REDUCTION OF MULTIPLE

SUBSYSTEMS
SIGNAL−FLOW GRAPH
 Signal Flow Graphs

Consists of:
ü Branches – represent systems

ü Nodes – represent signals

Signal Flow Graphs

𝑉 𝑠 = 𝑅% 𝐺% − 𝑅( 𝐺( + 𝑅* 𝐺*

𝐶( 𝑠 = 𝑉(𝑠)𝐺.

= 𝑅% 𝐺% 𝐺. − 𝑅( 𝐺( 𝐺. + 𝑅* 𝐺* 𝐺.

𝐶* 𝑠 = −𝑉(𝑠)𝐺/

= −𝑅% 𝐺% 𝐺/ + 𝑅( 𝐺( 𝐺/ − 𝑅* 𝐺* 𝐺/
Signal Flow Graph Algebra
Signal Flow Graph Algebra
 Signal Flow Graph Algebra

Example:
A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along
which no node is passed more than once.
Example:
Ø XI to X2 to X3 to X4
Ø X2 to X3 and back to X2

Ø Xl to X2 to X4
An input node or source is a node with only outgoing branches.

Example:
- Xl is an input node.
An output node or sink is a node with only incoming branches.

Example:
- X4 is an output node.
A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node.

Example:
Ø Xl to X2 to X3, to X4

Ø Xl to X2 to X4
A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and
terminates on the same node.

Example:
Ø X2 to X3 and back to X2
A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch.

Example:
Ø A33
The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch when
the transmission function is a multiplicative operator.

Example:
A33 is the gain of the self-loop if A33 is a constant or transfer
function.
The path gain is the product of the branch gains encountered in
traversing a path.

Example:
the path gain of the forward path from Xl to X2 to X3 to X4 is
A21A32A43
The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop.

Example:
the loop gain of the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is
A32A23
Converting a Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graphs

V2 V1

G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)

R(s) V2(s) V1(s) C(s)

Converting a Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graphs

V1

V2

V3 G1(s) V1(s) 1

G2(s) 1

R(s) V2(s) C(s)

G3(s) 1

V3(s)
Converting a Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graphs

1 E(s) G(s)
R(s) C(s)

−H(s)
Converting a Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graphs

1 G1(s) 1 G2(s) 1 G3(s)

R(s) C(s)
V1(s) V2(s) V3(s) V4(s) V5(s)
−1 H2(s) −1 H3(s)
V7(s)
−1 V8(s)
V6(s)
H1(s)
Converting a Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graphs

1 G1(s) 1 G2(s) 1 G3(s)

R(s) C(s)
V1(s) V2(s) V3(s) V4(s) V5(s)

−H2(s) −H3(s)

−H1(s)
 Ma s o n ’ s R u le

• Mason's rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a single transfer function

requires the application of one formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-flow
graph to the simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph
(Mason, 1953).
 Ma s o n ’ s R u le
LOOP GAIN:
The product of branch gains found by traversing a path that starts at a node and ends at the same
node, following the direction of the signal flow, without passing through any other node more than
once.

1. 𝐺( 𝐻%
2. 𝐺4 𝐻(
3. 𝐺4 𝐺. 𝐻*
4. 𝐺4 𝐺/ 𝐻*
 Ma s o n ’ s R u le
FORWARD-PATH GAIN:
The product of gains found by traversing a path from the input node to the output node of the signal-
flow graph in the direction of signal flow.

1. 𝐺% 𝐺( 𝐺* 𝐺4 𝐺. 𝐺7

2. 𝐺% 𝐺( 𝐺* 𝐺4 𝐺/ 𝐺7
 Ma s o n ’ s R u le

NON-TOUCHING LOOPS:
Loops that do not have any nodes in common.

loop G2H1 does not touch

loops G4H2, G4G5H3, and
G4G6H3.
 Ma s o n ’ s R u le

NONTOUCHING-LOOP GAIN:
The product of loop gains from nontouching loops taken two, three, four, or more at a time.

1. 𝐺( 𝐻% 𝐺4 𝐻(
2. 𝐺( 𝐻% 𝐺4 𝐺. 𝐻*

3. 𝐺( 𝐻% 𝐺4 𝐺/ 𝐻*
 Ma s o n ’ s R u le
The transfer function of a system represented by a signal-flow graph is:
 89
Example: Find the transfer function, : 9 for the signal-flow graph.

1. Identify the forward path gain.

1 2 𝐺%𝐺(𝐺*𝐺4𝐺.
2. Identify the loop gains.

1. 𝐺( 𝐻%
2. 𝐺4 𝐻(
3. 𝐺7 𝐻4
3
4. 𝐺( 𝐺*𝐺4𝐺.𝐺/𝐺7𝐺;

3. Identify the nontouching loops taken 2 at a time. 4. Identify the nontouching loops taken 3 at a time.

Loop 1 & 2: 𝐺%𝐻%𝐺4𝐻( Loop 1, 2 & 3: 𝐺%𝐻%𝐺4𝐻(𝐺7𝐻4

Loop 1 & 3: 𝐺%𝐻%𝐺7𝐻4
Loop 2 & 3: 𝐺4𝐻(𝐺7𝐻4
 89
Example: Find the transfer function, : 9 for the signal-flow graph.
 89
Seatwork: Find the transfer function, : 9 for the signal-flow graph using Mason’s Rule
 89
Seatwork: Find the transfer function, : 9 for the signal-flow graph using Mason’s Rule
 Signal-flow Graphs of State Equations
𝑥̇ % = 2𝑥% − 5𝑥( + 3𝑥* + 2𝑟 𝑥̇ * = 𝑥% − 3𝑥( − 4𝑥* + 7𝑟
𝑥̇ ( = −6𝑥% − 2𝑥( + 2𝑥* + 5𝑟 𝑦 = −4𝑥% + 6𝑥( + 9𝑥*
9

2
5 6
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
7 𝒔 2 𝒔 -5 𝒔 −4
R(s) Y(s)
sX3(s) X3(s) sX2(s) X2(s) sX1(s) X1(s)

−4 −2 2

−3 3 −6

1
 Alternative Representations in State Space
ü One set of state variables, with its unique representation, can model actual
physical variables of a system, such as amplifier and filter outputs.

ü Ease of solution

ü Ease of modeling
 Alternative Representations in State Space

CASCADE FORM

𝐶(𝑠) 24
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠+2 𝑠+3 𝑠+4

𝐶F (𝑠) 1
=
𝑅F (𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝑎F 𝟏
1 𝒔
𝑠 + 𝑎F 𝐶F (𝑠) = 𝑅F (𝑠) R(s)
sCi(s) Ci(s)
𝑑𝑐F (𝑡)
+ 𝑎F 𝑐F 𝑡 = 𝑟F (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
−ai
𝑑𝑐F (𝑡)
= −𝑎F 𝑐F 𝑡 + 𝑟F (𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
 Alternative Representations in State Space
CASCADE FORM

𝐶(𝑠) 24
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠+2 𝑠+3 𝑠+4

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
24 𝒔 1 𝒔 1 𝒔 1
R(s)
X3(s) X2(s) X1(s) Ci(s)

𝑥̇ % = −4𝑥% + 𝑥( −2 −3 −4
𝑥̇ ( = −3𝑥( + 𝑥*
𝑥̇ * = −2𝑥* + 24𝑟
𝑦 = 𝑐F 𝑡 = 𝑥%
 Alternative Representations in State Space
PARALLEL FORM 𝟏
𝒔
𝐶(𝑠) 24 12 24 12 X1(s)
= = − + 12
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠+2 𝑠+3 𝑠+4 𝑠+2 𝑠+3 𝑠+4 1
−2
12 24 12 𝟏
𝐶 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 − 𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑅(𝑠) −24 1
𝑠+2 𝑠+3 𝑠+4 R(s)
𝒔
C(s)
X2(s)
𝑥̇ % = −2𝑥% + 12𝑟 −3
𝑥̇ ( = −3𝑥( − 24𝑟 𝟏 1
12
𝑥̇ * = −4𝑥* + 12𝑟 𝒔

𝑦 = 𝑥% + 𝑥( + 𝑥* X3(s)

−4
 Alternative Representations in State Space
PARALLEL FORM
𝐶(𝑠) (𝑠 + 3) 2 1 1
= = (−𝑠+1+𝑠+2
𝟏 𝟏
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠+1 ( 𝑠+2 𝑠+1 𝒔 1 𝒔
2 1 1 X2(s) X1(s)
𝐶 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 − 𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑅(𝑠)
𝑠+1 ( 𝑠+1 𝑠+2 1
2 −1 −1
𝑥̇ % = −𝑥% + 𝑥(
𝑥̇ ( = −𝑥( + 2𝑟 R(s) C(s)
−1/2
𝑥̇ * = −2𝑥* + 𝑟
%
𝑦 = 𝑥% − 𝑥( + 𝑥*
( 𝟏
1 𝒔 1
X3(s)

−2
 Alternative Representations in State Space
CONTROLLER CANONICAL FORM
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠 ( + 7𝑠 + 2 Renumbering the phase variables in reverse order:
= *
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 9𝑠 ( + 26𝑠 + 24

Rearranging in
ascending
numerical order
yields the
controller
canonical form:
 Alternative Representations in State Space
1
Phase-variable form
7

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
1 𝒔 𝒔 𝒔 2
R(s) C(s)
−9 X3(s) X2(s) X1(s)
−26
1
−24
Controller canonical form 7

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
1 𝒔 𝒔 𝒔 2
R(s) C(s)
−9 X1(s) X2(s) X3(s)
−26

−24
 Alternative Representations in State Space
OBSERVER CANONICAL FORM
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠 ( + 7𝑠 + 2
= *
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 9𝑠 ( + 26𝑠 + 24
1 7 2
𝐶(𝑠) + +
𝑠 𝑠( 𝑠*
Divide all terms by the highest power of s: =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 9 + 26 + 24
𝑠 𝑠( 𝑠*
1 7 2 9 26 24
+ (+ * 𝑅 𝑠 = 1+ + ( + * 𝐶 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

Combining terms
of like powers of 1 1 1
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 − 9𝐶(𝑠) + ( 7𝑅 𝑠 − 26𝐶 𝑠 + * 2𝑅 𝑠 − 24𝐶(𝑠)
integration gives 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
 Alternative Representations in State Space
OBSERVER CANONICAL FORM
1 1 1
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅 𝑠 − 9𝐶(𝑠) + ( 7𝑅 𝑠 − 26𝐶 𝑠 + * 2𝑅 𝑠 − 24𝐶(𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

7
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
2 𝒔 1 𝒔 1 𝒔 1
R(s) Ci(s)
X3(s) X2(s) X1(s)
−9
𝑥̇ % = −9𝑥% + 𝑥( +𝑟
𝑥̇ ( = −26𝑥% + 𝑥* + 7𝑟 −26

𝑥̇ * = −24𝑥% + 2𝑟 −24
𝑦 = 𝑥%
 Alternative Representations in State Space
( Controller canonical form
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠 + 7𝑠 + 2
= *
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 9𝑠 ( + 26𝑠 + 24

Phase-variable form

Observer canonical form

 Alternative Representations in State Space
1

Controller canonical form 7

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
1 𝒔 𝒔 𝒔 2
R(s) C(s)
−9 X1(s) X2(s) X3(s)
Observer canonical form
−26
1
−24
7
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
2 𝒔 1 𝒔 1 𝒔 1
R(s) Ci(s)
X3(s) X2(s) X1(s)
−9

−26

−24
 State Space Representation of Feedback System
Represent the feedback control system shown in state space.
Model the forward transfer function in cascade form.
Seatwork:
1. Draw a signal-flow graph for the following state and output equations:

2. Represent the feedback control system shown in state space. Model the
forward transfer function in controller canonical form.