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Energy Procedia 6 (2011) 736–742

MEDGREEN 2011-LB

Experimental investigation on a double-slope solar still with

partially cooled condenser in the region of Ouargla (Algeria).
M. Zerouala*, H. Bouguettaiab, D. Bechkib, S. Boughalib, B. Bouchekimab
and H. Mahceneb
a
LPEA, Physics Department, Faculty of science, Université Hadj Lakhdar, Batna,05000, Algeria.
b
Physics Department, Laboratory of New and Renewable Energy in Arid Zones (LENREZA), Ouargla University, 30000, Algeria..

Abstract
The population of Algeria is expected to double in the next thirty years, by then it will clearly face serious
water shortages. The demand in water for drinking, agriculture and industry largely exceeds the amount
that fresh sources can meet, especially in the Saharan regions where rainfall is the lowest, with years of
total drought. To overcome this serious water scarcity, solar desalination could be an effective solution.
Solar distillation is one of the simplest techniques used in water desalination. This investigation presents
an experimental study using a double slope solar still. This choice is justified firstly by the abundance and
low price of solar energy, and by the simplicity of installation and easy maintenance of these devices.
The main aim of the present work has been to enhance the yield of the still by improving the performance
of its condenser. This was achieved by cooling its outer surface. Small-scale solar powered distillation
pilot units have been constructed and operated. The tests were conducted in the town of Ouargla, south of
Algeria. Two series of experiments were performed. In the first series, the condenser was cooled by
flowing water on the north glass cover throughout the run. This enhanced the still productivity by
11.82%. The second series consisted of lowering the glass temperature (condenser), and this was realised
by an intermittent shading (12h.00-14h.00) of the north glass cover. The shade was assured by placing a
rectangular screen at 90 cm above the north side of the still. This procedure improved the yield by just
2.94%.

© 2010 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of [name organizer]

Key words: solar still, water, solar radiation, heat transfer, evaporation, condensation, desalination

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +213 033819895; fax: +213 033819895.

E-mail address: zeroualmos@yahoo.fr.

1876–6102 © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2011.05.083
 M. Zeroual et al. / Energy Procedia 6 (2011) 736–742 737

Water and energy are the two most fundamental ingredients to human prosperity. In the past century,
global water consumption levels increased almost tenfold, reaching or exceeding the limits of renewable
water resources in some areas, such as in the Middle East and North Africa. The earth’s existing
freshwater resources are under heavy threat from overexploitation, pollution and global warming. The
physical evidence of water scarcity can be found in increasing magnitude around the world. Today, nearly
40% of the world’s population live in water scarce conditions, and this situation could worsen if current
growth trends continue [1].
Located on the southern border of the Mediterranean basin, Algeria abounds with natural resources,
but it is lacking in one very indispensable resource: water.
The water deficits are increasing rapidly due to the increase of the demand. A great percentage of the
Algerian population is rural. In these rural areas, most inhabitants are scattered and lack proper
infrastructure to be connected to the electric gird and water network.
Presently, some 55% of the populace lives in rural area, about 1.5 million nomads live in the Saharan
area. Recent reports on the availability of potable water in Africa have listed Algeria among 17 African
countries affected by water shortage. The water availability per capita is diminishing at an alarming rate.
The current water availability in Algeria is about 500 m3/capita, down from 1,500 m3 in 1962. It is
projected that it will further decrease to 430 m3 in 2020 [2]. In the last years, the drought phenomenon in
almost all parts of the country has resulted in an intensive exploitation of ground water, which has
dramatically diminished the fresh water potential. Furthermore, severe ecosystem damage may be caused
if water abstraction rates exceed natural renewal rates, leading to a salinization of water stocks and land
desertification.
The integration of solar distillation of brackish water seems to be an attractive and alternative way for
supplying small communities with potable water. This is especially true for Sahara Algerian sites, where
both salty underground water and solar radiation are abundant. Located within the solar belt of the world,
Algeria has ample solar energy throughout its territories which constitutes a big asset for arid and semi-
arid localities.
The logical answer to the problem seems to be solar desalination of the available brackish water [3, 4,
5]. Small-scale brackish water solar distillation can make a considerable contribution to secure some
freshwater supplies for these rural agglomerations. Low-cost solar distillation schemes for use in
developing countries have been widely investigated all over the world. Some of them are still at
laboratory development levels and others are field tested.
Within this context, research groups on small-scale solar distillation were established in the laboratory
of new and renewable energies in arid zones (LENREZA) at Ouargla University, Algeria, and the
laboratory of applied energetic physics (LPEA) at Batna University, Algeria; as a possible solution for
converting brackish water into potable water. For this purpose, basin-type solar stills were constructed
and experimentally tested under climatic conditions of the arid zone of Southern Algeria. These types
have the advantage of being simple devices in terms of construction, operation and maintenance. They are
cost free energy, easy to transport, environment friendly and more importantly, they can function
unattended for long periods of time in remote isolated communities.
Numerous solar distillation pilot units have been set up in many research centres to demonstrate the
performance of solar desalination. For example, Boukar and Harmim presented performance evaluation
of one-sided vertical solar still tested under desert climatic conditions of Algeria (solar station of Adrar,
south-west of Algeria). Their study showed that still output varies from 0.275 to 1.31 L/(m2d) for a
corresponding energy ranging from 8.42 to 14.71 MJ. They also investigated the performance of a simple
basin solar still and a similar one coupled to a flat plate solar collector. They resolved that the daily still
productivity in summer period varied from 4.01 to 4.34 L/(m2d) for simple basin solar still and from 8.02
738 M. Zeroual et al. / Energy Procedia 6 (2011) 736–742

to 8.07 L/(m2d) for the coupled one [6, 7]. Bouchekima et al. presented the results of experiments carried
out with a capillary film distiller using solar energy. The test facilities were installed in a village near the
town of Touggourt (south-east of Algeria) where the temperature of the groundwater was about 65°C. It
was found that the efficiency of this distiller increased with increasing the temperature of the brackish
water at the inlet and also with increasing the intensity of the solar radiation [8, 9].

Nomenclature
G Global irradiation intensity, W/m2,
Ta Ambient temperature, °C,
Tg (ext-N) External north glass cover temperature, °C,
Tg (ext-S) External south glass cover temperature, °C,
Tg (int-N) Internal north glass cover temperature, °C,
Tg (int-S) Internal south glass cover temperature, °C,
Tb Absorber temperature, °C,
Tw Basin water temperature, °C,
D(N) Distillate on north glass cover, (L),
D(S) Distillate on south glass cover, (L),
D(T) Total distillate, (L).

2. Experimental.

2.1. Construction of solar still

Two identical solar still prototypes were used, one of which was used as a reference unit (witness unit)
while the parameters under investigation were applied to the other (test unit). The two units were used to
overcome the variation in meteorological parameters- ambient temperature, solar radiation and wind
velocity from one day to the other. A cross sectional view of a schematic diagram of the experimental
setup used in this study is displayed in Fig. 1. Whereas, Fig. 2. represents a photographic picture of the
apparatus. The still consists mainly of a rectangular shaped simple still with black painted basin. This
was used to magnify the amount of solar energy absorbed and, thus, increase the quantity of distilled
water produced. The basin is a tray (0.90x0.70x0.03 m) made of aluminum 3 mm thick. The still had an
inverted-V-glass roof, tilted at an angle of 10° to the horizontal which is recommended for Ouargla region
[10]. The cover was made of a single layer window-type glass 4 mm thick. The utmost care was taken to
make the entire system vapour-tight by using silicon sealant. The bottom of the assembly was lagged with
60 mm thick polystyrene followed by an extra 50 mm thick layer of local sand dune insulation to
minimize heat losses. A distillate trough runs along the lower edge of the glass to collect the distillate and
carry it out of the enclosure.

2.2. Experimental procedure

The stills were installed and tested at the LENREZA laboratory, Ouargla University, south of Algeria,
with long axes of the stills facing south-north direction in order to take in maximum solar radiation. All
 M. Zeroual et al. / Energy Procedia 6 (2011) 736–742 739

tests started at 8.00 a.m. and terminated at 6.00 p.m. local time. The experimental procedure commenced
by cleaning the external glass covers of the still. A provision of an inlet for raw salty local water (3 g/L
concentration) was made at the bottom and kept constant at a level of 1.5 cm throughout the course of
experiments.
During operations, measurements of solar intensities, temperatures of inner surfaces of both north and
south glass covers and water in the basin were made regularly. The ambient temperature and wind speed
were also monitored. Condensate on the north and south glass parts of the cover were collected in
separate through channels. The values of the different raw data were recorded at regular 30 minutes
intervals throughout the duration of the runs.
Two series of experiments were performed. In the first, the condenser was cooled by flowing water on the
upper face of the north glass cover throughout the run. The second series consisted of lowering the glass
temperature (condenser), and this was realised by an intermittent shading of the north glass cover from
12h.00 to 14h.00. The shade was assured by placing a rectangular screen at 90 cm above the north side of
the still.

Fig.1. Cross-section of the solar still. Fig.2. Photographic picture of the solar still.

3. Results and discussion

In the present article, we intend to present a part of the results of the experimental tests realized on a
conventional double-slope solar still, which has its base and sides isolated by a 5 cm layer of local sand
dune. In the first series of experiments, the north glass cover was cooled by flowing water on its upper
face. The second series consisted of lowering the glass temperature (condenser), and this was realised by
an intermittent shading of the north glass cover. Enhancement of efficiency by adding an extra layer of
sand dune to the absorber was already achieved [10]. Numerous experimental tests were performed; and
here we are contented by presenting a comparison between the inner and outer temperatures of the
distiller and also the daily yield in the two previously stated series. It can be readily seen from the graphs
below that the temperatures have the same trend; as they increase in the morning hours, then they start to
decrease in the second half of the day. This is obviously due to the increase in solar radiations in the
morning and its descent in the afternoon.

Fig.3.a. shows that throughout the first half of the day, the inner temperature of the north side is
slightly higher then that of the south side. The temperatures of the water in the base and the absorber
740 M. Zeroual et al. / Energy Procedia 6 (2011) 736–742

coincide during the whole run. During the shading period (12h.00-14h.00) the depression of the
temperatures is clearly visible. The magnitude of the depression on the south cover (non-shaded) is
smaller. These temperatures start augmenting straight after the removal of the shading screen; before they
begin decreasing again at about 16h.00.
When the north side was cooled with flowing water, figure.3.b indicates that its inner temperature
remained the lowest; followed by the inner temperature of the south side. The temperatures of the water
and the absorber are slightly higher than the latter. It is worth mentioning here that all temperatures
follow the same profile as solar intensity.

Fig.4.a. shows that during the first half of the day, the outer temperature of the north side was also
slightly higher then that of the outer south side. Once the north cover was shaded (12h.00-14h.00), the
external temperatures of both sides underwent a depression which was much larger on the north cover.
These temperatures began to rise again just after the removal of the shade; before they start decreasing
again at 15h.00. The deflation was much larger on the external north cover, when the latter was cooled
with water as displayed in Fig.4.b.

Fig.5.a shows that the distilled water produced in this series was practically evenly distributed
between the north and south sides. The total amount produced was 6.26 L/m2d. At this stage of tests, it
must be mentioned that the productivity enhancement was relatively limited (about 2.94%). Having said
this, it is worthwhile pointing out that other sets of tests in the same framework are being finalised; and
are showing better results.

It is of interest to notice in Fig.5.b that the north side produces more distillate than the south side.
The justification of this could be seen from the temperature profile displayed in Fig.3.b which shows that
that the average difference between the water and the north glass temperature is higher. The average daily
output product collected in this set of runs was about 5.80 L/m2d (i.e. an improvement of 11.82%).

100
800 21/4/2009 800
90 29/5/2009 90
700 700
80
80
600 600
70
70

Solar intensity (w/m2)

Solar intensity (w/m )

Temperature (°C)
2

500 500
Temperature (°C)

60
60
50 400 400
50
40 300 300
40
30
200 200
20 30
100 100
10 20
0 0
8 10 12 14 16 18 8 10 12 14 16 18
Local time (h)
Local time (h)
Tw Tg(int-S) Tg(int-N)
Tw Tg(int-S) Tg(int-N)
Tb Solar intensity
Tb Solar intensity

a b

Fig. 3: solar intensity and inner temperature-time history curves of the still.
a)-cooling by shading, b) cooling by water.
 M. Zeroual et al. / Energy Procedia 6 (2011) 736–742 741

80 10 80 10
29/5/2009 21/4/2009
70
70
8 8
60
60
Temperature (°C)

Wind velocity (m/s)

Temperature (°C)
6 50 6

Wind velocity (m/s)

50
40
4 4
40 30

2 20 2
30

10
20 0 0
8 10 12 14 16 18 8 10 12 14 16 18

Local time (h) Local time (h)

Tg(ext - S) Tg(ext - N) Tg(ext - S) Tg(ext - N)

Ta Win velocity Ta Wind velocity

a b

Fig.4: wind velocity and outer temperature-time history curves of the still.
a)-cooling by shading, b) cooling by water.

8 6
29/5/2009 21/4/2009
2
2
7 VN=3.04 L /m .j VN =3.46 L /m .j
5 2
VS=3.21 L /m .j
2
VS =2.33 L /m .j
2
6 VT=6.26 L /m .j
2 VT =5.80 L /m .j
Cummulative yield (L/m2.h)

Cummulative yield (L/m2.h)

4
5

4 3

3
2

1
1

0 0
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Local time (h) Local time (h)

D(N) D(S) D(T) D(N) D(S) D(T)

a b

Fig.5 : Daily cumulative yield per unit surface.

a)-cooling by shading, b) cooling by water
742 M. Zeroual et al. / Energy Procedia 6 (2011) 736–742

4. Conclusions

In these times, the demand for fresh water in Algeria is rapidly increasing. The direct use of solar
energy in brackish water desalination demonstrates a competitive chance to offer a secure source of
drinkable water especially for remote isolated communities. Within this context, a small-scale shadow
solar still distillation system was built and its performance was studied. These devices are characterised
by being simple, environment friendly and most importantly they do not require any fuel. Under local
weather conditions, it was found that:
x The average daily output of the double-slope conventional still was improved by about 11.82%
when cooling its north glass cover by flowing water throughout the run.
x At this early stage of tests, the intermittent shading procedure of the north glass cover of the
solar still between 12h.00-14h.00 resulted only in 2.94% improvement in the daily yield.
x It is therefore suggested that more research on this subject merit further exploration.

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