01 GAS TURBINE Basics

Introduction to Gas Turbines File Page
Training © - Gas Turbine Basics - GT Basics 1
GAS TURBINE BASICS
© Copyright, September 2003

Contents Page
Introduction 3
The history of the gas turbine 3
Principle of operation 5
Gas laws for compression and expansion 8
The basic process in theory 11
The cycle efficiency 17
Ambient conditions affecting gas turbine operation 23
Methods to improve the efficiency 27

The regenerative cycle 27
The combined cycle (co-generation) 31
The steam and gas cycle (STAG) 35
Variable inlet guide vanes 39
Methods to increase the output power 41

Compressor inter-cooling 41
Turbine re-heating 43
Steam injection 45
Evaporative cooling 48
Helper steam turbine 49
Types of gas turbines 50

Heavy-duty and aero-derivative gas turbines 50
Single and multi-shaft engines 53
Open and closed cycles 58
The GE gas turbines 60

Model nomenclature 60
Ratings of the GE gas turbines 63
Examples of realized plants 64

An elementary cycle plant 64
A combined cycle plant 68
A steam and gas cycle (STAG) plant 72
Appendix 1: Principle of the jet engine 77
Appendix 2: Conversion from thrust to power of a jet engine 82

Introduction
The history of the gas turbine
The development of the gas turbine from the beginning until nowadays can be seen as a
remarkable achievement. Little other machines have stimulated scientists and inventors for
such a long time.
When we skip the earliest examples of machines operating according the gas turbine
principle then in 1791, the Englishman John Barber introduced a patent. The machine he
describes in his patent introduction can be regarded as the first design of a realistic gas
turbine. It is not known however if this primitive gas turbine has ever worked.
1. TURBINE WHEEL
2. GAS AND AIR COMPRESSOR
3. COMBUSTION CHAMBER
4. MIXING CHAMBER
5. FUEL RESERVOIR
Figure 1, Barber's gas turbine (1791)
Gas turbine theory was studied further in the nineteenth century but no practical machine
could be made. One of the scientists that studied gas turbine theory was J.P. Joule whose
name will frequently appear in this introduction.
Just before the Second World War the first gas turbine, having a reasonable efficiency of
20% was put into service. The experimental gas turbines which were built on several places
in the world before that time had such a bad efficiency that they hardly could run by
themselves.
In 1940, General Electric built the first jet engine after the design of the Englishman Whittle.
Since 1940, gas turbine research went very fast. This is due to the continuous research on
heat resistant materials and cooling techniques. In this introduction, you will find that the
highest temperature in the gas turbine cycle is of great importance for good cycle
efficiencies.
A strong impulse for gas turbine development has come from the airplane industry. The gas
turbine appeared to be very useful as a replacement of the complicated and vulnerable
piston engines. The gas turbine jet engine is reliable, it has little moving parts and the power
per unit of mass is high.
The development of stationary gas turbines for generator and compressor drive went into
two directions. Some manufacturers have designed gas turbines especially for stationary
use only. These are relatively heavy machines, which are able to burn a wide range of fuel
qualities. Other manufacturers have specialized in jet engine designs and have later derived
stationary gas turbines from their most successful jet engines. Both types of gas turbines are
widely used nowadays.
Almost all airplanes are nowadays propelled by gas turbines. The gas turbine may be used
as a propeller engine (turbo-prop) or as a jet engine. The, from the jet engines derived land
or marine versions, gain popularity. The heavy-duty gas turbines receive more and more
attention. Almost all electrical power-producing companies in the West utilize STAG-plants,
a combination of steam and gas turbines. Furthermore a lot of companies produce their own
power and heat with a combined cycle plant; herein the gas turbine plays an indispensable
role. So, the gas turbine cannot be neglected on land or in the air.
The situation in marine utilization of gas turbines is not so good. On merchant marine ships
in general, Diesel engines are being installed instead of gas turbines. This is due to the
possibility of using heavy fuel and the higher efficiency in these rather small installations.
However, many gas turbines are being used on navy vessels and ferryboats. These ships
use gas turbines because they are relatively small, especially the aero-derivative. They
develop a high power output (for high cruising speeds) and can run on full power within
minutes.
Principle of operation
Figure 2 shows the principle of a gas turbine that operates according to the basic process. In
principle, a gas turbine is a machine with internal combustion like a diesel engine or an
explosion engine. The process the machine follows the stages inlet, compression, heating,
expansion and exhaust. The gas turbine cycle has some similarity with the cycle of an
internal combustion engine. However, there are major differences.
INLET COMPRESSION HEATING EXPANSION EXHAUST
air air + combustion gases
INLET AIR
15 °C FUEL COMPRESSED
1013 mb AIR
21% O2 250…500 °C
6…30 bar EXHAUST
HOT GASES
450…600 °C
COMBUSTION 900…1250 °C
1013 mb
CHAMBER 5.5…29 bar
15% O2
COMPRESSOR TURBINE LOAD

(GENERATOR)
Figure 2, schematic drawing of a gas turbine
Internal combustion engine cycles as well as gas turbine cycles can be made visible in
pressure-volume (p-V) or in temperature-entropy (T-s) diagrams. In figure 3, we see a set of
diagrams for the gas turbine cycle. Two scientists, Brayton and Joule did the study of this
cycle and the cycle was therefore called after them: the 'Brayton/Joule' cycle.
The Brayton/Joule cycle consists of the following processes:
1 → 2 Compression of ambient air by a multi-stage compressor.

Condition after compression: 6 to 30 bar and 250 to 500 °C.
2 → 3 Heating up the air with fuel under constant pressure.
Condition after heating: 5.5 to 29 bar and 900 to 1250 °C.
3 → 4 Expansion of the hot gases in the turbine section to atmospheric pressure.
End condition: atmospheric pressure and 450 to 600 °C.
4 → 1 Cooling of the gases in the atmosphere to the ambient temperature. This takes place
outside the gas turbine.
In point 4, the hot gases are released to atmosphere, where they will be cooled to
atmospheric conditions. The cycle is called an 'open cycle'. This means that any amount of
air that has passed the process will not return to the cycle.
p-V DIAGRAM T-s DIAGRAM

2 3 3
p T
4
+
2
1 4 1
V s
Figure 3, p-V and T-s diagram of the Brayton/Joule cycle
Characteristics of the gas turbine cycle:
- The aspirated air is compressed and only about one quarter is used for combustion.
The remainder of the air is increased in temperature by the combustion. When the
mixture of air and combustion gases leaves the combustion chamber, it still contains
approximately 15 to 16% oxygen (O2). (Compare this with the Diesel or explosion
engine, where all the air is used for combustion).
- The heating of the air (2 → 3 in the p-V diagram) theoretically happens with a constant
pressure. In practice, the pressure will decrease a little, due to flow losses in the
combustion chamber. (Compare this with the explosion engine, where the pressure
generally increases during combustion).
- The expansion of the air (3 → 4 in the diagram) goes on until the atmospheric
pressure has been reached. In an explosion engine, the expansion is stopped before
the atmospheric pressure has been reached. For the discharge of the combustion
gases through gates ore valves some pressure is needed.
- An important difference between a gas turbine and a diesel or explosion engine is the
fact that the gas turbine cycle is a continuous one. Here the process is not interrupted
as in two or four stroke engines but we find a continuous inlet, compression,
combustion, expansion and exhaust. This implies that a constant torque is available
on the output shaft that is a clear advantage over the uneven torque of piston engines.
- The Brayton/Joule cycle can be realized in relatively big machines. The largest gas
turbine GE makes can develop an output power of 226 MW.
- As in explosion or diesel engines the gas turbine must be started with a starting
device. This can be a steam turbine, a gas expansion turbine, a diesel engine or an
electric motor. The starting device will accelerate the gas turbine to a speed at which
the turbine becomes self- sustaining. The starting device will then be switched off
automatically.
The Brayton/Joule cycle as described before can be realized in a stationary gas turbine of
which we see an example in figure 4 (9FA). Atmospheric air is drawn in by the compressor,
and is compressed to a pressure of 6 to 12 bar. Due to the compression, the temperature
will increase considerably.
The air will now flow to the combustion chambers and is mixed with burning fuel that is
injected by fuel nozzles. The burning fuel will raise the gas temperature (air plus combustion
gases) while the pressure remains constant. The hot gases expand in the turbine through
which mechanical work is performed. The developed work is partly used to drive the, in most
cases, axial compressor (60%) whereas the rest of the work is used to drive the output shaft.
INLET COMPRESSION COMBUSTION EXPANSION EXHAUST
Figure 4, example of a stationary gas turbine

Gas laws for compression and expansion
The change of state of an ideal gas, and with sufficient accuracy for air, is set by the general
gas law of Boyle-Gay Lussac:
3
p* V Where p is the pressure in bar absolute, V the specific volume in m /kg,
=c
T and T the absolute temperature in K.
For a change of state 1 → 2 holds:

For an adiabatic change of state (compression, expansion) also Poisson's law is applicable:
p* V k = c Where k is the adiabatic exponent (non-dimensional),

k is the average value for the change of state.
For a change of state 1 → 2 holds:
p1*V1k = p2*V2k
For various gases and gas mixtures at various temperatures the average k-value can be
found in gas manuals or it can be calculated if the gas mixture is known. We will present
some practical k-values for the gas turbine cycle in this text.
By substituting Poisson's law in the general gas law the relations between pressure,
temperature and volume for compression and expansion processes can be obtained.
Note that this should not be done for the combustion process and for the exhaust, since
heating and cooling are not adiabatic processes.
For a gas turbine, the most interesting relation is the relation between pressure ratio and
temperature ratio.
For adiabatic compression holds:
k −1 k −1
T2  p 2  k p  k
=  which can be written as : T2 = T1 *  2 
T1  p1   p1 
And for adiabatic expansion:
k −1 k −1
T3  p 3  k p  k
T4  p4   p4 
Warning:
In these kinds of thermodynamic equations, the temperatures are to be the absolute
temperatures (T) in K (Kelvin = °C + 273.15).
The temperature (t) in °C should not be used for thermodynamic calculations unless in a
subtraction.
The pressure ratios have to be calculated with absolute pressures (p) in bar or Pa (Pascal).
This means gauge pressure + ambient pressure, approximately 1 b.
Some gas turbines use the latter expression for turbine inlet temperature control. Since it is
technically very difficult to measure the turbine inlet temperature T3, this temperature is
calculated with the thermodynamic relation that holds for the expansion process in the
turbine. Exhaust temperature T4 and compressor discharge pressure p2 is measured.
Thereby it is assumed that p2 is sufficiently close to the turbine inlet pressure p3. The control
relation will be:
T3
T4 =
 k −1 
p2  k 

In a real gas turbine process, the values of cp and k do not remain constant from
compressor inlet to turbine exhaust. Figure 5 shows how these parameters change with
temperature. The diagram shows lines for cp and k of air and of air with combustion gases at
various ratios.
Figure 5, cp and k values for air and combustion gases
Note:
The cp and k values for a gas turbine can be calculated with the gas turbine
performance calculation computer program.
This program can be obtained from the Thomassen Turbine Systems Customer
Training Department
Examples:
The compressor operates with air, so the cp and k lines for 0% fuel apply.
Assume: t1 = 15 °C, t2' = 300 °C.
The average compressor temperature is (15 + 300) / 2 = 157.5 °C.

Obtain from the graph the cpc and the kc values:
cpc = 1.018 [kJ/kgK]

kc = 1.380 [non-dimensional]
The combustion chamber operates with air, mixed with combustion gases. Before the graph
can be used, the fuel percentage in the air should be known. Assume this to be 2%, the cp
line for 2% fuel applies.
Assume: t2' = 300 °C and t3 = 1000 °C.
The average combustion chamber temperature equals: (300+1000) / 2 = 650 °C.

Obtain from the graph the cpc value:
cpcc = 1.155 [kJ/kgK]

kcc = 1.273 [non-dimensional]
The turbine and the exhaust operate with a mixture of air and combustion gases, as well.
With the known fuel percentage in the air and the average temperature, the cp and the k
values can be obtained from the graph.
(Refer to the calculation example on page 22).
The basic process in theory
In the foregoing chapter, an introduction was given to the principle of operation. In the
Brayton/Joule cycle, the flowing air follows the stages inlet, compression, heating, expansion
and exhaust. Each part of the cycle will here be discussed in more detail.
Inlet
Inlet of the air to the compressor takes place through an inlet system that is adjusted to the
local situation. In an area without any pollution, a simple screen sees to it that birds and
insects cannot enter the compressor or an additional inertial separator.
In dusty areas such as deserts, the use of a more complicated multi-stage filter is essential
to avoid any entry of sand and dust, as these elements will rapidly erode compressor vanes,
blades and turbine components. Depending on the filter layout the filter will cause a slight
pressure drop of the air. This means that the air has a pressure below atmospheric before it
enters the compressor. The pressure loss can vary from 300 to 1500 Pa (3 to 15 mbar).
Compression
Compression of the filtered air takes place in a multi-stage compressor. Normally an axial
compressor is used. The name of this type of compressor comes from the flow path of the
air: in parallel to the compressor axis. Some gas turbine designs use a centrifugal
compressor.
Compression of the air is a rapid process. Each kg of air entering the compressor is brought
to compressor discharge pressure in a fraction of a second. Due to the high speed of
compression, the air can only loose little heat to the surrounding area. Compression in which
no heat is added or removed to or from the surrounding area is called adiabatic
compression. Lines 1 → 2 in the p-V and T-s diagrams shown in figure 6 are therefore called
adiabates. If the compression is loss-free, the process is called isentropic (constant entropy).
2' ISOTHERM T2'

p 2 ISOTHERM T2 T
ACTUAL ISOTHERM T2'

COMPRESSION ISOTHERM T2
2'
LOSS FREE ACTUAL COMPRESSION
2
COMPRESSION
LOSS FREE COMPRESSION
1 ISOTHERM T1
ISOTHERM T1 1
V s
Figure 6, compression in p-V en T-s diagram
During compression not only, the pressure will rise, but also the temperature. This can be
shown in the diagrams by drawing the lines of constant temperature, the so-called
isotherms. In figure 6, this is done for compressor suction temperature T1 and for the
compressor discharge temperature T2.
For the compression of each kg of air, work must be performed. The amount of work for
loss-free compression in kJ/kg is determined by the formula:
W c = cpc * (T2 − T1 ) [kJ/kg]
Where:
cpc = specific heat of air (at the average of T1 and T2) [kJ/kgK]
T2 = compressor discharge temperature [K of °C]
T1 = compressor inlet temperature [K of °C]
In reality, more work per kg of air must be supplied, because the compressor has certain
losses. This is expressed in the compressor efficiency ηc, which is about 0.85 or 85%.
Compression takes place along a line in the diagram that is situated to the right of the loss
free adiabate, the dotted line in figure 6. For the same pressure ratio the discharge
temperature T2' is higher after the actual compression than after the loss free compression.
The actual compression work done per kg of air will be:
W c ' = cpc * (T2 ' −T1 ) [kJ/kg]
Compressor efficiency can be expressed as the ratio between the temperature difference of
the loss free compression (T2 - T1) and the real temperature difference (T2' - T1).
At the same time, this represents the ratio between theoretical loss free compressor work Wc
and the actual work necessary for compression Wc'.
T2 − T1 W
ηc = * 100% = c * 100% (approximately 80 to 85%)
T2 ' −T1 Wc '
The theoretical compressor discharge temperature can be calculated by using the formula
from page 8.
k −1 k −1
T2  p 2  k p  k
T1  p1   p1 
In practice, the compressor efficiency can be determined as follows:

1. Determine the k factor for the average compression temperature.
2. Calculate T2 (the theoretical compressor discharge temperature).
3. Calculate the compressor efficiency ηc.
The actual compression work can also be written as:
cpc * (T2 − T1 ) [kJ/kgK]

Wc ' =
ηc '
Heating
Heating up the air is done in combustion chambers. A combustion chamber is normally

made up of a casing, which is strong enough to handle compressor discharge pressure.
Inside this casing a metal liner is installed, which is equipped with a large number of
specially designed and situated holes to allow the air to flow in evenly. Fuel is injected into
the liner to heat up the air to the specified temperature level.
The air flowing into the liner experiences some resistance. When we neglect the small
pressure drop (2 to 5%), one may state that the air is heated up under constant pressure
from compressor discharge temperature to turbine inlet temperature.
REACTION ZONE MIXING ZONE
FUEL
TO THE
TURBINE (T3)
FROM THE
COMPRESSOR (T2')
Figure 7, principle of the combustion chamber
The amount of energy added for each kg of air is given by:
Q1 = cp cc * ( T3 − T2 ' ) [kJ/kg]
Where:
cpcc = specific of gases (at the average of T2' and T3) [kJ/kgK]
T3 = turbine inlet temperature [K of °C]
T2' = compressor discharge temperature [K of °C]
Expansion
Expansion of the hot gases takes place in the turbine section. Turbines can be designed and
built as impulse (action) or as reaction turbines. A combination of both principles is also
possible. In principle, a turbine is made up of a number of expansion stages. Impulse
turbines normally have two or three, reaction turbines five to eight stages. Each expansion
stage has a nozzle ring in the casing, followed by a wheel with blades or buckets of the
turbine rotor.
Expansion in the turbine is a rapid process. Therefore, one may assume that expansion
takes place under adiabatic conditions. In the p-V and T-s diagrams, this is expressed by the
loss free adiabates from point 3 to point 4.
ISOTHERM T3
3 3
ACTUAL ISOTHERM T3
EXPANSION LOSS FREE EXP.
p T ACTUAL EXP. 4'
LOSS FREE ISOTHERM T4'
EXPANSION ISOTHERM T4 4
ISOTHERM T4
ISOTHERM T4'
4'
4
V s
Figure 8, expansion in p-V en T-s diagram
During expansion, the pressure will drop from combustion chamber pressure to exhaust
pressure. In addition, the temperature will decrease during expansion. This is shown in the
p-V and T-s diagrams by drawing the isotherms for turbine inlet temperature T3 and turbine
exhaust temperature T4. Each kg of air (air plus combustion gases) performs a theoretical
amount of mechanical work on the turbine rotor according to:
W t = cpt * (T3 − T4 ) [kJ/kg]
Where:
cpt = specific heat of gases (at the average of T3 and T4) [kJ/kgK]
T3 = turbine inlet temperature [K of °C]
T4 = turbine exhaust temperature [K of °C]
In reality, the turbine produces less work as indicated by the foregoing formula, because the
turbine, like the compressor, has losses. This is expressed by the turbine efficiency ηt, which
is about 0.9 or 90%. So real expansion takes place along a line (the dotted line) at the right
side of the loss free adiabate. For the same pressure ratio, the temperature after expansion
T4' will be higher than T4. Now turbine work per kg of flowing medium will become:
W t ' = cpt * (T3 − T4 ' ) [kJ/kg]
Turbine efficiency can be expressed as the ratio between the actual temperature difference
T3 - T4' and the loss free temperature difference T3 - T4. This gives also the ratio between
actual turbine work Wt' and the ideal loss free work Wt.
T3 − T 4 ' W'
ηt = * 100% = t * 100% (approximatey 85 to 90%)
T 3 − T4 Wt
The theoretical turbine exhaust temperature T4 can be calculated by using the formula from
page 9.
T3
T4 =
 k −1 
p2  k 

The actual expansion work can also be written as:
W t ' = cpt * η t * (T3 − T4 ) [kJ/kg]
The amount of work performed on the turbine by each kg of air is much higher than the work
available on the output shaft. The turbine must not only drive the load, but also the
compressor, which consumes a great deal of work.
Exhaust
The flowing medium leaves the gas turbine through the exhaust system. This system can
vary from a simple steel exhaust channel, with insulation and silencers, to an insulated
concrete channel of 100 meters in height. Each exhaust channel causes a slight pressure
drop of the exhaust gases. This pressure drop (300 to 1500 Pa or 3 to 15 mbar) will be taken
into account when the gas turbine performance must be calculated.
The amount of work, which is lost in the exhaust (heat energy in the gases) can be
calculated as the difference between the heat content in the exhaust gases and the heat
content in the compressor inlet air. The atmosphere will cool the hot gases, in the basic
Brayton/Joule cycle.
The lost energy per kg gases will be:
Q2 = cp x * (T4 ' −T1 ) [kJ/kg]
Where:
cpx = specific heat of gases (at the average of T4' and T1) [kJ/kgK]
T4' = exhaust temperature gas turbine [K of °C]
T1 = ambient temperature [K of °C]

To summarize the previous theory, the practical and the theoretical p-V and T-s diagrams of
the gas turbine cycle are shown in figure 9. Note the following losses in the process:
1. Due to compressor suction pressure losses, this also results in a lower compressor
discharge pressure: (1 → 1').
2. Due to the compressor efficiency: (2 → 2').
3. Due to the pressure loss over the combustion chamber: (3 → 3').
4. Due to the turbine efficiency and the exhaust pressure losses: (4 → 4').
2 3
2' 3'
p PRESSURE LOSS IN THE
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
TURBINE
EFFICIENCY
PRESSURE LOSS
COMPRESSOR OVER THE EXHAUST
EFFICIENCY 4'
1
1' 4
PRESSURE LOSS
V
OVER THE INLET
3 3'
4'
2' 4
2
1
1'
THEORETICAL CYCLE PRACTICAL CYCLE
Figure 9, theoretical and actual Brayton/Joule cycle

The cycle efficiency
With every heat engine the important question is: what is the efficiency of the process, in
other words: what percentage of the fuel supply is available at the output shaft as useful
power? The efficiency of the process can be calculated with the available thermodynamic
formulae. In this chapter, these formulae will be discussed and at the same time cycle
efficiencies will be made visible in so-called Sankey diagrams. The energy flows to and from
the machine, are expressed as beams of proportional width in these diagrams. Figure 10
shows a Sankey diagram of a gas turbine operating according the basic process or simple
cycle.
EXHAUST 65% RADIATION AND

(56 TO 73%) MECHANICAL
LOSSES 2%
MECHANICAL
WORK 33%
(25 TO 42%)
FUEL 100%
Figure 10, Sankey diagram of a simple cycle gas turbine
Some figures:
- 33% from the supplied 100% fuel energy is available as useful work on the output
shaft.
- Radiation and mechanical losses absorb 2% and 65% is released to atmosphere
through the exhaust.
The general expression for the process efficiency is:
the useful work

η= * 100% [non - dimensional]
the supplied energy
In the Brayton/Joule cycle, useful energy is the mechanical work, which the turbine supplies
to the output shaft.
As the turbine also drives the compressor, the turbine work is:
W t ' = W sh + W c '
From this follows the useful shaft work:
Wsh = Wt '−Wc '

The shaft work can also be expressed as the difference between the supplied energy Q1 and
the lost energy in the exhaust Q2. Thus follows:
Wsh = Q1 − Q2
The cycle efficiency can be calculated as follows:
Wt ' −Wc ' Q1 − Q2

η= * 100% = * 100% [non - dimensional]
Q1 Q1
Q1 Q2
Q2
Q1
Wc' W t' Wsh GT
Wsh
Figure 11, calculation of the efficiencies
If the flowing medium in the compressor and turbine would have had the same specific heat
cp, then the cycle efficiency of the gas turbine could be expressed as:
Wt ' −Wc ' (T3 − T4 ' ) − (T2 ' −T1 ) T ' −T

η= * 100% = =1− 4 1 [non - dimensional]
Q1 (T3 − T2 ' ) T 3 − T2 '
(You can control yourself whether the equation with only Q1 and Q2 produces the same
result).
This formula should not be used for calculations on actual gas turbines, due to the different
cp values, which appear in the compressor, the combustion chambers and in the turbine.
However, one can derive from the equation that efficiency will be high when:
a) The exhaust temperature is as low as possible: (T4' - T1) will be small.
b) The turbine inlet temperature is as high as possible: (T3 - T2') will be high.
Which temperatures can be affected by the plant operator?
- T1 is the ambient temperature, which cannot be influenced, unless an evaporative

cooler is used.
- T2' is the compressor discharge temperature, which is determined by the compressor

pressure ratio and the compressor efficiency. This is one of the reasons to keep the
compressor in optimum condition.
- T3 is the turbine inlet temperature. The materials and cooling techniques used in the
hot gas path of the turbine limit this temperature to about 1200 °C. Continuous
research is done to obtain materials, which can withstand even higher temperatures.
In addition, the cooling systems of buckets and nozzle sections are subject to
continuous research to obtain higher levels of T3.
- T4' is the turbine exhaust temperature. The value of T4' is determined by the
thermodynamic expansion of the gas in the turbine, and by the turbine efficiency.
Internal wear may affect the turbine efficiency, but the operator cannot influence this.
The work necessary to drive the compressor is not shown in the Sankey diagram in figure
10. The compression work per kg of air will be approximately 1 to 1.5 times the useful work
delivered to the output shaft.
This is a considerable amount of work. Fortunately this work is not lost, it will be present in
the compressed air as pressure and temperature energy. Most of this work will be recovered
when the gases expand in the turbine section, as is illustrated in figure 12.
EXHAUST 65%
RADIATION AND
(56 TO 73%)
MECHANICAL
LOSSES 2%
MECHANICAL
WORK 33%
(25 TO 42%)
COMPRESSOR COMPRESSOR
WORK
FUEL 100%
TURBINE
TURBINE WORK
Figure 12, Sankey diagram, including compressor work

In the previous chapters, the work in the gas turbine cycle has been calculated per kg of
airflow through the machine. This work multiplied with the mass-flow of air will give the
power consumed or delivered by the major gas turbine components: compressor,
combustion chamber and turbine. In formula:
P = ms * W [kW]
Where:
ms = mass-flow of air or air and combustion gases [kg/s]
W = work per kg of air [kJ/kg]
In the combustion chamber, fuel is added to the airflow. This would mean that the mass-flow
of gases in the turbine is somewhat greater than the mass-flow of air in the compressor. This
is however not the case, since a small percentage of compressor air is bled off for cooling
and sealing purposes. In this introduction, we will assume that the amount of air bled off is of
the same magnitude as the amount of fuel added, so that the mass-flow in the entire gas
turbine is the same.
Gas turbine efficiency depends on the pressure ratio in the cycle. The designer can select
the pressure ratio over a wide range, which is illustrated in figure 13. Efficiency will rise as
pressure ratio increases. This explains the tendency to build gas turbines with high pressure
ratios.
The work each kg of flowing medium creates is called specific work:
W sh = W t ' −W c '
For every gas turbine, operating on a certain turbine inlet temperature, a pressure ratio can
be found where maximum specific work can be obtained from the machine. This is shown is
figure 13, showing specific work as a function of pressure ratio, for various temperatures T3.
The heat resistance of the turbine materials limits the turbine inlet temperature T3. The use
of special super alloys and cooling techniques for the nozzles and buckets allows inlet
temperatures up to 1471 °C (1744 K).
Note:
De turbine inlet temperature is not the “firing” temperature. This “firing” temperature is
defined by GE as the turbine inlet temperature - de temperature drop caused by the cooling
in the first stage turbine nozzle. A difference of approximately 155 °C.
For a gas turbine with a given power output the specific work is a measure for the size of the
gas turbine. Therefore, we have two reasons to raise the turbine inlet temperature to its
allowable maximum: maximum specific work and maximum cycle efficiency.
EFFICIENCY [%] SPECIFIC WORK [KJ/KG]
ηC = 87%
ηT = 90%
T1 = 288 K
t1 = 15 °C
p1 = 1013 mbar
PRESSURE RATIO p2/p1

a & a': T3 = 1000 K = 727 °C
b & b': T3 = 1200 K = 927 °C
c & c': T3 = 1400 K = 1127 °C
d & d': T3 = 1600 K = 1327 °C
Figure 13, efficiency and specific work as a function of pressure ratio and T3
Example of calculating work, power, and efficiency in a gas turbine
AIR FUEL HP AIR HOT EXHAUST

GASES
T1 Q1, Pf Q2, Px
cpx
cpcc T3 T 4'
T 2'
Wc', Pc Wt', PT Wsh, Psh

cpc, kc cpt, kt
Mass-flow ms = 123 kg/s
t1 = 15 t2' = 300 t3 = 1000 t4' = 520 [°C]

cpc = 1.018 cpcc = 1.115 cpt = 1.176 cpx = 1.057 [kJ/kgK]
kc = 1.380 kt = 1.318 [-]
Figure 14, gas turbine with some data
Work:
Wc' = cpc*(t2' - t1) = 1.018 * 285 = 290.13 [kJ/kg]

Q1 = cpcc *(t3 - t2') = 1.155 * 700 = 808.31 "
Wt' = cpt*(t3 - t4') = 1.176 * 480 = 564.65 "
Q2 = cpx*(t4' - t1) = 1.057 * 505 = 533.79 "
Wsh = Wt' - Wc' = 564.65 - 290.13 = 274.52 "
Wsh = Qt - Q c = 808.31 - 533.79 = 274.52 "
Efficiency:
Wt ' − Wc ' Q − Q2
η= *100% = 1 *100%
Q1 Q1
564.65 − 290.13 808.31 − 533.79

η= *100% = *100% = 33.96%
808.31 808.31
Power:
Pc = Wc' * ms = 290.13 * 123 = 35.686 [kW]

Pt = Wt' * ms = 564.65 * 123 = 69.452 ''
Pf = Q1 * ms = 808.31 * 123 = 99.422 ''
Px = Q2 * ms = 533.79 * 123 = 65.656 ''
Psh = Pt - Pc = 69.452 - 35.686 = 33.766 ''
Psh = Pf - Px = 99.422 - 65.656 = 33.766 ''
Ambient conditions affecting gas turbine operation
An open cycle gas turbine operates with air as a working medium. In principle, the
compressor draws in a constant volume of air at constant speed. This means that when the
density of the air changes, the mass-flow through the gas turbine will change as well. This
has an impact on total produced work and on efficiency.
Gas turbine performance is stated at standard conditions, which are internationally agreed.
The most used standard is:
p1 = 1013 mbar and t1 = 15 °C (288 K) (ISO-standard)
When the ambient temperature, which is also the compressor inlet temperature T1,
decreases, the compressor discharge temperature T2 will also decrease with approximately
the same amount. (This is true for constant compressor speed). When T1 and T2 decrease,
the temperature ratio over the compressor T2/T1 will increase.
For an adiabatic compression applied is:

k −1
T2  p 2  k
= 
T1  p1 
When the temperature ratio T2/T1 increases, for a constant k-factor, also the pressure ratio
p2/p1 will increase. With p1 (compressor suction pressure) constant, the compressor
discharge pressure p2 will increase.
Thus: For a decreasing T1 with constant speed and constant ambient pressure p1, the
compressor discharge pressure p2 will increase.
The mass-flow of air will increase as well for a decreasing inlet temperature T1.
In the foregoing, it is proved that at larger pressure ratios, the specific work will increase or
decrease depending on the chosen design point at standard conditions. Different gas
turbines have been designed for different 'standard' operating points.
Two examples (refer to figure 13):
PRESSURE SPEC. WORK EFFICIENCY

TYPE GT EFFICIENCY [%] T3 [K]
RATIO AT LOWER T1 AT LOWER T1
MS6001B 11.5 31.4 1350 INCREASING INCREASING
LM6000 29 41.7 1500 DECREASING INCREASING

The three effects mentioned, e.g. increasing mass-flow, increasing efficiency and increasing
specific work will cause for example in an MS6001B gas turbine a strong increase in gas
turbine output power at decreasing ambient temperatures. This is shown in the performance
graphs for a specific model of gas turbine. Figure 15 shows the changes of efficiency, mass-
flow and power as a function of ambient temperature t1.
Note. The performance graphs of GE gas turbines are made with a temperature scale in °F,
and instead of efficiency they show 'heat rate' (specific fuel consumption). More information
on the use of performance graphs can be found in the chapter 'Performance evaluation' of
this training manual.
SHAFT POWER MASS-FLOW EFFICIENCY
TCF
DESIGN POINT
(ISO) 15 °C
T1 [°C]
Figure 15, relation between ambient temperature and performance

When the ambient pressure p1 is decreasing at a constant inlet temperature t1, the pressure
ratio p2/p1 and the temperature ratio T2/T1 will remain unchanged (this is true for a constant
speed of the compressor rotor).
The efficiency and the specific work will in that case not change. Since the density of the air
decreases, the mass-flow through the gas turbine will decrease as well, thus creating less
output power. This relation is shown in figure 16. Gas turbine output has a linear relation
with ambient pressure.
PCF
DESIGN POINT
(ISO) 1013 mbar
p1 [mbar]
Figure 16, relation between ambient pressure and output
Since the gas turbine power output varies linearly with the ambient pressure, the pressure
correction factor can also be obtained by:
pbaro
PCF =
1013
(pbaro = ambient pressure in mbar)

Correction factors TCF for temperature and PCF for pressure can be obtained from figures
15 and 16 for calculation of gas turbine output at various ambient conditions.
Example:
A gas turbine has a (ISO) design power output of 38 000 kW, and a (ISO) design efficiency η
= 33%
Assume that on a certain day: t1 = +10 °C en p1 = 950 mbar.
From figure 15 the temperature correction factor TCF for the output power is obtained, which
is 1.03.
From figure 16 the pressure correction factor PCF is obtained, which is 0.94.
The maximum output power on that day will be:
Pmax = Pdesign * TCF * PCF
Pmax = 38,000 * 1,03 * 0,94 = 36,792 kW
The efficiency of the gas turbine can be calculated by:
ηmax = ηdesign * TCF
From figure 15, the temperature correction factor for efficiency is obtained, which is 1.015.
The maximum efficiency on that day will be:
ηmax = 33 * 1.015 = 33.5%
The gas turbine manufacturer will supply the performance graphs, with the influence of the
ambient conditions on a specific gas turbine. The influence of extra pressure losses over the
inlet and exhaust systems can also be found on these performance graphs.
These graphs must always be consulted to check the gas turbine performance.
More information on the use of performance graphs can be found in the chapter
'Performance evaluation' of this training manual.
Methods to improve the efficiency
The regenerative cycle
One method to increase the efficiency of an existing gas turbine plant is the use of a
regenerator or recuperator in the gas turbine exhaust. The regenerator is a large air/air heat
exchanger that heats up the compressed air before it enters the combustion chambers. Heat
from the exhaust gases will heat up the compressor discharge air, after which the air is
directed to the combustion chambers. The heat exchanger is made up of a large number of
double-walled pipes. The exhaust gases flow through the inner pipes and around the outer
pipes. The compressed air flows between the inner and outer pipes. The exchanger is
designed to absorb expansion and shrinkage during start-up and stop. The connecting
piping between exchanger and gas turbine is designed to avoid pressure losses as much as
possible.
EXHAUST STACK
t6=335 °C
P6=1 bar
G A G A G
REGENERATOR
t2=300 °C
p2=9 bar
t5=450 °C
AIR
p5=8.8 bar
t1=15 °C
p1=1 bar
EXHAUST
t3=950 °C
COMB. CH. t4=480 °C
p3=8.6 bar
p4=1.04 bar
Figure 17, principle of the regenerative cycle
In figure 18, temperatures and pressures in this regenerative process, are stated. A number
of important data can be observed:
a) The exhaust gases and the compressed airflow in opposite directions through the
regenerator. The heat transferred from the exhaust gases to the air will be:
Q x = cp x * (T4 − T6 ) [kJ/kg]
(cpx = specific heat of the exhaust gases) [kJ/kgK]

The air will absorb:
Qa = cpa * (T5 − T2 ) [kJ/kg]
(cpa = specific heat of air) [kJ/kgK]
Since released energy is absorbed energy:
cp x * (T4 − T6 ) = cpa * (T5 − T2 )
b) The air is heated up from compressor discharge temperature T2 to T5, which will
always be lower than T4.
Theoretically the air can be heated up to T5 (= T4). In this case, the heat exchanger
would have maximum effect. That is why we express the regenerator effect as:
actual temperature increase of the air T − T2

E reg = = 5
theoretical temperature increase of the air T4 − T2
c) The regenerator causes a pressure loss in the exhaust channel (p4 > p6) and a
pressure loss from compressor to exchanger and combustion system (p2 > p5). Both
pressure losses will cause a lower pressure ratio over the turbine, resulting in less
work performed. This loss of work, being a few percent of turbine work, lowers the
turbine's output power. This however is greatly compensated by the efficiency raise
caused by the savings in injected fuel.
The savings can be made visible in a p-V diagram and a T-s diagram as shown in figure 18.
The savings in fuel consumption are because the heat supplied to the air in the combustion
chamber partly comes from exhaust gases. For this heat supply, by the exhaust gases, to
the air no fuel is needed.
The diagram shows the following changes of state:
1 → 2 Compression (consumes work)
2 → 5 Heating up of the air in the regenerator
5 → 3 Heating up of the air by the fuel
3 → 4 Expansion in the turbine (produces work)
4 → 6 Cooling of the exhaust gases in the regenerator
6 → 1 Cooling of the exhaust gases by the environment
At point 6, the gases are relieved to atmosphere. The fuel savings are indicated by the area
surrounded by lines 6 → 2 → 5 → 4 → 6.
25 3 3
p T
5 4 T4
2 6
T2
4
1 6 1
V s
Figure 18, p-V en T-s diagram of the regenerative gas turbine cycle
Application of a regenerator is only useful when the turbine's exhaust temperature T4 is

much higher than compressor discharge temperature T2. This means that in turbine plants
operating with high-pressure ratios (T2 is high) the use of a regenerator will not contribute to
an efficiency increase.
Yet, a regenerator could also be beneficial for a gas turbine with a high pressure ratio, e.g.
for efficiency improvement at part loads. This is important for marine applications, since navy
vessels run on part load for a relatively long period.
The efficiency one can achieve with a regenerator depends on the pressure ratio p2/p1,
because:
W t − W c cpg * (T3 − T4 ) − cpa * (T2 − T1 )

η reg = =
Q1 cpg * (T3 − T5 )
cpa = cpair and cpg = cpgas
Assume that T5 = T4 (ideal regenerator), and that cpa = cpg en ka = kg, and further that the
pressure ratio over the compressor equals the pressure ratio over the turbine, the
regenerative cycle efficiency can be written as:
T 3 − T2 T
η reg = =1− 2
T3 T3
With the assumptions stated above this can be written as:

k −1
T p  k
η reg = 1 − 1 *  2 
T3  p1 
From this follows that the efficiency will increase with T3, and, to a certain point, with the
pressure ratio p2/p1. This effect can clearly be seen in figure 19, where the regenerative
cycle efficiency is given as a function of the pressure ratio p2/p1 for various temperatures T3.
d
d
ηREG [%]
c
c
d T4 = T2
a
c
b
a
ηc = 87 %
ηt = 90 %
T1 = 288 K
t1 = 15 °C
pressure ratio
a: T3 = 1000 K = 727 °C
b: T3 = 1200 K = 927 °C
c: T3 = 1400 K = 1127 °C
d: T3 = 1600 K = 1327 °C
Figure 19, efficiency of the regenerative gas turbine cycle
The regenerator causes a second energy loop in the gas turbine cycle. Energy from the
exhaust gases returns in the combustion chamber(s) and will be added to the fuel energy.
A gas turbine with a 'simple cycle' efficiency of for example 27% can reach a regenerative
cycle efficiency of approximately 34%. The increase in efficiency then reaches 7% absolute,
or 26% relative, which means a considerable improvement.
Regenerators have not been applied in large numbers, because they are only attractive for
plants where the exhaust heat of the gas turbine cycle cannot be used for process heating or
other combined cycle applications. In the next chapter, we will see that co-generation of heat
and power can produce much higher plant efficiencies than the regenerative cycle.
The combined cycle (co-generation)
In the combined cycle, the exhaust heat from the gas turbine is used to generate useful heat,
for example as high-pressure steam or as hot water. This heat is then used in the production
process, for district heating and for other applications. The combined cycle is attractive for
companies that need a lot of process heat in addition to the electrical energy, such as paper
mills, refineries, chemical works, etc.
Figure 20 shows the principle of a combined cycle. The gas turbine supplies mechanical
power, usually to a generator, which converts this power into electrical power. The exhaust
boiler or heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) is designed for the required amount,
pressure and temperature of process steam or any other heat carrier. Innumerable
variations are possible, such as more than one steam pressure level in the boiler, or the
combination of steam production and hot water production for district heating.
The combined cycle is often called co-generation, since two forms of energy are generated
simultaneously: power and heat.
EXHAUST STACK
WATER
HEAT RECOVERY
STEAM GENERATOR
FUEL
AIR STEAM
ADDITIONAL FIRING
COMB. CHAMBER EXHAUST

(GENERATOR)
Figure 20, principle of a combined cycle (co-generation)
In a combined cycle, the total plant efficiency is important, not the gas turbine efficiency
alone. The plant has been designed to produce two products, required by the customer:
power and heat.
The Sankey diagram for a combined cycle, figure 21, shows as an example, that 31% of the
supplied fuel energy will be converted to mechanical work and 50% will be converted into
useful heat in the steam. Including some mechanical and radiation losses, the stack loss will
be 16%. Total efficiency of this cycle will be 31% + 50% = 81%. Efficiencies over 95% have
been realized is combined cycles.
EXHAUST 16%
RADIATION 1%
STEAM 50%
RADIATION &
MECHANICAL
LOSSES 2%
MECHANICAL
WORK 31%
FUEL 100%
Figure 21, Sankey diagram of a combined cycle without additional firing
If the steam production by the heat recovery steam generator is not sufficient for plant
requirements, additional firing of the boiler is a possibility.
The exhaust gases from the gas turbine are used as pre-heated combustion air for the
boiler.
This is possible due to the low oxygen consumption of the gas turbine: Only 5 to 6% of
oxygen in the supplied air is used in the gas turbine combustion system. The remaining 15 to
16% of oxygen can be used in the boiler furnace.
The maximum amount of steam is generated when all the oxygen in the air is consumed;
however, in a steam boiler this is impossible. Usually some 2% of oxygen will remain in the
exhaust gases.
With additional firing the combined cycle can produce the required amount of heat and
power for all practical process conditions. The ratio heat/power is for a certain process not
constant; usually in the cold season, more heat is required than in the warmer season.
A combined cycle saves a considerable amount of energy, compared to a conventional

generation plant for heat and power. Figures 22 and 23 show an example of the energy
consumption of a small chemical plant. In this plant, electrical energy was imported from the
public grid and heat was produced in a steam boiler. Heat/power ratio was 3.15 and total
efficiency 66%.
After reconstructing the plant as a combined cycle plant, including a gas turbine and a boiler
with additional firing, the situation changed dramatically. For the same energy production
and the same heat/power ratio, the total plant efficiency went up to 90%. The fuel savings
were 26.5% when compared to the previous situation.
Fuel savings due to combined generation of heat and power
IMPORT LOCAL PRODUCTION CONSUMPTION

6 6 6
[*10 kWh/YEAR] [*10 kWh/YEAR] [*10 kWh/YEAR]
375 PUBLIC ELECTRICAL

GRID 135
ENERGY
η = 36%
LOSS 240
FUEL STEAM
BOILER 425 HEAT
472
η = 90%
LOSS 47
W 425 Useful Energy (135 + 425 )

= = 3.15 Total Efficiency η = = * 100% = 66%
K 135 Supplied Energy ( 375 + 472 )
Figure 22, conventional production
IMPORT LOCAL PRODUCTION CONSUMPTION

6 6 6
[*10 kWh/YEAR] [*10 kWh/YEAR] [*10 kWh/YEAR]
FUEL TO GAS
ELECTRICAL
GAS TURBINE TURBINE 135 ENERGY
540 η = 25%
EXHAUST
GASES 405
STEAM
BRANDSTOF BOILER
BIJSTOKEN 425 HEAT
(HRSG)
83
η = 87%
LOSS 63
W 425 Usefuel Energy (135 + 425 )

= = 3.15 Total Efficiency η = = * 100% = 90%
K 135 Supplied Energy ( 540 + 83 )
Figure 23, combined production of heat and power
( 375 + 472 ) − ( 540 + 83 )

Fuel Saving = * 100% = 26.5%
( 375 + 472 )
The steam and gas cycle (STAG)
When a gas turbine and a steam turbine are used in a combined cycle, in which the gas
turbine's exhaust gases are used to generate steam for a steam turbine, the cycle is
commonly referred to as a STAG cycle, using the abbreviation STAG for Steam And Gas
(turbine).
The steam turbine can be coupled to the same generator driven by the gas turbine, but
frequently the steam turbine is coupled to a separate generator for more operating flexibility.
Utilizing the thermal energy in the exhaust gases of the gas turbine means that significant
fuel savings can be achieved. The principle of a STAG plant is shown in figure 24.
EXHAUST STACK
FEED WATER
PUMP
PREHEATER
STEAM
BOILER
HRSG
ADDITIONAL STEAM
FIRING
EXHAUST GT
COMPRESSOR TURB. LOAD STEAM

GT GT GENERATOR TURBINE
CONDENSER
CONDENSATE
PUMP
Figure 24, principle of a steam and gas cycle (STAG)
In some combined cycle plants a bypass exhaust duct has been installed on the exhaust
duct to the steam boiler. This enables quicker startup of the gas turbine in the plant and
possible plant operation in simple cycle mode. Because of the extra cost and the size of the
bypass ducting it will, in some cases, not be included in the design of the plant. This means
that immediately after startup of the gas turbine steam will be produced. An automatic blow-
off system is then required to blow off the steam temporarily while the steam plant is
gradually started up.
In existing steam power plants an increase in both power and efficiency, can be achieved
when the plant is converted to a STAG plant by installing a gas turbine. With the STAG
cycle, high efficiencies for mechanical power generation can be created. The Sankey
diagram (figure 25) illustrates the energy flows in a STAG plant with a total efficiency of
49.8%.
EXHAUST STACK
10 3%
CONDENSER
LOSS 35.4%
RADIATION,
MECHANICAL AND
RESIDUAL LOSSES
4.5%
OUTPUT POWER
STEAM TURBINE 17.8%
OUTPUT POWER
GAS TURBINE 32 %
TOTAL POWER
OUTPUT 49.8%
FUEL 100%
Figure 25, Sankey diagram of a STAG cycle (unfired boiler)
A STAG plant as described here produces only mechanical work, no useful heat. Thus, a
STAG-plant is not a co-generation plant! It is, however, very well possible to combine a
STAG plant with co-generation. In that case, the waste steam of the steam turbine will be
used either as LP process steam or for water heating in a district heating plant. These
combinations of STAG and co-generation can achieve very high total plant efficiencies, for a
wide variation in heat and power demand.
Just as with a combined cycle plant for co-generation, a STAG plant can be designed with a
fired or an unfired boiler. With an unfired boiler, only low-pressure steam can be produced,
since the highest temperature in the boiler is the gas turbine exhaust temperature
(approximately 540 °C).
Since the boiler furnace temperature is much higher than 540 °C in a fired boiler, more
steam and a higher pressure can be generated. The maximum amount of steam that can be
produced with a fired boiler is when practically all the oxygen in the air is used for
combustion. For complete smokeless combustion, some oxygen will always have to remain
in the exhaust stack of the boiler (some 2%).
Figure 26 shows the efficiency of a 330 MW STAG plant with fired boiler. The gas turbine
operates on continuous base load while the steam boiler is additionally fired to meet the total
load demand. The efficiency of the plant remains high over a wide power range.
An added advantage of a fired boiler is that the gas turbine and the steam plant can operate
independently, for example during major maintenance work on either part of the plant. This
of course requires a bypass channel for the gas turbine exhaust and a draft fan for boiler
combustion air supply.
50
EFFICIENCY
[%]
40
30
GAS TURBINE 80 MW,
STEAM TURBINE 250 MW,
FIRED BOILER
20
0
0 30 90 150 210 270 330
OUTPUT POWER [MW]
Figure 26, efficiency of a 330 MW STAG plant with fired boiler
The highest achievable efficiency of a STAG plant is now approximately 54%. The goal for
the next decade will be the milestone 60%.
For better understanding of plant efficiencies of STAG plants with unfired or with fired
boilers, we compare four plants, each having a mechanical power output of 330 MW.
Comparison of some power plants
In figure 27, STAG-plants are compared to power plants that are more conventional. The
advantage of a STAG-plant is obvious. The output power for all these plants, is equal for
each configuration, is 330 MW.
STACK LOSS
56 MW
η = 45%
ST GENERATOR 330 MW
FUEL
805 MW
AIR P C
BOILER η = 93% CONDENSER
LOSS 400 MW
STEAM TURBINE PLANT, η = 41%
STACK LOSS
AIR 585 MW
FUEL
915 MW
GENERATOR 330 MW
GAS TURBINE PLANT, η = 36%
STACK LOSS BOILER

57 MW η = 90%
η = 45%
FUEL ST GENERATOR 230 MW

673 MW
C
GENERATOR 100 MW
CONDENSER LOSS
η = 36% 281 MW
STAG PLANT, FIRED BOILER, η = 49%
BOILER STACK LOSS

η = 70% 113 MW
FUEL
590 MW η = 45%
ST CONDENSER LOSS
GENERATOR 330 MW
GT 118 MW 144 MW
212 MW η = 36% C P
SINGLE SHAFT STAG PLANT, UNFIRED BOILER, η = 56%
Figure 27, comparison of 330 MW power plants

Variable inlet guide vanes
Gas turbine plants with heat recovery steam generators, which have to run on part load for
extended periods, will reach higher part load efficiencies, when variable inlet guide vanes
are used on the compressor. Variable inlet guide vanes allow step less control of the mass-
flow of air.
MINIMUM
AIR POSITION EXHAUST GASES
T1 α1=34° FUEL TO BOILER T4
COMBUST.
CHAMBER
T3
T2
α COMPRESSOR TURB. LOAD
MAXIMUM
POSITION
α2=86°
Figure 28, open and closed position of the inlet guide vanes
With the turbine operating at rated speed, but at part load and with fully opened inlet guide
vanes, the amount of air drawn into the compressor would be approximately equal to the
amount of air for full load. This would result in low firing temperatures, low exhaust
temperatures and low efficiencies at part load. If the inlet guide vanes are throttled, creating
less flow, the firing temperature can be kept on the optimum (high) level. This results in a
high efficiency both for the gas turbine and for the heat recovery steam generator.
The higher efficiency of the steam generator can be explained, observing exhaust
temperatures. With a lower mass-flow of exhaust gases, but at higher temperature levels,
more steam can be generated then in the case with large flows at lower temperatures.
The following graph (figure 29) illustrates the difference between fixed (or two position) inlet
guide vanes and variable inlet guide vanes.
From the graph can be concluded, that at part load, due to the use of variable inlet guide
vanes:
- The exhaust temperature is higher.
- The airflow is smaller.
- The useful exhaust energy is higher.
The useful exhaust energy can be defined as the product of mass-flow, temperature drop
and specific heat of the gases (ms*cp*∆T). This energy is recovered from the exhaust gases
in the boiler.
The inlet guide vanes are in the minimum position when the turbine is running below 70%
load. At loads varying between 70% and 100%, the inlet guide vanes position is controlled in
such a way, that exhaust temperature T4 is kept at its maximum value.
The influence from variable IGV's on efficiency and useful exhaust heat can also be
achieved in some two-shaft gas turbines, with the use of variable second stage nozzles.
Refer to the chapter 'single and multiple shaft gas turbines'.
VARIABLE IGV'S FIXED IGV'S
100
AIRFLOW [%]
[%]
80
60 550
t4 [°C]
EXHAUST ENERGY [%]
40 400
20 250
EXHAUST TEMP. [°C]
0 100
0 20 40 60 70 80 100
TURBINE LOAD [%]
IGV'S IN MINIMUM POSITION α1 = 34° IGV CONTROL IGV'S MAX.

OPEN
α2 = 86°
Figure 29, influence of the variable inlet guide vanes (IGV's)
In this figure, the dashed curves show the fixed inlet guide vanes. The continuous curves
show the temperature, airflow, and the exhaust energy, when the variable inlet guide vanes
(sometimes referred to as VIGV's) are used.
Methods to increase the output power
Compressor inter-cooling
As explained before, the compressor absorbs a considerable amount of turbine work. When
it is possible to reduce this amount then theoretically the efficiency and the specific work will
increase. This can easily be seen looking at the well-known formulae for efficiency and
specific work:
W t ' −W c '
η gt = , W t ' −W c ' = W sh
Q1
The compressor work is given by:
Wc ' = cpc * (T2 '−T1 ) [kJ/kg]
When, instead of single stage compression, the air is compressed in two stages with a
cooler in between, the compression work will decrease. However, due to the lower
compressor discharge temperature, which results from cooling the air, more fuel is required
in the combustion system to reach the required firing temperature. A simplified layout is
drawn in figure 30.
COOLING WATER
FUEL
120 °C EXHAUST
500 °C
COMB. CHAMB.
1000 °C
AIR 1 20 °C
6
20 °C 2 120 °C
3
5
4
LP- HP- TURBINE LOAD
COMPR. COMPR.
Figure 30, two-stage compressor with inter-cooling
Savings in compression work are indicated in the p-V and T-s diagrams in figure 31. The
area surrounded by lines 2 → 3 → 4 → 7→ 2 represents the savings. When air is
compressed in two stages, the compression process approaches isothermal compression.
The result would even be better if more than two stages were applied. This is not done
however because the installation would become too complex and too expensive.
T=c
4 7 5
5
p T
6
3 2
7
T=c 4 T2=T4
6 2
1 3 1 T1=T3
V s
Figure 31, compressor p-V and T-s diagram with inter-cooling
When two-stage compression is applied, we may write for compression work (refer to the
diagrams for the indexes):
W c = cpc * (T2 − T1 ) + cpc * (T4 − T3 ) [kJ/kg]
This can be written as:
T  T 
W c = cpc * T1 *  2 − 1  + cpc * T3 *  4 − 1 
 T1   T3 
Compression work will be minimal when the temperature ratios T2/T1 and T4/T3 are equal.
This will be achieved when the air, after compression, is cooled down to inlet temperature
(T3 = T1) and the temperature rise in both compressor parts is equal (T2 = T4). The
compression work will then be:
W c = 2 * cpc * (T2 − T1 ) [kJ/kg]
When the temperature ratios are the same for both stages, then the pressure ratios will be
the same as well: p2/p1 = p4/p3.
The savings by multi-stage compression are beneficial to the specific work. These savings
however, will partially be nullified by the extra fuel needed to heat up the air from point 4 to
point 5 (refer to the diagrams). Therefore, efficiency will not improve in most cases, using
multi-stage compression.
Due to the low compressor temperature T4, the application of a regenerator together with an
inter-cooler could be attractive. If inter-cooling is used, it will normally be combined with
regeneration.
Turbine re-heating
A considerable increase of specific work and of total output can be obtained by dividing
turbine expansion in two stages, with re-heating between the stages.
FUEL TO COMBUSTION
CHAMBERS
AIR
15 °C
LP
500 °C 1000 °C EXHAUST

HP 500 °C
1000 °C
COMPRESSOR HP- LP- LOAD

TURB. TURB.
Figure 32, gas turbine with re-heating
The machine is divided in a HP turbine and a LP turbine. Between these turbines, a LP

combustion chamber is fitted in which the gas, after partial expansion, will be re-heated. No
extra provisions have to be made because the oxygen content is sufficient.
The two-stage expansion can only be achieved in gas turbines with a very high-pressure
ratio. This is one of the reasons why re-heating has not been widely used since its first
application more than 40 years ago. Recent developments in gas turbine designs use the
reheat principle, for gas turbines with high-pressure ratios (up to 30).
Figure 33 shows a p-V and T-s diagram of the reheat cycle. The turbine work has increased
due to re-heating. This is shown in the area surrounded by lines 4 → 5 → 6 → 7 → 4. In fact,
the cycle approaches the isothermal expansion.
2 3 3 5
T3=T5
p T
T=c
T4=T6
4 6
4 5
7
2
T=c
1 7 6 1
V s
Figure 33, gas turbine with re-heating in the p-V and T-s diagrams
With two-stage expansion the turbine work will be (for indexes refer to the diagrams):
W t = cp t * (T3 − T4 ) + cpt * (T5 − T6 )

[kJ/kg]
This can be written as:
T  T 
W t = cpt * T4 *  3 − 1  + cpt * T6 *  5 − 1  [kJ/kg]
 T4   T6 
Turbine work will be maximal, when the temperature ratio T3/T4 and T5/T6 are equal. This will
be achieved when the gases, after expansion, are reheated to the turbine inlet temperature
(T5 = T3) and the temperature drops in both turbine parts are equal (T4 = T6).
The turbine work will then be:
W t = 2 * cp t (T5 − T6 )
When the temperature ratios are the same for both stages then the pressure ratios will be
the same as well: p3/p4 = p5/p6.
The savings by multi-stage expansion are benefited to the specific work. These savings
however, will partially be nullified by the extra fuel needed to heat up the air from point 4 to
point 5 (refer to the diagrams). Therefore, efficiency will generally not improve, using multi-
stage expansion.
The best possibility to apply re-heating is in combination with a regenerator. Due to the
higher exhaust temperatures, the regenerator can help to achieve acceptable cycle
efficiencies.
Steam injection
Steam injection for power augmentation
A method to increase the power output of a gas turbine plant is steam injection. Superheated
steam is injected in the compressor discharge of the gas turbine. Mixed in the air, the steam
will flow to the combustion chamber(s) where it will be heated up to the turbine inlet
temperature. The steam in the air will expand in the turbine, providing mechanical work.
Then the steam will be exhausted together with the airflow.
Steam injection will increase the mass-flow through the combustion chamber and turbine,
and it will change the thermodynamic properties of the fluid. This will result in a larger power
output. The principle of steam injection for power augmentation is shown in figure 34.
AIR STEAM FUEL EXHAUST
COMB. CHAMBER

(GENERATOR)
Figure 34, principle of steam injection
In general, for every one percent of steam flow based on inlet air mass-flow the gas turbine's
output will increase with about 4%. This is because each kilogram of injected and heated
steam contains more useful energy than a kilogram of air. The increase in power output can
of course not be generated free of charge: extra fuel supply is required to heat the injected
steam to the turbine inlet temperature.
The maximum output power from a gas turbine varies with ambient conditions. On a hot day,
less power can be generated than on a cold day. Steam injection can help if constant power
is required for hot and cold days. Figure 35 shows as an example the power output of a
nominally 24,700 kW gas turbine as a function of ambient temperatures. Without steam
injection, the power varies between 29,300 kW and 20,400 kW at ambient temperatures
between -5 °C and +34 °C. With a maximum of 5% steam injection the output power can be
maintained at 24,700 kW.
The injected steam passes through an open cycle and the steam cannot be recovered but is
discharged to atmosphere with the gas turbine exhaust gases.
GAS TURBINE
POWER OUTPUT
[MW]
30
WITHOUT WITH
STEAM STEAM
28 INJECTION INJECTION
26
24
1% 2% 3% 4% 5%
22
20
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
INLET TEMPERATURE [°C]
Figure 35, influence of steam injection on output power
Steam injection is frequently used in chemical process plants where due to changes in the
process, additional power is required to drive the load. There are maximum limits to the
amount of steam to be injected into the cycle. These limits are associated with the increase
in pressure required to let the total volume of gas and steam pass through the restriction of
the first stage nozzle, and with combustion stability. The normal maximum of injected steam
is approx. 5% by mass of the airflow.
The injected steam must be free of solid particles, which could cause erosion of the turbine
blades. Furthermore, the steam pressure should be approximately 3 bars above compressor
discharge pressure, to enable proper steam injection control.
Steam injection is a simple system and it can be combined with a heat recovery boiler. A
disadvantage is the large amount of treated water that is lost. In the example given above
with 5% of steam injection, an amount of 6 kilograms of water will be lost per second.
The cycle efficiency will normally decrease as a result of steam injection. This is because the
steam absorbs more energy in the combustion chamber than the increase in turbine work. If
the steam in generated in a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG), however, the cycle
efficiency will increase when compared to the simple cycle.
An interesting development is the so-called STIG cycle, where large quantities of steam are
injected in the compressor discharge (called CDP-steam), the combustion chamber (called
nozzle steam) and in the turbine section (called LP steam). An example:
The LM5000 gas turbine has a 'dry' power of 33.5 MW. With a maximum of 60 tons of steam
per hour, generated in a HRSG, injected, the power increases to 48 MW and the efficiency
increases from 35.8% to 41.5%.
Steam-injection to reduce the NOx emissions
In any combustion process, thus also in a gas turbine cycle, polluting Nitrous Oxides NO and
NO2, normally indicated as NOx can be created. Figure 36 shows the NOx-emission of a 21
MW gas turbine. The NOx content in the exhaust gases can be expressed in various units,
for example PPM (volume parts per million) or in g/GJ (grams per Giga-Joule of burned fuel).
The approximate relation is: g/GJ = 1,73 x PPM.
300
500
NOx NOx
[G/GJ] [PPM]
200
300
'BASE 100
100 LOAD'
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25
[MW]
Figure 36, NOx-emission of a 21 MW gas turbine
One of the methods to decrease the NOx-emission of a gas turbine is steam injection in the
combustion chamber. Superheated steam is injected in the combustion chambers, just
ahead of the fuel nozzles (on some gas turbines, steam is premixed with gas fuel before or
in the fuel nozzles). The higher specific heat of the air/steam/fuel mixture in the reaction
zone of the combustion chamber leads to a lower average flame temperature. Since NOx
can only be created at very high temperatures, this is an effective method to reduce the
emission of NOx. The amount of steam can be controlled in relation to the fuel flow, as an
example in a ratio steam/gas = 0.75. Figure 37 shows the effect of steam injection on the
NOx emission.
300
500
NOx NOx
[G/GJ] [PPM]
STEAM/GAS RATIO 200
300
CONTROLLED BY
THE GAS TURBINE
CONTROL SYSTEM 100
100
0 0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25
RATIO STEAM/GAS
Figure 37, influence of steam -injection on NOx emissions

Evaporative cooling
The power capability of the gas turbine depends on the mass-flow through the turbine.
Because the volume flow in the axial flow compressor, at a given speed, is constant, the
density of the air affects the gas turbine output.
This means that a change in barometric pressure or a change in air temperature affects the
mass-flow.
The density of the air can be influenced by lowering the inlet temperature, with an
evaporative cooler. In this cooler clean water is sprayed into the inlet air stream to the
compressor. When the water evaporates, it absorbs heat from the air, resulting in more
mass-flow and lower compressor inlet temperatures.
The system can only be applied in a dry climate since the water should be able to evaporate.
Furthermore, a large quantity of de-mineralized water is required for the system.
AIR
WATER FUEL
EXHAUST
COMB. CHAMBER

(GENERATOR)
Figure 38, principle of a gas turbine with an evaporative cooler
Other systems have a similar approach, the difference is that the amount of water is so high,
that water droplets of water enter the compressor. The inlet air is cooled, increase in mass-flow,
and part of the evaporation of the water takes place in the compressor. This means that
isothermal compression is achieved in the first stages of the compressor. This system causes a
considerable increase in power output. However the risk of deposits on turbine and combustion
chamber parts is increased as well. The lifetime of hot parts may be influenced in a negative
way.
Helper steam turbine
Another method to increase the gas turbine's output power is to use a helper steam turbine.
The steam turbine is coupled to the gas turbine's compressor rotor. The generated power of
the helper steam turbine will be added to the power developed by the gas turbine itself.
When a helper steam turbine is used, the steam may be either exhausted to atmosphere or
supplied into a process steam header or the steam is recovered by a conventional condenser
system.
AIR FUEL
EXHAUST
COMB. CHAMBER
STEAM

(GENERATOR)
Figure 39, gas turbine with helper steam turbine
For reasons of practical construction, helper turbines are usually designed for a maximum
power output of approximately 8 MW.
The steam turbine is normally installed on the same base plate as the gas turbine and it can
also serve as the gas turbine's starting machine.
A helper turbine must be designed for long-time idling. This will cause however heating up of
the steam turbine due to internal losses. Cooling of the steam turbine casing could be
necessary.
If a special coupling between the steam helper turbine and the gas turbine is used, the
helper turbine could be disconnected from the gas turbine if its operation is not required.
The steam for a helper steam turbine usually comes from a steam plant, which is not a part
of the gas turbine plant. If the steam is generated in a HRSG, the plant will be called STAG,
as explained before.
Types of gas turbines
Heavy-duty and aero-derivative gas turbines
All over the world, many manufacturers offer a variety of gas turbines. Roughly, we make the
following differentiation:
1) Heavy-duty gas turbines versus aero-derivative gas turbines.

2) Single shaft versus multi-shaft gas turbines.
3) Open cycle versus closed cycle gas turbines.
Each type has its own design philosophy regarding efficiency, size, operating conditions and
maintenance.
Both heavy-duty and aero-derivative gas turbine types are produced as single or multi-shaft
machines. In the two-shaft version, the compressor is directly coupled to a HP-turbine. This
is referred to as the 'gas generator'. The second or output shaft is a power turbine; coupled
to the machine to be driven and can be speed controlled over a wider range than single
shaft machines.
The most important gas turbine applications are:
- Generator-drive for electricity production.

- Compressor or pump-drive ('mechanical drive').
- Co-generation of electricity and steam (industrial applications) or hot water (district
heating).
- Drive for ships and trains.
Quite often a gas turbine is equipped with options for efficiency and/or power improvement,
such as:
- Variable inlet guide vanes.

- Variable compressor stator blades.
- Variable second stage nozzles (only in two shaft machines).
- Regenerator.
- Evaporative cooler.
- Steam or water injection.
- Low NOx or emission combustion chambers.
Looking at the world wide installed power, the heavy-duty gas turbine dominates over the
aero-derivative version. The lighter gas turbine needs superior fuel, a clean environment
(dust storms!) and well-trained personnel. On the other hand, the aero-derivative gas turbine
is small and can easily be changed out with a spare unit. The turbine to be maintained will
be shipped to a specialized workshop.
Figures 40 and 41 show an aero-derivative machine and a heavy-duty gas turbine, both with a
power output of approximately 40 MW.
Power output 40 MW, weight: 8 tons = 5 kW/kg
Figure 40, aero-derivative gas turbine, GE’s LM6000
Power output 40 MW, weight: 40 tons = 1 kW/kg
Figure 41, heavy-duty gas turbine, GE’s MS6001B

The heavy-duty gas turbine is horizontally split, facilitating easy inspection and maintenance.
The light aero-derivative gas turbine however is internally rotation symmetric, allowing
uniform circumferential expansion and avoiding thermal strains and distortion of the thin
casing.
The aero-derivative gas turbine does not have a horizontal split line in the hot section,
making maintenance and inspection procedures more complicated. These procedures can
only be carried out in a specialized workshop.
The mass of the machine per unit of power is for the heavy-duty types 5 times as high as for
the aero-derivatives. The different starting point for the design causes this. For the aero-
derivatives the goal is an as low as possible mass. This is achieved by using light materials
and constructions for the casing and the rotor. Like aluminum, titanium, thin-walled casings
etc. For the heavy-duty there are no limits for the weight, although they are not made
unnecessarily heavy. In the heavy-duty gas turbines, materials as cast iron, forged steel,
cast steel are being used. This together with welded constructions.
For both types of gas turbines, the so-called hot parts (combustion chamber liners, turbine
nozzles and buckets) are made of the same heat resistant materials.
The tables below summarize the differences between the above-mentioned two types of gas
turbines.
Heavy-duty gas turbine
1. Maintenance in the field.

2. Low quality gas or liquid fuel can be used (with treatment).
3. No design restrictions for weight and dimensions.
4. Less fragile compressor and turbine buckets.
5. Easier controllable due to it's heavier rotor mass.
6. Less sensitive for damage due to icing.
7. More exhaust mass-flow.
Aero-derivative gas turbine
1. Major maintenance to be carried out in specialized workshops.

2. Light fuel necessary (gas or liquid).
3. Design is based on low mass and small size.
4. Fragile and complicated vanes, blades and buckets.
5. Fast control required because of light rotor mass (overspeed trip!).
6. Better efficiency.
7. Quick replacement by a spare gas turbine is possible.
Single and multi-shaft engines
Gas turbines can be designed with a single rotor and with two or three rotors.
The compressor and turbine wheels of single shaft machines are rigidly coupled. The rotor
is normally supported by two bearings located at the extremities. Some large models may
have a third bearing halfway the rotor.
Single shaft machines are normally applied in processes where the machine to be driven
requires little or no speed variation. The compressor and turbine will therefore operate within
their small but optimum aerodynamic ranges.
Single shaft machines are extremely suitable for generator drive. Due to the large rotor
mass, the speed can easily be kept constant and besides that, the machine will not easily
accelerate to overspeed, on load rejection. These machines are sometimes applied for
compressor drive, but only when the process demands little speed variation. If process
variations occur then with a small speed range and/or process controls (suction/discharge
pressure control, etc.) the demand is adjusted. Process costs however will increase and the
control system will be more complicated.
C.C. C.C.
HP- LP-
COMPRESSOR TURBINE LOAD COMPRESSOR TURB TURB LOAD
GAS GENERATOR POWER

TURBINE
Figure 42, principle of a single and a two-shaft gas turbine
In two shaft machines, the compressor rotor and one or more turbine wheels form the high-
pressure rotor. The high-pressure rotor plus the combustion chamber(s) are called the 'gas
generator'. The gas generator is followed by the remaining turbine wheel(s), usually called
the power turbine, which is coupled to the output shaft. The same manufacturer does not
necessarily make the gas generator and power turbine.
The two-shaft machine is more complex than the single shaft machine because four journal
and two thrust bearings are necessary. In addition, speed control for these two shafts is
more difficult.
A gas generator for an aero-derivative gas turbine can be designed with one rotor, called a
'single spool' GG, or with two concentric rotors, called a 'dual spool' GG. In both cases, a
power turbine will complete the gas turbine. The power turbine can be combined with the LP
turbine of the gas generator (refer to the dashed shaft in figure 44).
AIR FUEL EXHAUST
COMPRESSOR HP- POWER LOAD

TURB TURBINE
GAS GENERATOR
Figure 43, 'single spool' GG with PT (e.g. LM2500)
AIR FUEL EXHAUST
LOAD
LPC HPC HPT LPT PT
GAS GENERATOR
Figure 44, 'dual spool' GG with PT (e.g. LM1600)

Variable inlet guide vanes
The MS5002 and MS3002 gas turbines are equipped with two shafts. Between these two
nd
shafts, we find a ring with adjustable vanes. These vanes form the 2 stage nozzles. By
varying the position of the nozzle partitions, we are able to divide the expansion work over
the two rotor systems. This can be explained with two examples. In figure 45 two situations
nd
have been illustrated: the situation with 2 stage nozzles wide open, and the situation with
nd
the 2 stage nozzles partly closed.
nd nd
2 STAGE NOZZLES WIDE OPEN 2 STAGE NOZZLES PARTLY CLOSED
COMPRESSOR HPT LPT LOAD COMPRESSOR HPT LPT LOAD
+15° -5°
p2 p3
pt
p2 p3
pt
p1 p4 p1 p4
nd
Figure 45, influence of variable 2 stage nozzles on expansion
With the nozzles wide open the pressure drop over the nozzles will be small. This results in
relatively low gas velocities coming from the nozzles, and the LP or power turbine will
develop low power output. Most of the expansion will take place in the HP turbine, which is a
part of the gas generator, to drive the axial flow compressor.
When the second stage nozzles are gradually closed, an increasing pressure drop over the
nd
2 stage nozzles will produce more and more gas velocity and thus power on the power
turbine. In this case, a smaller portion of the available expansion energy will be used to drive
the compressor. In order to keep the compressor running at full speed, more fuel must be
supplied to the combustion chambers.
Figure 46 shows that the use of variable second stage nozzles offers a gas turbine with
efficiencies that are practically equal for part load and for full load.
OUTPUT POWER,
EFFICIENCY
[%] 100 OUTPUT POWER
MAXIMUM SPEED
80 FULL LOAD AT MAXIMUM
TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE
60 MINIMUM SPEED
PART LOAD AT MAXIMUM
40 TURBINE INLET TEMPERATURE
20 EFFICIENCY
0
+15 +10 +5 0 -5 -10
NOZZLE POSITION [°] NOZZLES FURTHER CLOSED
Figure 46, influence of the nozzle position on output power and efficiency
Two-shaft gas turbines with variable second stage nozzles are very well suited for
mechanical drive (compressor or pump). This is because of the large speed range that the
gas turbine can offer, with sufficient power and efficiency at all speeds. Figure 47 shows the
speed ranges of single shaft and two shaft gas turbines.
The start up procedure of a two-shaft gas turbine will be simpler than the procedure of a
single-shaft machine because no special measures are necessary to decrease the power
demand of the machines to be driven. The HP shaft can first be brought to full speed with
the adjustable nozzles in the fully open position. The pressure drop in the HP turbine will be
maximal. After operating speed of the HP shaft is reached, the nozzles will gradually close,
giving maximum power to the output shaft through which it will accelerate to the desired
speed.
Note: only the GE gas turbine MS3002 and MS5002 offer the feature of variable second
stage nozzles. The text on two-shaft machines presented here applies to these types of gas
turbines. Two shaft gas turbines with fixed turbine nozzles, like the LM2500, have a much
smaller output shaft speed range and can be considered as single shaft machines as far as
output speed is concerned.
OUTPUT POWER
[%]
120
2-SHAFT 1-SHAFT
GAS TURBINE GAS TURBINE
100
80
60
MINIMUM MINIMUM
SPEED SPEED MINIMUM
2-SHAFT GT 1-SHAFT GT SPEED
40
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
PT SPEED [%]
Figure 47, speed characteristics of a single and a two-shaft gas turbine
nd
The variable 2 stage nozzles position influences the mass-flow of air in the compressor,
since they change the resistance of the turbine hot gas path, as seen by the compressor.
The more the nozzles are closed the smaller the airflow. This enables a control system to
control the exhaust temperature of the gas turbine with the second stage nozzles. The
system is applies to combined cycle plants where the production of steam on part load must
be kept up. The system has similarity with the IGV exhaust temperature control system,
described in an earlier section of this introduction.
Open and closed cycles
In the discussion about the Brayton-Joule process, it was mentioned that the discussion was
based on the open cycle. This means that the working fluid (air) does not return to the cycle.
Almost every gas turbine operates with an open cycle.
In gas turbines operating with a closed cycle, the process working fluid does return to the
inlet. This implies that each suitable working fluid can be selected and that the operating
pressure of the fluid can be freely selected in each part of the cycle. Instead of air, an inert
gas that causes no corrosion and could have better thermodynamic properties could be
selected. Gases like helium and argon are good working fluids for closed cycle gas turbines.
In a closed cycle, internal combustion is not possible. A heat exchanger (external

combustion) will be required, with combustion air supplied separately. Figure 48 shows the
principle of a gas turbine operating with a closed cycle.
The compressor draws in air or gas and brings it to the required pressure level. After
compression, the fluid is heated up in a heat exchanger until the desired turbine inlet
temperature is obtained. After expansion, the exhaust gas is led to a cooler that brings the
temperature down to the compressor inlet value.
HEATER
COOLER
Figure 48, principle of a closed cycle gas turbine

Some advantages and disadvantages of the closed cycle are summarized below.
Advantages closed cycle
1. Free choice of working fluid for optimum heat transfer and thermodynamic qualities.
2. Free choice of pressure levels throughout the cycle.
3. Free choice of fuel: with external combustion, everything is possible (even solar).
4. No filtration of ambient air required.
5. No corrosion or erosion due to the working fluid.
6. When freon is used as a medium then a low temperature level before the heat
exchanger would be possible, creating an attractive efficiency (the Rankine cycle).
Disadvantages closed cycle
1. Lower turbine inlet temperatures, because of the heater materials.

2. A separate air supply is necessary to burn fossil fuels in the heat exchanger.
3. A very big cooler is required to cool down the exhaust gases to the compressor inlet
temperature.
4. The shafts must be sealed, making it complicated and expensive.
5. The heat exchanger and the cooler introduce unrecoverable pressure and radiation
losses.
The disadvantages seem to surpass the advantages. Therefore, the closed cycle is still an
exception. Application in sun lakes with low-pressure steam could be attractive.
The GE gas turbines
Model nomenclature
Ever since the introduction of the first General Electric (GE) gas turbines in 1949, the
performance and efficiency of a gas turbine model has been increased. This is the result of
continuing research on superior hot component materials, improved design and increased
cooling capacity. In addition, in the control and protection systems, a continuous
development can be seen. As an example, the model series MS5001 gas turbine ('FRAME
5') was introduced in 1957. The power output then was 9 MW and was gradually up rated via
the LA model of 1967 (16.5 MW), the N model of 1970 (21 MW) to the P model of 1976 (25.8
MW).
The heavy-duty types have a model nomenclature, consisting of letters and numbers,
explained below.
MS PG 5 34 1 P
Version A, B, etc. or R for regenerative
1 = single-shaft GT, 2 = two-shaft GT
first 2 digits of the power output in horsepower

(hp, 1hp = 0.746 kW) * 1000
frame size (1 to 9)
M = mechanical drive, compressor, pump

G = generator drive
PG = packaged generator
PB = power block
STAG = steam and gas turbine plant
model series
Note: A general type indication for a heavy-duty gas turbine is e.g. a 'frame 5' (FS5), or
MS5001. The power output is then omitted. Nowadays, the difference between one version
and another version of a heavy-duty gas turbine is rather big. E.g. the FS9E and the FS9F
are completely different. The FS9E is a “hot end drive” gas turbine with a power output of
123 MW, and the FS9FA is a “cold end drive” machine with a power output of 250 MW. The
two machines are completely different in design.
General layout of a gas turbine plant
LEFT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FORWARD RIGHT REAR
TOP VIEW
1 = Control cab. *
2 = Accessory compartment.
3 = Inlet plenum.
4 = Gas turbine compartment.
5 = Exhaust plenum.
6 = Load gear compartment.
7 = Generator compartment.
8 = Switchgear compartment. *
* Not always designed as part of the package
Figure 49, general layout of a heavy-duty gas turbine plant
A gas turbine is often assembled in an enclosure or package, which looks like a long
container or train. The main components of the gas turbine package fit in this package. In
several descriptions references are made to the forward (or front), rear (or aft or back), and
left or right side of the gas turbine package. The inlet part is being considered as the front
and the exhaust side is being considered as the rear end of the gas turbine package.
In the complete package of a gas turbine plant, the control cab is placed at the front of the
'train'. If the control cab is placed elsewhere, or the gas turbine is controlled from a building,
the accessory compartment is in the front. If the generator is part of the package and it is
placed at the exhaust side of the gas turbine ('hot end drive'), it is at the back. Nowadays in
the newest gas turbine configurations, place the generator at the compressor side of the gas
turbine ('cold end drive').
For the heavy-duty gas turbines, the left and right side of the gas turbine and its parts are
determined by looking in the direction of the airflow, ('looking downstream'). (See Note LM-
types).
The rotors of GE gas turbines rotate, looking downstream, counterclockwise.

Note LM-types
In the aircraft industry 'left' and 'right' of the engine are defined when looking upstream. Very
often clock hour positions are given for parts, for example 3 o'clock (right), 9 o'clock (left)
etc.
REAR
TOP
RIGHT
OBSERVER
'LOOKING
UPSTREAM'
DIRECTION OF
ROTATION 12 O'CLOCK = TOP
FORWARD 3 O'CLOCK = RIGHT
LEFT 6 O'CLOCK = BOTTOM
9 O'CLOCK = LEFT
BOTTOM
Figure 50, location definition of LM gas turbines

Ratings of the GE gas turbines
ISO (15°C en 1013 mbar), base load, natural gas, and no pressure losses over inlet and exhaust.
OUTPUT TURBINE EXHAUST EXHAUST

MODEL EFFICIENCY PRESSURE
DRIVE POWER SPEED TEMP. GAS FLOW
MS % RATIO
kW rpm °C kg/s
3002 7 107 /
M 10 450 25.6 7.1 526 52
HED 6 500
5001
G 26 830 28.4 10.5 5 094 483 125
HED
5002 C 4 670 /
M 28 340 28.8 8.8 517 124
HED 5 100
5002 D 4 670 /
M 32 580 29.4 10.8 509 141
HED 5 100
6001 B
G 42 100 32.1 12.2 5 163 552 146
HED
6001 B
M 43 530 33.3 11.9 5 111 544 145
HED
6001 FA
G 70 140 34.3 14.6 5 235 597 201
CED
7001 EA
G 85 100 32.7 12.5 3 600 537 300
HED
7001 EA
M 86 000 33.0 12.5 3 600 538 300
HED
9001 E
G 123 400 33.8 12.6 3 000 539 413
HED
9001 EC
G 168 900 34.9 14.2 3 000 558 508
HED
9001 FA
G 250 400 36.5 15.4 3 000 609 645
CED
9001H 480 000
G 60 CC 23 3 000 - 685
CED CC
G = Generator
M = Mechanical
HED = Hot End Drive
CED = Cold End Drive
CC = Combined Cycle
Note:
HEAT RATE or SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION [kJ/kWh] = 360 000 / EFFICIENCY [%]
Examples of realized plants
An elementary cycle plant
A heavy-duty gas turbine working according to the elementary cycle, the Brayton/Joule cycle
has an efficiency of approximately 30%. Due to this low efficiency an installation like that,
continuous power production, will only be used in places where gas turbine fuel is cheap.
This is a situation that can be found in oil and gas producing countries, in the Middle East,
where oil and or gas is found in remote fields in the desert. A by-product of the oil production
is gas. This gas is usually flared off, because there may not (yet) be a gas line to the coast,
or the amount of produced gas is too little to make a pipeline economically profitable. The
efficiency of a gas turbine is not important. If the choice for a gas turbine owner is between
flaring off the gas, or using part of it in a gas turbine to produce power needed for the oil
production.
Outdoor arrangement
Figure 51 is a partly cut-away drawing of a gas turbine power plant, as set up in a desert
area. It is a plant made up of two gas turbines of 25 MW each (MS5001) that drive air-cooled
generators. The gas turbines are placed outdoors in an acoustical enclosure. There is no
building for the gas turbines, nor is there any traveling crane to lift heavy parts during
maintenance. This is done with mobile cranes.
The gas turbine draws in air through the primary filter (1) and the secondary filter (2). To
protect the inlet filter casing against a too high differential pressure, due to fouling of the inlet
filters, safety or implosion doors have been fitted. The air flows through the inlet channel to
the gas turbine. In the inlet, acoustical panels have been fitted that silences the noise from
the axial compressor, the inlet silencer.
The complete gas turbine enclosure is pressurized by the pressurizing fans that extract
clean air from behind the air inlet filters (5). In this way, the desert sand and dust are kept
out of the enclosure.
The control cab (6) contains the control panels of the gas turbine and the load equipment.
This cab is extra insulated against sound, to make it possible for the operators to be in the
control cab, without wearing ear protection.
From this control cab, the operators can see the accessories like the staring motor and the
gauge panel in the accessory compartment.
The actual gas turbine (7), compressor, combustion cambers and turbine, is only a relatively
small part of the whole system. After passing through the exhaust silencer (8), the hot
exhaust gases flow into the exhaust stack (9) and then into the outside air. In this case, the
exhaust stack is only about 10 m above ground level.
On the stack, some breather pipes have been fitted. These are fitted to the lube oil tank of
the gas turbine.
The gas turbine drives the generator (11). Since the gas turbine speed is about 5100 rpm
and the generator speed is 3000 rpm, a gearbox (10) is needed. The generator is air-cooled.
This air is admitted to the generator compartment through a separate air filtration system.
The generator breaker with the necessary controls is placed in a container besides the
generator compartment, the load control center (13). The load control center is connected
with underground cables (16) to the high voltage transformers (18) and from there to the
high voltage switchgear (17).
Outside the gas turbine compartment, a fuel treatment skid (14) and the lube oil coolers are
fitted. In this case, the lube oil coolers are air-cooled fin fan coolers.
The gas turbine installation can be operated from the control cab (6), where all the control
and protection panels have been fitted. From the main building (19), the gas turbine can be
started, loaded and stooped by the remote control. So there is a choice between local and
remote control of the gas turbine.
A gas turbine installation with this setup is relatively simple and the accessibility for
maintenance is good.
The operation is simple and therefore it is possible to operate an installation like that
completely unmanned. All the relevant machine data will be collected in the main building.
Machines like that can be installed very far away from the control room, and are controlled
by radio.
Figure 51, elementary cycle gas turbine installation (outdoor arrangement)
Legend for figure 51:
1. Inlet prefilter. 10. Reduction gear (load gear).

2. High efficiency filter. 11. Generator.
3. Anti-implosion door. 12. Generator cooling air.
4. Inlet plenum. 13. Generator switchgear.
5. Ventilation system. 14. Fuel supply system.
6. Accessory compartment. 15. Fin-fan coolers.
7. Turbine compartment. 16. Underground high-voltage cables.
8. Exhaust plenum. 19. Control building.
9. Exhaust stack.
Indoor arrangement
Figure 52 gives an impression of a similar gas turbine installation as described above. The
main difference is that both gas turbines are placed in a building. This building contains the
necessary traveling cranes for maintenance. The main control room with control and
protection panels is also part of this building.
These gas turbines are fired with natural gas that needs to be supplied to the gas turbine
with the right pressure. For this reason, a gas compression station (9) is installed, where the
gas is compressed from a low pressure in the supply line to the necessary pressure.
Figure 52, elementary cycle gas turbine installation (indoor arrangement)
1. Gas turbine, 25 MW (MS5001). 12. Underground cables.

2. Generator. 13. Batteries.
3. Exhaust stack. 14. Motor control center.
4. Inlet air filters. 15. Cooling air for the generators.
5. Inlet duct. 16. Generator exciter.
6. Accessory compartment. 17. Emergency diesel generators.
7. Ventilation system. 18. Air conditioning.
8. Lube oil coolers. 19. Traveling cranes for maintenance.
9. Gas compressors. 20. Central control room.
10. Transformers. 21. High voltage overhead lines.
11. High voltage switchgear.
A combined cycle plant
In a combined cycle, always two products are to be delivered: heat, (hot water or steam) and
electrical power.
The first example of such a total energy plant is shown in figure 54. It is a drawing of an
installation that is being used to produce approximately 25 MW of electrical energy, and 72
MW of thermal energy. The thermal energy in steam and water is utilized in a paper mill in
The Netherlands.
The installation is made up of a 25 MW gas turbine (MS5001) that drives a generator. The
exhaust is connected to a steam and hot water boiler, with additional firing. Depending on
the gas turbine power output and the desired steam production the amount of additional
firing can be adjusted. In this way, the desired ratio between power and heat can be
achieved with minimal losses. The Sankey diagram of figure 53 shows that the fuel is divided
into 82.4% for the gas turbine and 17.6% for the additional fuel nozzle in the boiler. Only
10.7% of the fuel is lost. 10.1% as low temperature energy in the exhaust and 0.6% as
radiation. The main part of the fuel (89.3%) is used, 22.6% as electrical power, 63.3% as
steam and 3.4% as hot water.
The total efficiency equals:

η = 22.6 + 63.3 + 3.4 = 89.3%
EXHAUST STACK RADIATION

10.1% 0.6%
HOT WATER
3.4%
STEAM
63.3% TOTAL
89.3%
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY 22.6%
FUEL 100%
17.6% 82.4%
ADDITIONAL GAS TURBINE

FUEL FUEL
Figure 53, Sankey diagram of a combined cycle or total energy plant

EXHAUST STACK
BOILER
INLET
FILTER
SILENCER
GT EXHAUST
GENERATOR GAS TURBINE STARTING

MOTOR
Figure 54, gas turbine installation in a combined cycle or total energy plant
District heating
A second example of a total energy plant is shown in figure 55. It is a combined electricity
and district-heating project for about 15.000 houses. Based on the nominal yearly heat
consumption of the district, the system has an efficiency of 81%.
The installation is made up of two gas turbines (A) that produce 48 MW electrical power
through the generators (B). The exhaust gases of the gas turbine flow through a hot water
boiler (C), where water is being heated up to 120 °C. If necessary, it is possible to by-pass
the boiler by using the by-pass channel (D).
If the heat consumption is higher than the gas turbine can supply, than the auxiliary boiler
(Q) will take care of the extra heat needed for the district. The hot water system is
pressurized by the surge vessel (E). The hot water is fed to the district by the circulation
pumps (G, M).
Since the demand for hot water is not constant, four big hot water buffer tanks have been
applied in the system. When the demand for hot water, at night, is low, the very well
insulated buffer tanks will be filled with hot water. During the day part of the accumulated hot
water can be fed to the district.
Figure 55, combined cycle, district heating

A steam and gas cycle (STAG) plant
A steam and gas turbine installation (STAG) is specially designed to produce only one
product: electrical energy.
A STAG power plant reaches the highest possible efficiency, when all components (gas
turbine, boiler and steam turbine) are optimized to each other. This is the case in the power
plant configuration of figure 56. It is made up of a gas turbine (MS9001B) that directly drives
a generator with a power output of approximately 80 MW. The hot exhaust gases of the gas
turbine still contain 16% oxygen and flow as combustion air to the boiler. In the boiler,
additional firing takes place through 12 fuel nozzles with oil or gas fuel.
The boiler can produce 700 tons of steam per hour, with a pressure of 169 bar and a
temperature of 540 °C. The steam turbine produces approximately 250 MW of electrical
power.
The plant is provided with the necessary by-pass channels to be able to operate this plant in
three different ways:
- As a STAG power plant, where the gas turbine exhaust gases flow through the fired
boiler.
- As a simple cycle gas turbine power plant, where the exhaust gases are led directly to
a stack.
- As a conventional steam turbine power plant, where the gas turbine is not used. An
electric motor driven boiler fan will then supply the necessary combustion air.
Naturally, this installation will normally be operated as a STAG unit, because only then the
maximum efficiency will be achieved.
1. Inlet filter casing. 21. Fuel nozzles (12).

2. Inlet filters. 22. Air inlet boiler fan.
3. Silencers. 23. Boiler fan (only steam turbine).
4. Inlet duct. 24. Air duct.
5. Gas turbine. 25. Valves in air duct.
6. Accessories gas turbine. 26. Steam drum.
7. Acoustic enclosure. 27. Supporting framework for the boiler.
8. Exhaust casing. 28. Super and re-heater.
9. Gas turbine generator (80 MW). 29. Economizer (ECO).
10. Exhaust duct. 30. Exhaust duct.
11. Silencers. 31. Stack.
12. Expansion bellows. 32. Main steam lines.
13. By-pass. 33. Steam turbine + generator (250 MW).
14. Valves in by-pass. 34. De-aerator.
15. Silencers. 35. High voltage transformer.
16. Bypass stack (for simple cycle). 36. 100 kV cables.
17. Combustion air supply to boiler. 37. Generator excitation.
18. Valves in air duct. 38. Traveling crane.
19. Hot gases to economizer. 39. Roof fan.
Combustion air to fuel nozzles.

Figure 56, STAG power plant (330 MW)

Combination of a STAG and a total energy plant
A very flexible installation to produce heat and electrical power is shown in the next example.
It is an installation electricity production and district heating in The Netherlands. The
installation is made up of two LM2500 gas turbines (± 21 MW each), a steam turbine (± 18
MW) and two boilers.
Figure 57 shows how both gas turbines and the steam turbine are coupled to one generator.
Since the gas turbines are located opposite of each other, at both ends of the generator, and
they rotate in the same direction, a reversing gearbox is needed between one of the gas
turbines and the rest of the rotary system. As the LM2500 is designed for 3600 rpm, the gas
turbine that drives the generator via the gearbox rotates with a speed of 3600 rpm. This gas
turbine has an efficiency that is approximately 1% higher than the one that runs at 300 rpm.
This more than compensates the losses in the gearbox.
EXHAUST STEAM EXHAUST

AIR TO TO TO AIR
INTAKE BOILER CONDENSER BOILER INTAKE
SSS SSS
LM2500 GEAR STEAM GENERATOR LM2500

3600 → TURBINE
3600 3000 3000 3000 [RPM] 3000 [RPM]
Figure 57, arrangement of a STAG and a total energy plant
The gas turbines are coupled to the rest of the rotary system by special clutches (SSS).
These clutches make it possible to connect or disconnect a gas turbine from a rotating
system. In this way, a very flexible operation of the plant is possible.
Figure 58 shows a simplified schematic of the complete system. Both gas turbines and the
steam turbine drive the generator (60 MW). The exhaust of each gas turbine is connected to
a non-fired heat recovery steam generator (HRSG). In the HRSG high and low pressure
steam are produced. This steam is fed to a steam turbine.
Bleed steam from the steam turbine is fed to a heat exchanger, where a maximum of 44 MW
of heat is supplied to the district heating water. In the HRSG's heating coils for district
heating are fitted, they supply another 6 MW to the district heating water. The waste steam
from the steam turbine is condensed in a fin fan condenser, preheated in the boiler, de-
aerated and fed as feed water into the boiler drums.
DISTRICT
HEATING
LP FW
PREHEAT.
LP TO AND
DRUM DE-AERATOR FROM
BOILER 2
LP BOILER
FW PUMP
LP SUPER CIRC. PUMP
HEATER
HP FW,
PREHEAT.
HP
DRUM
HP BOILER
AIR
CONDENSER
CIRC. PUMP COND. PUMP
HP SUPER
HEATER
SSS SSS
3000 STEAM- GENE-
GT 2
3600 TURBINE RATOR
GEARBOX
AIR FUEL
COND. PUMP
GAS TURBINE 1
TO AND FROM
DISTRICT-HEATING
Figure 58, schematic of a STAG and a total energy plant

This installation can be operated very flexibly for the production of power and heat.
Figure 59 shows the Sankey diagrams for the two limits for the operation of this plant.
Maximum power and maximum heat production.
In the first case, this plant has an efficiency for power production of 50%, which was a
milestone in the history of power production. The over all efficiency is 55%.
In the second case the over all efficiency is 85%. 42% as heat and still 43% as power.
LOSSES 45%
(AIR CONDENSER,
STACK AND
AUXILIARIES)
HEAT TO
BOILER THERMAL
ENERGY 5%
FUEL
100%
POWER STEAM TURBINE
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY 50%
POWER GAS TURBINE
MAXIMUM POWER PRODUCTION η = 55%
LOSSES 15%
(AIR CONDENSER
STACK AND
AUXILIARIES)
THERMAL
HEAT TO ENERGY 42%
BOILER
FUEL
100%
POWER STEAM TURBINE

ELECTRICAL
POWER GAS TURBINE ENERGY 43%
MAXIMUM HEAT PRODUCTION η = 85%
Figure 59, Sankey diagrams of a STAG / total energy plant

Appendix 1: Principle of the jet engine
A jet engine in its simplest form is shown in figure 60. It works as follows: after the machine
has been started with a starting motor, the compressor starts to draw in air and compresses
it. The compressed and hot air flows into the combustion chamber, where a kerosene flame
further heats up the air. The hot gases expand in the turbine where the mechanical energy is
produced needed to drive the compressor. The remaining energy in the gases (pressure and
temperature) will partly be converted in the exhaust nozzle into speed. This conversion from
potential energy (pressure and temperature) to kinetic energy (speed) results in an
acceleration of the exhaust gas mass. According to Newton's law (F = m * a or F = m/s * v)
the result is the thrust that propels the aircraft. (Refer to appendix 2: conversion from thrust
to power of a jet engine).
This engine is also referred to as the turbo-jet engine. It belongs to the first generation of jet
engines.
Advantage over other types of jet engines: simple construction.
Disadvantage: low efficiency and very noisy.
FUEL
INLET
DIFFUSOR COMPRESSOR TURBINE
HOT GASES
HIGH SPEED
ADJUSTABLE
EXHAUST NOZZLE
COLD AIR
LOW SPEED
NOZZLE
COMB. CHAMBER AFTER BURNER
MAIN BURNER
Figure 60, the turbo-jet engine
A jet engine for military purposes is often provided with an after burner ('augmenter'). By
burning fuel in the exhaust gases of the gas turbine, a considerable temperature rise and
volume increase of the exhaust gases will be reached. Due to the expansion of these hot
gases in the adjustable exhaust nozzle a very high speed of the gases will be reached.
The result: about 50% more thrust and an even lower efficiency. The pilot, when required, at
startup or in combat can switch on the after burner.
Figure 61, example of a turbo-jet engine (F404) as used among others in an F/A-18
The turbo-fan or bypass-fan engine is an improvement compared to the first generation jet
engines. In this engine, only part of the air is fed into the combustion chamber. A part of the
air bypasses the engine. The part of the air that passes through the inner part of the engine
flows the same way as in a first generation jet engine. The bypass air however, is an airflow
that is accelerated by the machine, thus providing part of the thrust.
The ratio between the bypass airflow and the internal airflow is called the bypass ratio.
In the current turbo-fan engines, this number is 5. This means that 5 times as much air
bypasses the engine than passes through the engine. The designers try to achieve equal
speeds of the cold air and the hot gases. In this case, the thrust ratio is almost equal to the
bypass ratio. The bypass air produces approximately 83% of the thrust and the hot gases
only about 17%.
The big difference with the first generation jet engines is the fact that much more cold air is
accelerated than hot gases. It is obvious that accelerating a certain mass of air results in the
same thrust, regardless, whether this air is hot or cold. Because the main part of the
accelerated air in this engine is not heated up, the fuel consumption is considerably lower
than in the turbo-jet engine.
The turbine part of the turbo-fan engine has to produce a lot more power, than in a turbo-jet
engine. Not only the compressor has to be driven, but also the bypass fan.
Advantage of this engine: high fuel efficiency and far less noise.
INLET COMPRESSOR FUEL

DIFFUSOR LP HP
COLD AIR
HIGH SPEED
HOT
GASES
COLD AIR
HIGH
LOW SPEED
SPEED
NOZZLE
HP LP
BYPASS TURBINE
COMBUSTION
FAN
CHAMBER
Figure 62, the bypass fan engine
Recent developments in the bypass fan engines are the CF6-80E1 and the GE-90.
The CF6-80E1, is utilized, amongst others, on the Boeing 747-400 and the Airbus A330.
This engine has a thrust of approximately 30.6 tons (±300 kN or 67 500 lbs). The fan
diameter is approximately 2.4 meter.
The GE-90 is utilized, amongst others, on the Boeing 777 and has a bypass fan with a
diameter of almost 4 m. The trust is approximately 50 tons (± 490 kN or 110 000 lbs).
Such a twin-engine aircraft, equipped with these engines is allowed to cross the Atlantic
Ocean non-stop.
Figure 63, the CF6-80E1 (above) and the GE90 (below)

Besides the turbo-jet and the turbo-fan, another well-known engine exists. The turbo-prop or
turbo propeller engine. It is similar to the turbo-fan engine, with the big difference that a
propeller is used to accelerate air. By the internal turbine, even more mechanical power is
produced than in the turbo-fan engine. This mechanical energy passes trough a planetary
gearbox to the propeller. The propeller speed is much lower than the turbine speed. For this
type of engine, as well, can be spoken of a bypass ratio that will be approximately 50.
Advantage: high fuel efficiency and little noise.
Disadvantage: cannot be used for high-speed aircraft.
PROPELLER
ENGINE
COMPRESSOR ACCELERATES
HOT AIR
GEAR
FUEL NOZZLE
COMB. HP LP
PROPELLER CHAMBER TURBINE
ACCELERATES
COLD AIR
Figure 64, the turbo-prop engine

Appendix 2: Conversion from thrust to power of a jet engine
The thrust is developed by accelerating air and gases in the opposite direction of the
airplane speed. This force is at stationary speed of the airplane equal to the airplane
resistance.
THRUST POWER = THRUST * AIRPLANE SPEED [N * m/s = W]
At take-off of an airplane, the engine produces maximum thrust. The thrust is the reaction to
the force needed to increase the impulse of the air and gas (change of mass * speed).
At an airspeed of zero m/s holds:
THRUST = MASS-FLOW * SPEED GASES [kg/s * m/s = N]

2
THRUST POWER = ½ * MASS-FLOW * SPEED GASES
2 2
THRUST POWER = ½ * ms * v [kg/s * (m/s) = W]
For a modern bypass fan engine at cruising speed, of 100% fuel energy:
1% → is not used due to incomplete combustion.

53% → is converted into heat.
12% → is not utilized kinetic energy in the exhaust gases.
34% → is converted into thrust power.
The thrust coming from a turbo-jet engine is produced by the speed of the discharged (hot)
gases.
The thrust from a turbo-fan is produced by the speed of the discharged (hot) gases (internal
flow) and the speed of the (cold) bypass air. For an optimum thrust power and efficiency, the
flows (internal and bypass) are divided in such a way, that the exit speeds of both flows are
equal.
On the next pages, calculations are given for some well-known jet engines.
General Electric CF6-6 (High bypass turbofan) → LM2500

(utilized on a DC10-10)
Data (at take-off, airspeed 0 m/s):
Thrust = 40.000 pound = 40.000 * 4,448 = 178 kN

Mass-flow = 1.300 lb/s = 1.300 * 0,453 = 590 kg/s
Bypass-ratio = 5,6 → airflow through turbine = 90 kg/s
→ airflow through bypass fan = 500 kg/s
THRUST = MASS-FLOWHOT * SPEED + MASS-FLOWCOLD * SPEED
178.000 = 90 * Vh + 500 * Vc
At an optimum: Vh = Vc → Vh = Vc = 300 m/s
2 2
THRUST POWER = ½ * MASS-FLOWHOT * VH + ½ * MASS-FLOWCOLD * Vc
2 2
= 0,5 * 90 * 300 + 0,5 * 500 * 300 = 26.550.000 W = 26.5 MW
The thrust at cruising speed is approximately 20% of the maximum thrust. The power at a
speed of 900 km/h (250 m/s) is then:
THRUST POWER AT CRUISING SPEED = THRUST * AIR SPEED =
= 20% * 178.000 * 250 = 8.9 MW
General Electric CF6-50 (High bypass turbofan) → LM5000

(Boeing 747, Airbus A300)
Data (at take-off, airspeed 0 m/s):
Thrust = 50.000 pound = 50.000 * 4,448 = 234 kN

Mass-flow = 1.450 lb/s = 1.450 * 0,453 = 650 kg/s
Bypass-ratio = 5,5 → airflow through turbine = 100 kg/s
→ airflow through bypass fan = 550 kg/s
234.000 = 100 * Vh + 550 * Vc
At an optimum: Vh = Vc → Vh = Vc = 360 m/s
2 2
THRUST POWER = ½ * MASS-FLOWHOT * VH + ½ * MASS-FLOWCOLD * Vc
2 2
= 0,5 * 100 * 360 + 0,5 * 550 * 360 = 42.120.000 W = 42.1 MW
General Electric J79 Augmented turbojet (with after burner)

(General Dynamics F16, Lockheed F104)
Data (at take-off, after burner in operation, airspeed 0 m/s):
Thrust = 18.000 pound = 18.000 * 4,448 = 80 kN

Mass-flow = 170 lb/s = 170 * 0,453 = 77 kg/s
(turbo-jet engine)
80.000 = 77 * Vh → Vh = 1038 m/s
2
THRUST POWER = ½ * MASS-FLOWHOT * VH
2
= 0,5 * 77 * 1038 = 41.500.000 W = 41.5 MW
Figure 65, an F/A-18 with two F404 engines (LM1600)

01 GAS TURBINE Basics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

01 GAS TURBINE Basics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

01 GAS TURBINE Basics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to Gas Turbines File Page

Training © - Gas Turbine Basics - GT Basics 1

GAS TURBINE BASICS

© Copyright, September 2003

Methods to improve the efficiency 27

Methods to increase the output power 41

Types of gas turbines 50

The GE gas turbines 60

Examples of realized plants 64

Appendix 1: Principle of the jet engine 77

Appendix 2: Conversion from thrust to power of a jet engine 82

The history of the gas turbine

Figure 1, Barber's gas turbine (1791)

INLET COMPRESSION HEATING EXPANSION EXHAUST

air air + combustion gases

COMPRESSOR TURBINE LOAD

Figure 2, schematic drawing of a gas turbine

The Brayton/Joule cycle consists of the following processes:

1 → 2 Compression of ambient air by a multi-stage compressor.

p-V DIAGRAM T-s DIAGRAM

Figure 3, p-V and T-s diagram of the Brayton/Joule cycle

Characteristics of the gas turbine cycle:

INLET COMPRESSION COMBUSTION EXPANSION EXHAUST

Figure 4, example of a stationary gas turbine

Gas laws for compression and expansion

For a change of state 1 → 2 holds:

p* V k = c Where k is the adiabatic exponent (non-dimensional),

For a change of state 1 → 2 holds:

For adiabatic compression holds:

And for adiabatic expansion:

Figure 5, cp and k values for air and combustion gases

Assume: t1 = 15 °C, t2' = 300 °C.

The average compressor temperature is (15 + 300) / 2 = 157.5 °C.

cpc = 1.018 [kJ/kgK]

Assume: t2' = 300 °C and t3 = 1000 °C.

The average combustion chamber temperature equals: (300+1000) / 2 = 650 °C.

cpcc = 1.155 [kJ/kgK]

The basic process in theory

2' ISOTHERM T2'

ACTUAL ISOTHERM T2'

W c = cpc * (T2 − T1 ) [kJ/kg]

T2 = compressor discharge temperature [K of °C]

T1 = compressor inlet temperature [K of °C]

W c ' = cpc * (T2 ' −T1 ) [kJ/kg]

In practice, the compressor efficiency can be determined as follows:

The actual compression work can also be written as:

cpc * (T2 − T1 ) [kJ/kgK]

Heating up the air is done in combustion chambers. A combustion chamber is normally

REACTION ZONE MIXING ZONE

Figure 7, principle of the combustion chamber

The amount of energy added for each kg of air is given by:

T3 = turbine inlet temperature [K of °C]

T2' = compressor discharge temperature [K of °C]

Figure 8, expansion in p-V en T-s diagram

W t = cpt * (T3 − T4 ) [kJ/kg]

T3 = turbine inlet temperature [K of °C]

T4 = turbine exhaust temperature [K of °C]

W t ' = cpt * (T3 − T4 ' ) [kJ/kg]

The actual expansion work can also be written as:

Wc' = cpc(t2' - t1) = 1.018 285 = 290.13 [kJ/kg]