Energy 113 (2016) 521e535

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Parametric study of solar heating and cooling systems in different

climates of Algeria e A comparison between conventional and
high-energy-performance buildings
S. Bahria a, b, *, M. Amirat a, A. Hamidat b, M. El Ganaoui c, M. Slimani a
a
Laboratoire de M
ecanique des Fluides Th

eorique et Appliqu

ee, Facult

e de Physique, Universit

e des Sciences et de la Technologie Houari Boumediene, BP 32
El Alia, Bab-Ezzouar, Algiers, Algeria
b
Centre de D
eveloppement des Energies Renouvelables, CDER, 16340 Algiers, Algeria
c
University of Lorraine, LERMAB, EA 4370, IUT de Longwy, 54400 Cosnes et Romain, France

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Parametric optimization using dynamic simulation of a solar thermal system for producing hot water,
Received 29 December 2015 space heating and cooling was developed. The system layouts include a single-effect absorption chiller
Received in revised form activated by heat generated by flat plate solar collectors and stored in a solar storage tank. Two con-
7 June 2016
struction types were compared; the first is the typical construction in Algeria (low thermal mass with U-
Accepted 5 July 2016
values of 1.25 W/m2K, single glazing), which represents the majority in the country, while the second is a
High-Energy-Performance building (with U-values of 0.35 W/m2K, double glazing), representing the
pilot project called ECO-BAT. Three of Algeria's regions were considered to evaluate the climatic effect of
Keywords:
Solar heating and cooling systems
solar systems integration. Algiers represents the coastal region; Djelfa, the highlands region; Tam-
High-energy-performance building anrasset, the Sahara region. In parametric study, two solar collectors' field parameters were analysed,
Dynamic simulation including the surface area and the tilt angle. The results indicated that building loads are significantly
Solar fraction reduced (12%, 44% and 22% for Algiers, Djelfa and Tamanrasset, respectively). The solar energy contri-
Parametric study bution is more than 60% for all cases, a significant contribution for an efficient building. In all cases, we
observed that the solar fraction reaches more than 45% when the optimum parameters of the solar
system are selected.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction residential buildings, a new program (called ECO-BAT) has been

A solar heating and cooling (SHC) system simultaneously pro-
duces thermal energy for heating during the winter season, cooling
during the summer season and domestic hot water all year long. In
the recent few years, many institutions and research have focused
on the SHC system [1e5] to promote their diffusion and reduce
their capital cost for residential and small commercial building
applications.
In Algeria, the building sector is the biggest energy consumer,
accounting for more than 41% of the overall energy consumption;
this value has steadily increased in recent years (10.8% between
2012 and 2013) [6,7]. To optimize energy consumption related to
* Corresponding author. Laboratoire de Me
canique des Fluides The
orique et

e, Faculte
Applique
de Physique, Universite

des Sciences et de la Technologie Houari
Boumediene, BP 32 El Alia 16111, Bab-Ezzouar, Algiers, Algeria.
E-mail address: sof.bahria@gmail.com (S. Bahria).
adopted, aiming to yield 600 apartments that comply with the high
energy performance standard. The buildings of this pilot program
are distributed over different climatic zones in the country of
Algeria. Another pilot project attempts to realize and develop solar
cooling systems based on adsorption and absorption process and
examines what fits are the best, in the Algerian context, with
respect to allowing for the reduction of fossil fuel consumption
(electric and gas) and harmful emissions to the environment (CO2).
A part of the present study provides some first evaluations of these
two pilot projects.
In the literature, several researchers have focused on the design
and development of solar thermal systems [8e13], while an SHC
system is rarely considered. Because the high cooling loads and
solar gains occur in the same months, the application of solar en-
ergy for air conditioning is a logical option [14]. In particular,
Gianpiero et [15] presented a thermal analysis of a new photo-
voltaicethermal (PVeT) solar panel design; also, combinations of

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2016.07.022
0360-5442/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
522 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535
different water flow rates and different panel configurations were
analysed to determine which one has the best performance in
terms of optimal PV efficiency and available thermal energy. In
another study [16], they tested experimentally a new type of
nanofluid thermal solar collector; the experimental results showed
an increase of thermal efficiency up to 11.7% [17,18] reviewed
several solar collectors and thermal energy storage systems,
including both non-concentrating collectors and concentrating
collectors. The integrated collector storage solar water heaters were
designed, constructed and experimentally studied by Souliotis et al.
[19]. Colangelo et al. [20] conducted an overview of the innovations
introduced with respect to the flat solar thermal collectors, taking
into account new materials, geometries and heat transfer fluids.
Colangelo et al. [21] experimentally analysed a new solution for a
reduced sedimentation flat panel solar thermal collector using
nanofluids as innovative heat transfer fluids for solar energy ap-
plications. In Ref. [22], recent advances in the design aspects of
solar water heating systems in terms of both energy efficiency and
cost effectiveness were presented.
The few studies of SHC systems in the literature differ with re-
gard to the type of procedure. Some studies included a parametric
study and cost analysis to determine the least cost systems [23,24],
while others were based on the development of mathematical
models [25]. More recent works used transient modelling [4,26,27];
most of these studies analysed only the case of European building
types in their climates. In particular, some significant works were
presented by Calise et al., who conducted dynamic simulation
studies for different plant layouts of SHC systems, driven by
different types of solar collectors (evacuated, PVeT and concen-
trating PVeT solar collectors) [4,14,28]. Buonomano et al. investi-
gated a novel transient simulation model [29]; in another study,
they presented different control strategies for thermal storage
management in an SHC system [30].
In this study, a parametric optimization of the SHC system by
using dynamic simulation is developed and two construction types
are compared to evaluate the solar fraction of heating and cooling
loads. The first construction (U ¼ 1.25 W/m2K, single glazing) does
not comply with energy regulations and reflects the majority of
buildings in Algeria due to lower prices and faster delivery time.
The second, a High-Energy-Performance (HEP) building
(U ¼ 0.35 W/m2K, double glazing), represents the building adopted
by the ECO-BAT pilot-project [31], which has the same size and
orientation.
Furthermore, this paper also includes a sensitivity analysis,
performed to evaluate the climatic effect on the potential integra-
tion of SHC systems. Three of Algeria's regions are considered.
Algiers represents the coastal region; Djelfa, the highlands region;
Tamanrasset, the Sahara region.
In the parametric study, two solar collectors' field parameters
are analysed, including the surface area and the tilt angle. In this
study, the TRANSOL software, based on dynamic simulation, is
used. This tool allows for sizing thermal solar systems using the
transient simulation tool TRNSYS power [32].
2. Methodology
To simulate the SHC system, the dynamic simulation software
TRANSOL has been used. This tool is based on dynamic simulation
(calculation with 1-h time steps is adopted) and has been devel-
oped with the TRNSYS simulation tool [33], which is a well-known
software diffusely adopted for both commercial and academic
purposes. The software includes a large library of built-in compo-
nents, often validated by experimental data [34].
The domestic hot water (DHW) loads are introduced, with the
choice of a daily consumption profile (see Fig. 1) [33]. In all cases, a
Fig. 1. Daily consumption profile of DHW.
morning profile that represents high DHW consumption in the
morning is selected as the input of our model. In Fig. 1, the hourly
coefficients of the DHW consumption rate, which are summed over
24 h, must be equal to 24 [32].
The software has an integrated building model, which allows for
the heating and cooling load calculation by introducing the build-
ing type parameters. The calculation is achieved by taking into
account the weather data established for each region, studied by
using the METEONORM software (TM2 file type).
The main model properties used in TRANSOL are [32]:
 One zone building model (the building is simulated as one
thermal zone),
 Restricted walls' and windows' database (the roof and the floor
are chosen automatically according to the wall types),
 Fixed shading devices inclusion: This step allows for defining
fixed shading elements (overhangs and wing walls) for each of
the four main orientations of the building [35],
 Internal gains computation,
 Automatic control of the gains due to artificial lighting systems:
A simple lighting control strategy based on the total horizontal
solar radiation is automatically defined (the lighting turns on
when the total horizontal solar radiation is under 120 W/m2 and
turns off when it is above 200 W/m2),
 Occupation rate and control profiles (heating, illumination, etc.),
fixed for residential use.
2.1. Systems description
This system is simulated using a scheme for DHW, i.e., heating
and cooling (SHC601) from the TRANSOL PRO 3.2 program [33], as
shown in Fig. 2. The system comprises a solar collector field and
solar and auxiliary tanks.
The solar collector field exchanges energy with the solar storage
through an external heat exchanger. The solar and auxiliary stor-
ages are connected by an immersed heat exchanger at the bottom
of the auxiliary tank. The auxiliary storage is also heated by a hy-
draulic auxiliary heater, which warms up through an immersed
exchange in the top of the auxiliary tank. In the distribution loop, a
recirculation flow can be defined to obtain the DHW consumption
temperature.
The thermally driven chiller is directly connected to the solar
storage and switches on when a cooling demand exists and the
 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535 523

Fig. 2. A solar thermal system for DHW production, space heating and cooling [32].

temperature in the solar tank is above the set point temperature. Table 1
The flow rate through the generator is constant; thus, the outlet Main system input parameters.

fluid is mixed at the inlet to adjust the power of the device. The Parameter description Value
tower return is always kept above a user defined temperature Solar collectors
thanks to a mixing valve with the inlet flow. Optical efficiency a0 76%
The cooling distribution loop is always simulated as a variable Loss coefficient a1 4.003 W/m2K
flow loop, with constant inlet and return temperatures. The space Loss coefficient a2 0.0150 W/m2K2
Unitary area 2 m2
heating loop can be powered by solar energy from the bottom of the
Thermal chiller
tank, and if this does not have sufficient energy, directly from the Nominal cooling power 10 kW
boiler. The auxiliary system works if the tank temperature is lower Nominal COP 0.6
than the set point temperature or if there is a space heating demand Electric power of auxiliaries 216 W
and the temperature in the solar tank is not high enough [29]. Electric chiller
Nominal cooling power 7.5 kW
Nominal COP 3
2.1.1. Solar collectors Set point temperature 7 C
In the present work, flat plate solar collectors (FPCs) are used. Cooling tower
These are widely used all over the world due to their low-cost, easy Air flow rate 12530 m3/h
Mass transfer constant 2.3
installation and cheap maintenance [20]; the different character-
Mass transfer exponent 0.72
istics of FPC are shown in Table 1. Fan electric consumption 0.63 kW
The collector area is calculated according to the following for- Fan minimum capacity 30%
mula [36]:

Pcooling 1
Ac ¼
COPcooling:nom hcol;nom
where Pcooling is the nominal cooling capacity (kW) of the cooling
system, COPcooling, nom is the nominal COP (performance coefficient)
of the cooling system, and hcol, nom is the nominal efficiency of the
solar collector at the demanded temperature for driving the cooling
system.
Considering a 10 kW nominal cooling capacity and using
equation (1), the required collector area is approximately 20 m2 of
the glazed flat-plate collector.
(1) performance can be obtained [30,37]. The recommended ratio be-
tween storage tank volume (V) and collector field area (Ac) is given
in Ref. [37], as follows:
0:05m  V=Ac  0:18m (2)
2
According to [36,38], the store volume is at least 50 L per m of
collector surface for the central European climate. In this study, a
volume of 75 L per m2 of the collector surface is considered.
Therefore, as mentioned above, if the total collector area is 20 m2,
then a solar storage tank of 1500 L is selected for all simulated cases.

2.1.2. Solar storage tank 2.1.3. Auxiliary storage systems

Several parametric studies of SHC systems have shown that by The total amount of water stored at 60  C in the auxiliary storage
varying the tank volume, a minor improvement of the system should be at least equal to the maximum demand at this
524 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535
temperature on the day with the most demand and assuming the
inexistence of the solar system [32,38]. In the present work, a
storage of 200 L is selected, considering that water at 60  C is mixed
with water at 25  C for a DHW demand of 215 L/day at 45  C.
2.1.4. Thermal chiller and cooling tower
The maximum cooling loads of the HEP and ordinary building
are not constant during the entire year, only during the summer
season. To cover all the cooling loads in all case studies, an ab-
sorption cooling machine of 10 kW is selected, with an electric
backup system of 7.5 kW. The cooling tower allows for evacuating
the heat extracted by the thermal chiller and is connected to the
condenser and the absorber by circulating cooling water. The pa-
rameters are presented in the following table (Table 1).
2.1.5. Cold water temperature
The cold water (network) temperature depends on the location
where the simulation is performed. A sinusoidal profile is gener-
ated from the minimum and maximum temperatures. Hence, the
temperature was calculated using equation (3) [39]; the results are
presented in Fig. 3.
 
Tmax  Tmin n2
Ts ¼ ðTmax þ Tmin Þ=2  h cos 2p
2 12
where
Tmin is the minimum temperature,
Tmax is the maximum temperature
n is the number of month
h is equal to 1 in the Northern Hemisphere and (1) in the
Southern Hemisphere.
2.2. The building description
The selected reference is a one floor building, defined in the
ECO-BAT pilot program (HEP building); see Fig. 4. The floor area,
including walls and access facilities, is 75 m2.
This building is oriented along the north axis. Because the sun is
lower in the sky in winter than in summer, the building captures
free heat in winter and rejects the heat in summer. Its dimensions
are shown in Fig. 5 [40].
The construction properties shown in Table 2 were selected
according to [33,41]. Note that the roof and the floor are chosen
automatically, according to the wall types, from the available
TRANSOL program options. For each region, two different
Fig. 3. Average monthly cold water temperature.
construction types are considered.
2.3. Description of the compared regions
The characteristic regions considered in the present work are
Algiers (ALG), Djelfa (DJE) and Tamanrasset (TAM); the weather
data are described below:
- Algiers (36.8 N, 3.1 E, 25 m) is in the coastal region, in the
temperate zone. It enjoys a mild, Mediterranean climate (Csa
Ko€ ppen climate classification) [42], with warm, dry summers
and mild, rainy winters. The monthly average temperatures in
summer vary between 21  C and 25  C, and in winter, drop to
approximately 11  Ce15  C; see Fig. 7. The winter is not cold,
with rare snow, but the humidity is high, with an annual hu-
midity average of 66.5% [43]. Algiers receives approximately
2756 h of sunshine and 546 mm of precipitation per year [44].
- Djelfa (34.7 N, 3.3 E, 1180 m) represents a highland region. The
climate is transitional between the Mediterranean climate and
desert climate (between BSk, BWk and BWh Ko €ppen climate
classifications) [42]. The temperatures are higher during sum-
mer, with lower air humidity (48.1%) [43]. Djelfa is significantly
colder than the other parts of the country due to its 1180-m
(3)
altitude above sea level. The region's weather is characterized
by daily and annual extreme temperatures, hot summers and
cold winters, and insufficient precipitation. Annual precipitation
varies from 100 to 400 mm. On average, Djelfa enjoys 3029 h of
sunshine per year [42,43].
- Tamanrasset (22.8 N, 5.4 E, 1362 m) represents the southern
desert region (Sahara). It is characterized by an arid climate
(BWh Ko €ppen climate classification) [42], with extremely low
annual rainfall of less than 70 mm per year. The winter is very
mild and the summer is hot. The monthly average temperature
increases from May to September, ranging from 25  C to 30  C;
see Fig. 7. Midday desert temperatures can be very hot. After
sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat and
the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temper-
ature are recorded (a daily range of 56  C has been recorded; this
value is generally accepted as the greatest daily range of tem-
perature to have been recorded on Earth) [45].
Fig. 6 shows the geographical location of Algiers, Djelfa and
Tamanrasset. The climatic data generated by Meteonorm Software
7.0 are presented in Fig. 7; the climatic conditions in the three re-
gions studied are shown in Table 3. The climate zones are given
according to the Algerian technical regulations for building con-
struction [45].
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Validation
To confirm the simulation model in this study, we compare two
SHC systems with the same initial conditions for reference and a
simulation case. For this, we use the monitoring results of the SHC
system installed in Graz (Austria) presented in IEA Task 38 [2]. The
system employs a closed absorption cycle for generating cooling
energy. The cold water generated by the absorption machine is
used to cover internal and external heat gains. In winter, the solar
collectors are assisted by the conventional space heating. In sum-
mer and in winter, the solar generated heat is stored in one buffer
storage and all energy demand is taken out of it [2]. Table 4 sum-
marizes the description of the installation.
The values of output are given for both the reference and
simulation system in Fig. 8. The results show that the cooling needs
 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535 525

Fig. 4. Building face considered and adopted in the ECO-BAT pilot-project [40].

Fig. 5. The plan of a typical house considered [40].

can be covered by the solar energy resources between April to
September, while the heating needs are not totally covered due to
the inverse relationship between the solar gain and heating loads in
winter seasons. The comparison shows that the mean deviation
between the cooling production values is approximately 3%, but the
deviation of total heating production (7%) is most notable. It is also
noted that the deviation of the solar field production is approxi-
mately 6.6% (333 kWh/m2 in the experiment and 311 kWh/m2 in
simulation). Therefore, it can be assumed that the SHC system
model is simulated with an acceptable degree of accuracy and the
526 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535

Table 2
Parameters used for the reference building.

Case A (ordinary building) Case B (HEP building)

Walls Cement mortar 2 cm, Hollow brick 10 cm, Cement mortar 2 cm, Hollow brick 10 cm, Exp. Polystyrene 9 cm,
air cavity 10 cm, Hollow brick 10 cm, plaster 2 cm. Hollow brick 10 cm, plaster 2 cm.
U (W/m2K) 1.25 0.35
The type of window Clear, single Clear, double, with 8 mm air gap
U (W/m2K) 1.25 0.35

Common characteristics

Floors number 1
Windows (%) South 19, north 20, west 0 and east 0
Infiltration) 1/h ( 0.8
Specific gains (W/m2) 15
Occupation rate (m2) 0.06
Specific lighting (W/m2) 10

simulation results are in good agreement with those of the
experiment.
3.2. Analysis of the cooling and heating loads
Figs. 9e11 display the monthly cooling and heating loads of HEP
and ordinary building types for the selected regions. The analysis of
the heating and cooling demands for the three regions studied
showed that the Djelfa region is the coldest because it is located in
the highlands (1180 m of altitude), with a maximum demand in
January of 28.82 kWh/m2 for case A and 9.9 kWh/m2 for case B
(Fig. 10).
As shown in Figs. 9 and 10, in the Algiers and Djelfa regions, the
heating season lasts 8 months and the cooling period, 4 months.

Fig. 6. Geographical location of Algiers, Djelfa and Tamanrasset with global horizontal irradiation, Average annual sum, period 1994e2010 [46].
 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535 527

Fig. 7. Global Horizontal irradiation and average ambient temperature in Algiers, Djelfa and Tamanrasset.

Table 3 Note that the heating loads of the HEP building (case B) have
Climatic conditions in the three studied regions [48,47,49]. decreased by approximately 58% in Algeria, 72% in Djelfa and 12% in
City Algiers Djelfa Tamanrasset Tamanrasset, with a maximum of 133 kWh/m2/year in the Djelfa
Coordinates  
36.8 N, 3.1 E  
34.7 N, 3.3 E 22.8 N, 5.4 E
region (case A), while the region of Tamanrasset presents a
Region Littoral Highlands Sahara maximum cooling load of 84 kWh/m2/year. We also note that for
Climate zone A D1 and C D1and D2 the same type of building, the DHW loads are constant and inde-
Tmax  C 26 29 30 pendent of the building type. This finding is observed because the
Tmin  C 10 5 13
calculation is only based on the network's cold water temperature
Altitude m 25 1180 1362
Humidity % 72 48 20 (Equation (2)). The comparison of two cases indicates the
Sunshine h 2920 3088 3402 decreasing of total loads by 12%, 44% and 22% for Algiers, Djelfa and
Tamanrasset, respectively. Increase of the cooling loads in case B
can be explained by the climatic conditions of the Sahara region;
Table 4 consequently, the high internal gains are produced by solar radia-
Main parameters of the SHC system. tion, metabolism, and heat dissipation of electrical appliances. In
Solar thermal description
this case, the thermal insulation itself becomes insignificant [50].
Collector type High temperature flat-plate
Brand of collector €
OkoTech Gluatmugl HT 3.3. Solar fraction analysis
Collector area 60 m2 gross area

Tilt angle, orientation 11 , south
Collector fluid Water-glycol Table 6 shows the solar fraction for cooling, heating and DHW
Typical operation temperature 88  C driving temperature for different cases. Generally, we note that the solar fraction is best
Heat storage 2 m3 waters in case B in the three regions. The maximum is achieved in the case
Cold storage 0.2 m3 waters of the Tamanrasset region when the heating requirement is low
Air-conditioning unit
Brand of chiller unit Yazaki WFC SC5
(Fig. 11); in this case, the DWH and heating loads are completely
Type of closed system Absorption covered by solar energy. We also note that for all regions studied,
Cooling capacity 17.5 kW the solar fraction of DHW loads is higher than 80% due to the
Nominal COP 0.7 average solar energy received (see Fig. 7). The solar fraction of DHW
Chilled water application Chilled ceilings
varies in the same region, while the loads remain constant, which is
Heat rejection system Hybrid cooling tower
due to the fact that the solar tank is placed inside the building.
The solar and auxiliary contribution to cooling, heating and
DHW for all case studies are given in Fig. 12. Note that the solar
The reverse is observed in Tamanrasset; see Fig. 11 (i.e., 8 months contribution of the DHW is approximately 4000 kWh for Algiers
for the cooling period and 4 months for the heating season). In this and Djelfa and 5000 kWh for Tamanrasset. Additionally, the
region, the maximum cooling loads reached 18.42 kWh/m2 for the auxiliary contribution of the DHW is between 700 and 1500 kWh
ordinary building and 15.38 kWh/m2 for the HEP building. for Algiers and Djelfa and almost zero for Tamanrasset. This is due
Table 5 summarize the annual loads for all cases; it shows that to the solar potential in this region.
heating loads in case A are significantly higher than those in case B; Fig. 12 also shows that the solar and auxiliary heating contri-
however, the cooling loads are not greatly changed due to the bution is proportional to the total heat loss coefficient U; the largest
ventilation rate being fixed all year at 0.8 per hour. Additionally, values are shown in the Djelfa region where the heating loads are
given that the loads depend on the internal gains (15 W/m2), the greater. However, the auxiliary contribution is very low in the
increase of level insulation makes it harder to reject heat in the Tamanrasset region; consequently, the heating loads are
summer. completely covered by solar energy. We note that the solar
528 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535

Fig. 8. Comparison of the system energy management over a one year measuring period.

Fig. 11. Monthly cooling and heating demands in Tamanrasset region.

Fig. 9. Monthly cooling and heating demands in Algiers.

Table 5
System total required demand analysis.

ALG DJE TAM

Cases Case A Case B Case A Case B Case A Case B

DHW (kWh/m2/year) 33 33 35 35 29 29
Heating (kWh/m2/year) 37 16 133 38 37 4
Cooling (kWh/m2/year) 28 38 44 46 84 83
Total (kWh/m2/year) 99 87 212 118 150 117

Table 6
Solar fraction for cooling, heating and DHW in different cases.

ALG DJE TAM

Cases Case A Case B Case A Case B Case A Case B

DHW (%) 82.0 91.2 80.9 91.3 98.4 100.0
Heating (%) 52.7 87.1 47.5 74.1 90.9 98.7
Cooling (%) 28.0 24.1 31.4 33.9 30.5 35.7

Fig. 10. Monthly cooling and heating demand in Djelfa region.

Table 7 shows the solar and auxiliary total contribution for

contribution for the cooling loads is very close to the same region, different building loads. It is generally noted that the solar contri-
with a maximum of 3157 kWh at Tamanrasset, while the auxiliary bution is more important than the auxiliary contribution. An or-
contribution is almost identical to that of Algiers, but for Djelfa and dinary building (case A) in the region of Algiers consumes 2 times
Tamanrasset, is proportional to the thermal loss. more auxiliary energy compared to the HEP building type (case B).
 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535
Fig. 12. Solar and auxiliary contribution for cooling, heating and DHW for all case
studies.
The comparison shows that the solar contribution in the Djelfa
region is greater than 20% compared with Algiers (for both cases);
it's the same for the Tamanrasset region, whereas the auxiliary
energy takes the highest value of 8357 kWh for case A at Djelfa (as a
result of the large heating loads of 212 kW/m2/year), representing a
37% and 47% increase compared to Algiers and Tamanrasset,
respectively.
3.4. Parametric study
3.4.1. The effect of the building shell on the internal temperatures
The effect of the building shell on the internal temperatures for
two cases (with and without SHC systems) is presented in Fig. 13.
The three studied regions are considered. The simulation is per-
formed during the whole year, but only the periods of high demand
are presented (5 days of January and August). The figure shows that
all cases without the SHC system present outside thermal comfort
temperatures lower than 19  C, which is the recommended tem-
perature for the winter season, and higher than 26  C, i.e., the
recommended temperature for summer. For the cases without the
SHC system and for the winter season, the inside temperature of the
HEP building (case B) increased by 4  Ce5  C compared with the
ordinary building (case A) for all studied regions. This effect is
explained by increasing the insulation level, therefore decreasing
heat losses of the building shell (the lower the U-value, the greater
the building resistance to heat losses). On the other hand, for the
cooling season, the inside building temperature in case B remains
higher than that in case A within the gap of 2e3  C; this is due to
the effect of thermal inertia, ventilation rate constant during the
year, and large internal gains, which make it difficult to remove
heat from the inside to outside of the building.
For the cases with the SHC system, in the heating period, the
temperature is maintained between 15  C at night and 22  C during
the day. We see that the temperature drops considerably in case A
(low insulation, U ¼ 1.25 W/m2K), which can be explained by the
effect of thermal inertia when the wall acts to retard heat transfer
from the exterior to the interior during the day. The same remark
Table 7
Solar and auxiliary total contribution.
ALG
2
U (W/m K) Case A
Total solar contribution (kWh) 8583
Total auxiliary contribution (kWh) 5276
529
can be made for all three regions. For the cooling period, the
building temperatures are identical to the cooling set point tem-
perature (26  C). This is due to the high loads of cooling in the
selected period; see Figs. 9e11.
3.4.2. The effect of collector area
In this part, the analysis was restricted to the HEP building types
only (U ¼ 0.35 W/m2K); the surface of the solar collector (Ac) and
the tilt angle (a) were varied within the limits defined by the study
objectives (8 m2 < Ac < 40 m2 and 0 < a < 90 ) to find the optimal
that maximizes the performances of the solar system. However, it is
very important to note that the optimization goals of a solar ther-
mal system aren't always necessary to collect the maximum energy
throughout the year [51]. However, the goal is to ensure the
maximum solar contribution while avoiding overheating to pre-
serve the solar system lifetimes as long as possible.
The effect of the solar collector area on the monthly solar frac-
tion for DHW, heating and cooling loads is shown in Figs. 14e16,
respectively. The figures show proportionality between the
monthly solar fraction and the collector area (Ac). From April to
October, a maximum of 100% of the DHW solar fraction is reached
when the surface is superior to 36 m2 at Algiers and Djelfa, but for
Tamanrasset, 100% of the DHW loads are covered for Ac more than
24 m2 all year. The figure also indicates that 50% of the DHW loads
are assured from 28 m2 in Algiers; from this last surface, the annual
solar fraction is approximately 84% (Fig. 14d).
We note that for a collector area of 36 m2, the monthly solar
fraction of heating (SF-H) increases at a lower rate, i.e., approxi-
mately 68% and 85% for Algiers and Djelfa, respectively. An excep-
tion is noted in the region of Tamanrasset, when 100% of the space
heating demand is covered for Ac more than 20 m2 all year. This is
due to the limitation of the system to store heat in the solar storage
tank; the same was reported by Ref. [23]. We also note that the
maximum solar fraction is reached in the months of low loads for
heating (April, May and October) (Fig. 14b) and for cooling (June
and September) (Fig. 14c).
The annual solar fraction of cooling (SF-C) (Fig. 14d) indicates
that it is null for a surface of 8 m2 (the same observations for the
Djelfa and Tamanrasset regions are shown in Figs. 15d and 16d,
respectively). The reason for this behaviour is the insufficient solar
energy received by the collector area (Ac  8 m2) to heat the vol-
ume of 1500 L of the solar tank, which ensures the thermal chiller
operation (the set point temperature of the generator is fixed at
85  C). Looking at the plot of annual SF-C versus Ac (Figs. 14d, 15d
and 16d), we see that a straight line can be drawn through the
data points (Ac < 30 m2 for Algiers, Ac < 26 m2 for Djelfa and
Ac < 32 m2 for Tamanrasset). We find the equation of this straight
line and then predict the annual SF-C at any collector area. By
comparing the values of successive slopes (0.2 for Algiers, 0.18 for
Djelfa and 0.25 for Tamanrasset), we see that they are almost equal.
Furthermore, the annual SF-C reached its maximum for
Ac  30 m2 at Algiers, Ac  26 m2 at Djelfa and Ac  32 m2 at
Tamanrasset, as shown in the following figures.
To reduce the effect of overheating and according to many
studies [36,51e53], the solar fraction of cooling should not exceed
80%. Given this value, the optimal surface area of collectors is 24 m2
DJE TAM
Case B Case A Case B Case A Case B
7105 10,789 9041 10,852 9336
2601 8357 3306 4428 3727
530 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535

Fig. 13. Effect of the building shell on the air temperature with and without SHC system.

Fig. 14. Effect of the collectors areas on the monthly solar fraction for DHW, heating and cooling loads in Algiers region.
 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535 531

Fig. 15. Effect of the collector areas on the monthly solar fraction for DHW, heating and cooling loads in Djelfa region.

Fig. 16. Effect of the collector areas on the monthly solar fraction for DHW, heating and cooling loads in Tamanrasset region.

in Algiers and Djelfa (representing 32% of the living space area) and
approximately 28 m2 in Tamanrasset (representing 38% of the living
space area).
3.4.3. The effect of the solar collector tilt angle
Figs. 17e19 show the effect of the tilt angle (a) on the monthly
and annual Solar Fraction for DHW (SF-DHW), Heating (SF-H) and
Cooling (SF-C) loads in the studied regions. For Algiers and Djelfa,
we note the same trend of the tilt angle effect; this is due to the
resemblance in all loads. Additionally, given that both regions share
the Mediterranean climate, when the tilt is less than 60 , the SF-
DHW follows the trend of the incident solar radiation (see Fig. 7),
while for 60 <a < 90 , the solar fraction decreases from March to
April and is null for July and August when the sun is high in the sky.
This means that using a tilt close to vertical is not a suitable choice
for collecting solar energy. We also note that the SF-DHW is greater
than 40% for all months when the tilt is between 40 and 70 for
Algiers and between 30 and 70 for Djelfa. It reaches the maximum
in summer due to the region latitude and the high cold network
water temperature (approximately 25  C) in summer (see Fig. 3).
As can be observed in Figs. 17d and 18d, the annual SF-DWH is
higher than 60% for a large tilt variation (0 <a < 70 ), with a
532 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535

Fig. 17. Effect of the tilt angle on the monthly and annual solar fraction for DHW, heating and cooling loads in Algiers region.

Fig. 18. Effect of the tilt angle on the monthly solar fraction for DHW, heating and cooling loads in Djelfa region.

stability of approximately 75% between 20 and 60 . In the case of
the Tamanrasset region (Fig. 14a), the annual SF-DWH reaches the
maximum value when the collectors are tilted at less than 60 . This
value decreases considerably, reaching 50% in the vertical position
(90 ).
In the Algiers region, we note that more than 30% of the heating
loads are covered by solar energy when 40 a  80 , as shown in
Fig. 17b. The maximum of SF-H is reached in May and October. As a
result, the heating loads are low (less than 3 kWh/m2). The annual
SF-H reported in Fig. 17d remains constant (approximately 50%) for
30  a  60 . It is also noted that it is still more than 25%
throughout the rest of the year.
Fig. 17c shows that the SF-C is greater than 70% for the month of
June when 0  a  20 and for September when 20  a  50 ,
while the month of August presents the lowest fraction (when
loads are high: 5.6 kWh/m2). Moreover, the annual SF-C takes a
 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535
Fig. 19. Effect of the tilt angle on the monthly solar fraction for DHW, heating and cooling loads in Tamanrasset region.
maximum of 60% for 15  a  25 and decreases considerably with
increasing tilt angle, whereas for tilt greater than 80 , it's almost
null all year. This change can be explained by the decreasing of solar
radiation received in the vertical position while south-facing,
especially at solar noon, which includes the most solar radiation
during the day and corresponds to the maximum time-of-use of
cooling systems.
In the case of the Djelfa region (Fig. 18), we note that for autumn
and winter (except October, when the loads are low), 40% of the
heating loads are covered by solar energy for 40  a  70 . It
doubles in spring (over 75%) for 20  a  70 . The monthly SF-C is
more than 50% for a  35 , with a maximum of 60% at 20 . The
reason for this result is the high altitude of the sun in summer
months. Consequently, solar radiation is perpendicular for some
hours of the day, which causes the optimum tilt angles in summer
months to have minimum values. On the other hand, in the winter
season, the optimum tilt angles present the highest values due to
the low altitude of the sun during these months.
The Tamanrasset region is characterized by a period of long-
term cooling (April to October). Given the high cooling loads
(Fig. 11), the SF-C is always lower than the SF-H and SF-DHW. Note
that SF-H is more than 80%, regardless of the tilt variation. This is
due to the low heating loads in this region. Comparing the three
annual fractions (DHW, Heating and cooling), we find that the SF-C
is the most sensitive to the tilt variation; the maximum SF-C
(approximately 63%) is reached when a is less than 20 (see Fig. 19).
As a result, the annual solar fraction of DHW is higher than 60%
for a large tilt variation. The criteria for selecting the optimal angle
is based on the most significant loads (heating or cooling). For
Algiers and Djelfa, the heating loads are dominant. The results
show that the annual solar fraction is at maximum between 35
and 55 . Consequently, we choose the optimal tilt angle when the
solar fraction of cooling is the largest possible, which yields 35 for
Djelfa and Algiers (corresponding to 50% of SF-H and SF-C). For
Tamanrasset, the cooling load is dominant and the optimum tilt
angle varies between 0 and 20 . To reduce the overheating effect
during summer, a tilt angle of 5 is suggested (0 is not recom-
mended because of the risk of rain accumulation).
533
4. Conclusions
In the present work, a parametric study of solar heating and
cooling systems in different climates of Algeria is carried out. A
comparison is made between two construction types located in
three of Algeria's regions. The results are obtained through annual
simulation using the TRANSOL program. This analysis aims, on the
one hand, to help engineers and designers to assess the impact of
HEP buildings on the heating and cooling loads compared to or-
dinary buildings (ECO-BAT pilot-project). We find that the total
loads are reduced by 12%, 44% and 22% for Algiers, Djelfa and
Tamanrasset, respectively. On the other hand, to show the adap-
tation of the SHC system to the Algerian Climate (adopted for the
national plan program of the renewable energy and energy effi-
ciency 2011e2030), we conclude that in all cases, the solar fraction
is more than 45% when the optimal parameters of the SHC system
are selected.
The results show that increasing the insulation level has a direct
impact on the inside building temperature. For all studied regions,
the results show an improvement of 4  Ce5  C for winter without
the SHC system. Note that the heating loads of the HEP building
(case B) decreased by approximately 58% in Algeria, 72% in Djelfa
and 12% in Tamanrasset compared with the ordinary building (case
A). The analysis of the heating and cooling demands shows that the
Djelfa region is the coldest (heating loads reached 133 kWh/m2 for
case A and 38 kWh/m2 for case B), while Tamanrasset is the hottest
region (cooling loads reached 83 kWh/m2 for the ordinary building
and 8 kWh/m2 for the HEP building). It is reasonable to conclude
that increasing the thermal inertia is important in winter but is
insufficient in summer, when it is necessary to take into account the
effect of other parameters (ventilation rate, internal gain, fixed and
movable sun protection). Moreover, it would be interesting to
evaluate the effect of these parameters on the building loads in
future work.
The result shows proportionality between the monthly solar
fraction and the collector area. We find that the optimal surface
area of collectors is 24 m2 in Algiers and Djelfa (representing 32% of
the living space area) and approximately 28 m2 in Tamanrasset
534 S. Bahria et al. / Energy 113 (2016) 521e535

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