the trees but cannot
fly it has an ow] like mottled plumage and a facia] disc
Pacific Ocean and the eastern limits with ihe Atlantic Ocean giving
it a great insular character
glacial ice in the Pleistocene age especially in the north and over
the high mountains. This mantle of ice which wrapped nearly half
Animal Life
This extensive district is, for the greater pari, 700 to 2000
metres above m.s ! and is excessively arid Comprising the entire
Rockies and its intermontanne plateaus, the region for its most
part snow-capped and cold. Except
is in the immediate vicinity of
streams and on the slopes of mountains it is almost bare and iree-
less providing little comfort to animal life High altitude topography
coupled with severe climatic conditions have given this region
special zoological features.
Animal Life
snakes and lizards inhabit ihis region Amphibians are far less in
family Cyprindae.
ALLEGHENY SUB-REGION
This is a notable sub-region of eastern United States exten-
ding across the Mississippi plains and the more fertile plains of
prairies up to ihe Atlantic coast. Southwards the boundary bends
towards the coast near the Colorado nve r and Rio Grande. In the
Animal Lite
CANADIAN SUB-REGION
Animal Life
night and thus warn larger animals not to attack it Elks re-
sembling reindeers and bisons are amply found in frozen lands
feeding on lichens and mosses The Canadian region has very few
resident birds The great majority of migrants are American birds
moisture reaches the higher slopes of the Andes which are thickly
wooded Condensation of clouds on high altitudes of the Ande9
gives rise (o innumerable streams which cut deep ravines and carry
down such vast amounts of sediment that they have formed the
vast plains of the Amazon, Parana Paiaguay and Ormocco rivers
ally changing towards (he north into more fertile, but still treeless,
5°S latitude Beyond this the Andes are very narrow without
Animal Life
only frogs ana loads are found even up to the far south and present
varieties Among fresh water fishes perches are common and they
BRAZILIAN SUB-REGION
Brazil The llanos are partly flooded in the rainy season, causing
marshy-lands, but much of the interior including the Macdalena
valley is a dense forest On the north east coast of Brazil is a tract
of open country which continues up to a considerable disiance
over the Brazilian Highlands where the rain does not fall for years
together and only scrubs, which can sustain xerophytic conditions,
grow But south of Cape Rogue the coastal forests of Brazil
commence, extending to30°S latitude clothing all the valleys and
hill slopes, and even penetrating the great valley of Parana far into
the interior To the south west the wooded country reappears m
Paraguay and extends in patches to the west till it almost touches
the southern extensions of the Amazonian forests
latitudes
Animal Life
bird Me is very rich About 500 genera of birds are found here,
genera resemble the Mexican and the Chilean types The umbrella
bird ICepkhpienis ornnfus) as large as a crow of glossy blue-black
true marine turtles and are good as food Tree frogs [Hyla), and
snakes like amphibia \Caenhadae) are also common. Nearly all
in the Cretaceous (135 million years ago) and in the Eocene ages
(66 million years ago) these seas were filled up with debris and the
plains of Amazon, Parana and Orinoco rivers were formed It was
after this fusion of land that the animal hie of these three distinct
lands intermixed and adapted itself to new forms of living
MEXICAN SUB-REGION
i) regular neck of land, 3,000 km. long, which connects North and
absent. Here the high mountains and the volcanic fertile soil have
produced a luxuriant forest growth to support a varied fauna On
the cordilleras temperate forms of trees occur while on the lowlands
the tropical forms predominate The increase in tropical fauna and
America Umbrella bird, bell bird, and humming bird, which are the
typical Neotropical forms, are also found The region is rich in rep-
lies. Some of the North American forms of snakes such as boa and
elaps are commonly found Lizards are much more specially deve-
loped and no less than 26 distinct species occur here Tortoises are
found in the streams and marshes of Mexico and Guatemala Amp-
hibtans are mostly tail-less Some of peculiar varieties of tree-frogs,
.oads and green frogs exist in the Yucatan peninsula. The streams
abound in rich faunal life of fishes and no less than 106 species of
fresh-water fishes are known to exist
and South America, fused together and separated apart more than
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS'OF THE NEW WORLD 297
Broadly, they are divided into two groups, the Greater Antilles inclu-
ding the large islands of Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica and Puerto Rico, and
the Lesser Antilles extending from San Juan to Trinidad man are
like fashion In this group lie the smaller islands popularly known as
St Thomas, Leeward, Barbados, Windward, Grenada and Trini-
dad To the north of Cuba and Ham are the Bahamas, an exten-
sivegroup of coral reefs and islands 1,100 km long but having a
poor animal life
H) -V
OR
V* »T
I
HOHAS
l£E WARD
^ISLANDS
c BaRBA COS
C? A WIND WARD
MINICAN fi Y ISLAND
HA Tl (LEPUBLcC
aMaic*
LESSER ANTILLES#
tp NIOAO
All the larger islands and most of the smaller ones, except
those of coral formation, are volcanic, rocky and rugged The
mountain chains rise to aboui 2,500 metres m Haiti, Jamaica and
Cuba Their slopes are covered with thick forests Throughout
29 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHT
the year the temperatures are high and the rainfall is ample to invi-
mantle of foliage, but Barbados and Antigua are low islands of Terti-
ary formation In between these islands and the mainland there
is a vast stretch of sea ranging from 200 to 800 metres deep
Britain, yet the fauna is exceedingly poor and less varied The
Lesser Antilles are too small to promote any luxuriant growth of
mal life in all these islands differs widely from both This is consi-
Animal Life
shrew like snout, long claws and bare rat like tail Agonta [Solendon
cubanus), a peculiar tnsectivore is found in Cuba Rodents are in
America They live in forests and climb the trees, easily eating all
FURTHER READING
Dispersal of Mammals
today, have the greatest ability to roam over the whole continents
Apes, lemurs and monkeys are strictly adapted to arboreal life and
can never migrate beyond the forest vegetation Squirrels, opos-
sums, sloth bears, and arboreal cats are strictly the animals ol forests
Similarly, camels, zebras, giraffes and antelopes cannot exist in a
forest habitation and are strictly limited to the open grasslands or
semi arid vegetation
which fly and whales, dolphins seals and porpoises (Cetacea) which
swim, have the exceptional quality of dispersal. The former are
cal forms are equally unfitted for the cold polar waters The
amphibian, seals and walruses seem to be capable of making long
sea journeys, some of the species being found on islands a ihousand
kilometres apart, but none of the arctic are identical with the
antarctic species
Parriers to Dispersal
£]Jmatic Barriers
Teiraln Barriers
Sea-arm Barriers
to their migration
Dispersal of Birds
their range some being the most cosmopolite of the higher animals,
while others are absolutely confined to single spots on the earth’s
surface The petrels and the sea gulls are among the greatest
wanderers but most of the species ate confined to the arctic and
antarctic sea Sandpipers and plovers are also migratory birds
Great numbers of them breed in the arctic regions and migrate as
far as India, Chile, Australia and Brazil In striking contrast to these
wide ranges we find many of the smaller perching birds like pigeons,
thev can fly very few miles at a time Some birds like titlarks,
cuckoos, warblers and rails sit on the ocean vessels and cross
large oceans
Barriers to Dispersal
die in trans continental flights and are carried away by storms and
animal dispersal and migration 305
feed near the ground are restricted in their range by the extent oi
the forests they inhabit or their feeding places. Many species are
also bounded by mountain ranges whenever they rise above the
woody region
The supply of food and the kind of vegetation, soil and
climate best suited to a bird's habitats are the most potent causes
which mark out the exact limits of the range of each species. To
this must be added the prevalence of ememles of either the parent
birds, the eggs or ihe young. Pigeons abound most in those areas
Bird Migration
about 8000 known and named species of birds which are migratory
Despite all dangers of storms, droughts, inhospitable weather and
the fear of man millions of birds undertake biannual journeys that
span the whole continents and oceans In the land-masses of the
northern hemisphere, (he arrival of summer produces a superabun-
dance of food and long daylight hours to seek it-a critical factor for
birds whose young may eat many times their own weight during
the time they are in the nest The northern latitudes thus support
a huge temporary breeding population of birds which must migrate
south in winter. When breeding is over in summer and the young
ones are reared, glandular changes within the body, probably
triggered by the lengthening nights of the approaching winter,
stimulate ‘migratory mslmct'm these birds. Bui ihe actual momenl
°f departure is
influenced by the local weather conditions and the
physical readiness of the birds themselves
Before migrating, it is essential for the birds to have a large
store of energy in the form of internal fats, for they may not
tod suitable food way along their long flights. Some
on the
species may even double their body weight and stay on the wing
306 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGECCRAPHT
ample time for feeding on the abundant supply of fish, some North
American arctic terns cross the North Atlantic lo reach the nor-
Japan from its breeding areas in the Falkland Islands and in the
small islands oil Cape Horn, Tasmania and New Zealand
and are able to visit the same winter sites year alter year
inhabit deserts and burrow under the soil to get an optimum tempe-
rature Others are adapted to swamps and for a life in forests
and waders also carry the eggs of amphibians in their feet and
wings from one pond to another or from one stream to another
Dispersal of Fishes
carried away by aquatic birds in their webs and wings It has been
found that geese and ducks during their migrations feed on the
eggs of fishes and that some of these pass through their bodies
with their vitality unimpaired Even water beetles flying from one
pond to another might occasionally carry with them some of the
But most of the fresh water fish genera are unable to mig
rate even to short distances because land mass is a big barrier to
them Africa and Souih America possess almost completely
different genera of freshwater fishes and onlv those like Anus
fall and so they are no found I in Lake Constance front which the
Rhine water make a sharp fall
moorings— the flight from the poles and a general drift towards
the west These dramatic happenings continued through Eocene
up to early Pleistocene till the present shape of the continents
were formed
Eocene times
It is also clear now that the Permo-Carboniferous age was
an ice-age upon the earth But it had us large scale effects on
South Africa, India, Australia, South America and Antarctica
derable areas on both sides of the equator Due to the large glacial
ice deposited on land it is assumed that the sea level went down
much lower than the present one. and this must have provided
ample land-bridges for animals to traverse into other continents
Land bridges have provided most useful locations for the various
animals and plants to migrate to other lands Therefore the role of
land-bridges is outlined below
Land Bridges
(IJ Beilngfo
migrated through the Beringia via China and Siberia to Alaska and
then further south lo Brazil traversing all the way through the west
coast of Canada, the United Slates and Mexico Today, we find a
ihe plains of Siberia during the inter glacial periods and reached
Alaska and then further south up to the west coast of Canada
and Spain is called the Balearics Bridge Another one lhat existed
the G ah ta Bridge
these land bridges which must have provided the routes of migra-
tion for the exchange of animals between North Africa and South
Europe Thai such a slate of things existed at a comparaively
recent period is almost certain, not only because a considerable
number of identical species of mammalia inhabit the opposite
shares of the Mediterranean, but also because numerous remains of
three species of elephants have been found in caves in Malta-now
a small rocky island in which it would be impossible for such
Europe
The fossil forms of the Pliocene deposits of Europe show the pre-
sence of numerous large carnivora and ungulates, which are now
almost wholly tropical For a long succession of ages, various
forms of monkeys, hyenas, lions, horses, hippopotamuses, rhino-
ceroses, elephants, deer and antelopes formed a rich and varied
fauna m South Europe
The existence of the Tyrrhenian land bridge in the pre-
Pltocene seems to be extraordinary and incredible at the first sight
because the Mediterranean is a deep sea The eastern basin of the
Mediterranean is about 4 000 metres and the western basin about
3 300 metres deep But a further examination reveals that a
comparatively shallow sea or submerged bank encloses Malta and
Sicily and that on the opposite coast a similar bank stretches out
from the coast of narrow channel the greatest
Tripoli leaving a
depth of which a broad plateau,
is 450 meters Here, therefore, is
(til) Archhelenls
various continents drifted apart Some more details are yet needed
to establish the existence of this land bridge which is not yet
clear
(lv) Archatlantls
land bridge in the past But in any case, they are unknown as
of
fossils in the pre-Pleistocene deposits and so the existence
evidence
Archalantis can hardly be accepted without any further
Taking all these singular facts demonstrating the total absence of truly
a
indigenous mammalia and reptiles from these islands, the theory of
land connection between Canaries and the mainland of Africa
is
animal dispersal and migration 315
(vi) Archiplata
former. Badgers, skunks, pouched rats and musk sheep are the re-
markable forms that are not found in the Neotropical. The distribu-
tion of animals in the Neotropical zoogeographical region suggests
that Ihe highlands of Guyana and Brazil are very ancient lands, dating
back 10 a period long before ihe elevation of the Andean range.
The ancient plateaus of Guyana and Brazil were formerly islands
separated by the arms of a sea
(util ArcMsulua
(vilt) Archinotls
ice during the cold epoch and within the easy reach of the Antar-
ctic continent during the warm periods. And thus it would make
possible an interchange of animal species with South America.
Also this forms one of the characteristic features ot the natural his-
South Africa and South America were united This union must
have existed before mammalia existed in any one of these coun-
birds, reptiles, fishes and insects in these parts and some of the
|ix) Austro-Malayan
island of Pa'awan, the Paracels shoal and even Hainan To the east it
may at one time have included the Celebes and the Philippines To
the south it was limited by the deep sea beyond Java It included all
Sumatra and the ft'icobar islands and there is every reason to assume
that it stretched out also to the west so as to include the Adam's peak
of Ceylon, the Maidive islands and the Cocos islands All this wou'd
form an extensive area as large as South America and well calcu-
lated to develop a luxuriant fauna which spread out to the Oriental
succession one alter another leaving the fauna upon them to evo-
lve in its own way These geological events explain the inter-
Australia remained isolated for long and its animals could not mix
with those of other regions A long period ol geographic isolation
has thus made them primitive and most peculiar, so that lhey are
found no where else m the world.
animal dispersal and migration 319
the edible forms of animal life like the saiga antelopes and wild
horses of Central Asia Some of the animal forms like cows buffa-
anv region
FURTHER READING
plants of the ocean are almost as productive, acre for acre, as the
plants on land. The pastures of the sea are countless myriads of
portion of the sea Some of the main types of fishes are buiierffy
fish, surgeon fish, sea horse, conger eel
dragonet, red gurnard,
jewel fish, red mullet, anchovy, haddock, pilchard, sprat, bill, herring
mackerel and cod Sea snakes and Portuguese Man O’war are
other prominent forms of life Larger fishes which inhabit this zone
are hake, porbeagle shark, plaice, sahfm longfin tuna, eagle’s ray
and flying fish.
becomes more and more sparse as the depth increases This is the
•twilight zone between 300 to 3000 It deep from which the aquatic
animals frequently migrate up to the surface waters each day where
their food is most abundant Luminous crustaceans, squids and
several fishes are among such migrators Fishes like coelacanths, rat-
tails, mailed cheeked gurnards etc often come to the surface
waters to get food
parasite on his partner Scarlet deep sea prawns are also found at
these depths
Life is very scarce in this zone which extends for 3600 metres
downwards On the deep ocean floor, where total darkness prevails,
such animals as deep sea cucumbers, deep sea prawn, ethusa elhu-
raid worm, bassoqiga, etc are found Scarcity of food is always the
limiting factor here
Marine Mammals
cows (
Simians ) and marine otters (
Mustehdae ). Whales are
mammals which have been an important food and economic reso-
urce 10 man since the sixieenih century. Biologically, whales are of
iwo types: the baleen whales and the toothed whales. Of a large
variety ol whales found today, only the sperm whale, measur-
ing absut 25 metres long, ts the toothed whale. The other types
called fin-back whale, humpback whale, killer whale, and blue
whale are baleen whales. Most of the whales are less than 10
metres long but the blue whale is over 35 metres long and the
finback whale is about 30 metres m length. They are the largest
mammals found on the earth today All typps of whales live mostly
in cold walers.
Table 15.1
fishes and molluscs form the first trophic level as they consume the
phytoplanktons However, a great number of desired species of
Table 15 2
Japan 53 7 Oceania 10 7
(i) East Coast of Japan Here the warm kuro-shio and the
cold Oya-shio ocean currents meet. The important
fish types found here are pilchards sardines and cods
whaling.
FISHERIES IN INDIA
Marine Fishing
Table-15 3
size harbours for berthing the boats and mechanized vessels have
already been developed in Tuticonn, Vizhmgam Karwar Dhanura
and Port Blair Big harbours at Malpe and Honnavar have been
completed Smaller ports have been developed at Mallipatnam,
Kodikkarai, Veraval, Mangrol, Porbundar, Ratnagin, Kakinada,
Nizamapatnam, Bavnapadu, Kasargode and Mangalore Training
formarine fishing is being given at the Central Institute of Fisheries
and Nautical Engineering, Cochin and its one unit at Madras
Inland Fishlnj
the inland fish catch to 1 8 million tons. To attain this target scientific
Infrastructures for cold storage, tinning and packing have also been
promotion of marine fishing is that the fish catch m the warm waters
of Indian sea is largely assorted 1 here may be over a hundred diffe-
FURTHER READING
All over the world today there is a growing concern for the
protection of wild life which is fast disappearing due to man’s trium-
phant technological civilization resulting in large-scale clearance
of forests to provide land for crops and for seltlements, industries
look at the way man uses his habitat and adopts conservation
policies Wildlife constitutes all those animals which live in a
‘i uldscape’ - an area dominated by natural and semi-natural vegeta-
tion,rock outcrops, rivers, glaciers, swamps and marine waves
These areas of wilderness are the natural habitats of wild life and
they need a careful management to maintain small communities of
plants and animals which establish their own ecosystem in them
Besides aesthetic, spiritual and ethical considerations 10 protect
The concern for wildlife is, however, the concern for man
himself Plants, animals and men are so closely inter— linked that
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 335
and nutrients found in plants and animals are disturbed, if any one
of the links is broken In this intricate web of relationships one
lorm of hie is dependent upon the other for Us existence and thus
it helps to keep a check on their numbers through the food chain
Nature maintains the vast diversity of animals and plants in a com-
plex organization in which the various life processes of production
then the effects are far reaching Thus the indiscriminate killing of
tigers and lions may lead to an increase in the number of deer and
antelopes Similarly, the killing of hoofed animals may cause an
immense growth of grasslands
WILDLIFE IN INDIA
of mammals and 1,200 species of birds of its own which aie nowhere
else found m the world To conserve wild animals the various
States of india have confined wildlife into national parks and
sanctuaries The state-wise break up shows that nearly all the States
have demarcated some areas for the preservation of wildlife today.
Andhra Pradesh, having 14 wildlife sanctuaries, has reserved
orote than
12 per cent of the forest area for sanctuaries, Pakhal,
hturnagram, Pocharm, Kawal, Kolleru, Neelapatm and Kinuersam
are some of the famous sanctuaries where tigers, panthers, gaurs
338 ESSENTIALS OF BIOGEOGRAPHY
Table 161
National Parks and Sanctuaries in India
State No of No of
National Parks Sanctuaries
\
I Andhra Pradesh — - 14
3 Arunachal Pradesh — 4
4. Assam I 6
5. Bihar — 13
7 Gujarat 3 5
8. Haryana — 2
II Karnataka 3 13
12. Kerala 1 6
14 Maharashtra 4 10
15. Manipur 1
—
16. Meghalaya — 1
17. Mizoram — 1
18. Nagaland — 2
19. Orissa — 18
20 Punjab — 4
21. Rajasthan 3 10
22 Sikkim 1
—
23. Tamil Nadu 1 2
24 Uttar Pradesh 2 1?
25 West Bengal — 12
26. Chandigarh — 1
13 ~202
WlLDLlfE : MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 339
The Chilka Lake Sanrtuarv is richlv endowed with rare birds like
cranes, ibises, eqrets, flamingoes, coimorants and pelicans The
other sanctuaries have nearly the same animals as found elsewhere
in India Punjab is compaiaHvelv poor in wildlife as much of the
land has been used for agriculture Its 3 sanctuaries are very small,
located in Patiala and Ferozopur districts and mostly having
migratory birds
Barmer is the biggest of all parks in India and noted for the occur-
rence of the Great Indian Bustard The doit closed area consisting
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 341
of black-buck deer
forms found nowhere else in India Tamil Nadu, in its one park
and seven sanctuaries, has some rare animals such as long-tailed
macaques and wild dogs besides the other usual forms of tigers,
elephants, bears and sambhars Uttar Pradesh is notably rich in
wildlife The Corbett National Park and Dudwa (Lakhimpur Khert)
Besides other animals, rhinoceros and Royal Bengal tiger are the
two most notable animal forms found here The Gangetic dolphins,
estuarine crocodiles and mouse deer are also found in the delta
area Chandigarh, the centrally administered city of India, has only
one sanctuary and that too has a few migratory birds
WILDLIEE MANAGEMENT
neighbouring villages
Species Preservation
India and is protected all over the country The endangered species
of Siberian crane is protected all over ihe world to save it from
extinction, as only a few individuals hardly exceeding 300 are left
Protection of Assemblages
Habitat Preservation
criminate hunting and poaching for valuable hides, skins and other
materials
FURTHER READING
Autoecology, ]0 Calcifuge— 68 ,
— 76
Homo neanderthelensis, 28
fidelity,
Homo sapiens 29,150
—survey, 55-61
Human migration effects 145-146
Flowers-btgamous, 37
—population effects, 151
— monogamous, V —use of plants, 150
Forests, 178-180
Hura fruits, 168
formation relics, 173
Hydrophytes, 42, 49
Fossil fuels, 147, 156 Hydroseres, 80
Fruit bats, 166
Hygroscopic water 111
Fundamental niche, 73
Hvpsithermal period, 31
Fungi, 37 Hyla 232,
—Carboniferous, 20 Megatherms, 46
—Cretaceous, 22 Melanesian subregion, 239
—devonian. 18 Mesophytes, 43
—eocene, 23
Mesotherms 46
—holocene, 28 Metatheria, 234
—jurrasic, 22 Metazoa. 227
—permtan, 20 Microtherms, 46
~
—Intensity effects, 89 Mole, 115
Vernalisation 98
Xerophytes, 43
Vertebrates. 228 Xero thermic index, 101
Vertical zonatton, plants, 63 X-rays, 87
Vicarjads, 174
Yarovisation, 98
Vicarious areas 174
Yellow forest soil, 126
Wallaces. 242
Zonal soils, 121
Wallace Ime, 241, 269, 272
Zone of eluwat/on, 109
Warm blooded animals, 230
—illuviation, 109
Water adhesion, 111 Zoogeographical region, 236
—balance, 96
Zoogeography, 5
—cycle, 93 Zooides, 5
Weischellian ice, 29 Zoological regions, 236
West African region, 257 —Sclater, 237, 240
Whales, 323 Zooplankton ,321