SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 4 PROBLEMS: DISTRIBUTED GENERATION

4.1 A natural-gas-fired microturbine has an overall efficiency of 26 percent when

expressed on a LHV basis. Using data from Table 4.2, find the efficiency expressed
on an HHV basis.
4.1 SOLN:
From Table 4.2, LHV = 20,273, which means the electrical output per unit of fuel is
20,273 Btu/lbm x 0.26
Electricity/fuel = = 1.5448 kWh/lbm
3412 Btu/kWh
That ratio won’t depend on whether LHV or HHV values are used. From Table 4.2,
the HHV of natural gas is 22,500 Btu/lbm, so we can write
22,500 Btu/lbm x η HHV
Electricity/fuel = = 1.5448 kWh/lbm
3412 Btu/kWh
3412 x 1.5448
ηHHV = = 0.234 = 23.4%
22, 500
We also could have simply used (4.1)
LHV ⎛ 20,273 ⎞
ηHHV = η LHV ⋅ = 0.26 = 0.234 = 23.4%
HHV ⎝ 22,500 ⎠

4.2 On a HHV basis, a 600 MW coal-fired power plant has a heat rate of 9700
Btu/kWh. The particular coal being burned is a low-grade, moist lignite with an
LHV of 5957 Btu/lbm and an HHV of 6440 Btu/lbm.
a. What is its HHV efficiency?
b. What is its LHV efficiency?
c. At what rate will coal have to be supplied to the plant (tons/hr)?
4.2 SOLN:
a. From (3.16)
3412 Btu/kWh
ηHHV = = 0.352 = 35.2%
9700 Btu/kWh
b. From (4.1)
HHV 6440 Btu / lbm
ηLHV = η HHV ⋅ = 0.352 ⋅ = 0.380 = 38.0%
LHV 5957 Btu / lbm
c. Fuel rate is

Chap 4 REEPS, G. Masters Pg. 1 2/9/10

 9700 Btu/kWh ton
Fuel rate = 600 x 10 3 kW ⋅ ⋅ = 452 tons/hr
6440 Btu/lbm 2000 lbm
4.3 A natural-gas fueled, 250-kW, solid-oxide fuel cell with a heat rate of 7260
Btu/kWh costs $1.5 million. In its cogeneration mode, 300,000 Btu/hr of exhaust
heat is recovered, displacing the need for heat that would have been provided from
a 75-percent efficient gas-fired boiler. Natural gas costs $5 per million Btu and
electricity purchased from the utility costs $0.10/kWh. The system operates with a
capacity factor of 80 percent.
a. What is the value of the fuel saved by the waste heat ($/yr)?
b. What is the savings associated with not having to purchase utility electricity ($/yr)?
c. What is the annual cost of natural gas for the system?
d. With annual O&M costs equal to 2 percent of the capital cost, what is the net
annual savings of the system?
e. What is the simple payback (ratio of initial investment to annual savings)?
4.3 SOLN:
a. Fuel saved by waste heat:
300,000 Btu/hr $5
Boiler fuel savings = x 6 x 0.80 x 8760 hr/yr = $14,016/yr
0.75 10
b. Electricity savings:
Electricity savings = 250 kW x 0.8 x 8760 hr/yr x $0.10/kWh = $175,200/yr
c. Annual cost of gas for the system:
$5
Gas cost = 250 kW x 7260 Btu/kWh x 0.80 x 8760 hr/yr x = $63, 598/yr
10 6 Btu
d. Annual savings:
Savings = gas + electric savings – fuel cost – O&M
Annual savings = $14,016 + $175,200 - $63,598 – 0.02 x $1.5x106 = $95,618/yr
e. Simple payback
$1.5 x106
Simple payback = = 15.6 yrs
$95,618/yr
4.4 Suppose 200 gpm of water is taken from a creek and delivered through 800 feet of
pipe to a turbine100 ft lower than the source. The turbine/generator at the end of the
pipe has an efficiency of 40 percent.

Chap 4 REEPS, G. Masters Pg. 2 2/9/10

a. What fraction of the original head will be lost in the pipe?
b. What would be the flow speed in the pipe (ft/s)?
c. What would be the electrical energy delivered in a 30-day month?
4.4 SOLN:
a. From Figure 4.19, at 200 gpm, 3-in. PVC loses about 6 feet of head for every 100
feet of length. Since we have 800 feet of pipe, the friction loss is
Friction Loss = 800 ft x 6 ft/100 ft = 48 ft of head loss
That is 48 percent of the 100 feet of available elevation head.
b. Flow speed in the pipe is
Q 200 gpm
v= = = 9.08 ft/s
A π ⎛ 3 ⎞ 448.8 gpm
2
⋅ ft ⋅
4 ⎝ 12 ⎠ ft 3 / s
c. Energy delivered
e Q(gpm) H N ( ft) 0.40 x 200 x (100 - 48)
P(W ) = = = 785 W
5.30 5.30
Energy = 0.785 kW x 30 d/mo x 24 hr/d = 565 kWh/mo
4.5 The site in Problem 4.4 has a flow rate of 200 gpm, 100 foot elevation change, and
800 foot length of pipe, but there is excessive friction loss in the pipe.
a. What internal pipe diameter would keep flow to less than a recommended speed of
5 feet per second?
b. Assuming locally available PVC pipe comes in 1-inch diameter increments (2-in, 3-
in, etc), pick a pipe size closest to the recommended diameter.
c. Find the kWh/month delivered by the 40-percent efficient turbine/generator.
d. With a 4-nozzle pelton wheel, what diameter jets would be appropriate?
4.5 SOLN:
a. To keep flow to less than 5 ft/s
Q 200 gal/min π
A= = 3
= 0.08912 ft2 = D2
v 5 ft/s x 60 s/min x 7.4805 gal/ft 4
4 x 0.08912 ft 2 144 in 2
D= x = 4.04 in 2
π ft 2

b. Choose 4-in PVC pipe (speed will be slightly higher than the guideline)
c. Energy delivered

Chap 4 REEPS, G. Masters Pg. 3 2/9/10

 From Fig. (4.19), friction loss will now be about 1,8 ft/100 ft
Friction loss = 800 ft x 1.8 ft/100 ft = 14,4 ft
Power delivered would be
e Q(gpm) H N ( ft) 0.40 x 200 x (100 -14.4)
P(W ) = = = 1292 W
5.30 5.30
Energy delivered would be
Energy = 1.292 kW x 30 d/mo x 24 hr/d = 930 kWh/mo
... an increase of 65% compared with the 565 kWh/mo using 3-in pipe
d. Jet diameter from (4.16)
0.949 Q
d=
( gHN )
1/ 4
n

200 gal ft3 min

HN = 100 − 14.4 = 85.6 ft and Q = ⋅ ⋅ = 0.4456 ft3 / s
min 7.4805 gal 60 s

0.949 Q 0.949 0.4456 ft 3 /s

d= = = 0.0437 ft = 0.52 in
( gHN ) n (32.2 ft/s2 x 85.6 ft )
1/4 1/4
4

4.6 The rectangular weir flow equation is based on water height h above the notch being
at least 2 inches while the notch width must be at least 3 h . Design a notch (width
and height) that will be able to measure the maximum flow when the minimum flow
is estimated to be 200 gpm. What maximum flow rate could be accommodated?

W> 3h
h > 2 in.

4.6 SOLN:
To keep the water height at least 2 inches above the notch at the lowest flow rate,
(4.13) suggests
Q 200
W≤ 3/2 + 0.2h = + 0.2x2 = 24.8 in
2.9 h 2.9 ⋅ 23/2
Use the maximum width to accommodate the highest flows, so
h ≤ W/3 = 24.8/3 = 8.27 in
The flow rate that would correspond to h = 8.27 with W = 24.8 is

Chap 4 REEPS, G. Masters Pg. 4 2/9/10

 Q = 2.9(W - 0.2h )h3/ 2 = 2.9(24.8 − 0.2x8.27)(8.27)
3/ 2
= 1596 gpm

4.7 Use enthalpies from Table 4.6 to compute the following heating values (kJ/kg) when
they are oxidized to CO2 and H2O:
a. LHV of H2 (Molecular Weight = 2.016)
b. HHV of H2
c. LHV of methane, CH4 (M.W. = 16.043)
d. LHV of liquid methanol CH3OH (M.W. = 32,043)
e. HHV of methanol, CH3OH (l)
4.7 SOLN:
a. LHV of H2 produces gaseous water
1
H2 + O → H2 O ( g)
2 2
0 + 1/2 ⋅0 - 241.8
241.8 kJ/mol
LHV = ⋅1000 g/ kg = 119, 940 kJ / kg
2.016 g/mol
b. HHV of H2 produces liquid water
285.8 kJ/mol
HHV = ⋅1000 g/ kg = 141,766 kJ / kg
2.016 g/mol
c. LHV of CH4
CH4 + 2O2 → 2H2 O ( g) + CO2
(-74.9) + 2 ⋅(0) 2 ⋅ (-241.8) (-393.5)
ΔH = [2 ⋅ (-241.8) + (-393.5)] − [(-74.9)+ 2 ⋅(0)] = −802.2
802.2 kJ/mol
LHV = ⋅1000 g / kg = 50,003 kJ / kg
16.043 g/mol
d. LHV of CH3OH
3
CH3OH + O → 2H2 O (g) + CO2
2 2
(-238.7) + 2⋅ (0) 2 ⋅ (-241.8) (-393.5)
ΔH = [2 ⋅ (-241.8) + (-393.5)] − [(-238.7)+ 2 ⋅(0)] = −638.4 kJ/mol
638.4 kJ/mol
LHV = ⋅1000 g/ kg = 19, 923 kJ / kg
32.043 g/mol
e. HHV of CH3OH

Chap 4 REEPS, G. Masters Pg. 5 2/9/10

 3
CH3OH + O → 2H2 O (l ) + CO2
2 2
(-238.7) + 2⋅ (0) 2 ⋅ (-285.8) (-393.5)
ΔH = [2 ⋅ (-285.8) + (-393.5)] − [(-238.7)+ 2 ⋅(0)] = −726.4 kJ/mol
726.4 kJ/mol
LHV = ⋅1000 g/ kg = 22,670 kJ / kg
32.043 g/mol
4.8 Suppose a methanol fuel cell forms liquid water during its operation. Assuming
everything is at STP conditions:
a. What minimum amount of heat must be rejected in order to satisfy entropy
constraints (kJ/mol)?
b. What maximum efficiency could the fuel cell have using the calculation in (b)?
c. What maximum efficiency could the fuel cell have using the Gibbs free energy
approach?
4.8 SOLN:
a. Minimum heat rejected
3
CH3OH + O → 2H2 O (l ) + CO2
2 2
Using entropies from Table 4.6:

∑S REACTANTS = 0.1268 + 1.5 ⋅ 0.205 = 0.4343kJ / K

∑S PRODUCTS = 2 ⋅ 0.0699 + 0.213 = 0.3528kJ / K

Qmin = T( ΣSREACTANTS − ΣSPRODUCTS ) = 298( 0.4343 − 0.3528) = 24.29kJ/mol
b. Maximum efficiency at minimum heat rejection
3
CH3OH + O → 2H2 O (l ) + CO2
2 2
(-238.7) + 2⋅ (0) 2 ⋅ (-285.8) (-393.5)
ΔH = [2 ⋅ (-285.8) + (-393.5)] − [(-238.7)+ 2 ⋅(0)] = −726.4 kJ/mol
Qmin 24.29
ηmax = 1− = 1− = 0.967 = 96.7%
ΔH 726.4
c. Using Gibbs free energy
3
CH3OH + O → 2H2 O (l ) + CO2
2 2
(-166.4) 2 ⋅(0) 2⋅ (-237.2) (-394.4 )
ΔG = [ 2 ⋅ (−237.2 ) + ( −394.4)] − [ 2⋅ (0) + ( −166.4 )] = −702.4kJ / mol

Chap 4 REEPS, G. Masters Pg. 6 2/9/10

 ΔG −702.4
ηmax = = = 0.967 = 96.7%
ΔH −726.4

4.9 Equation (4.38) indicates that an ideal PEM cell needs 30.35 g H2 to produce one
kWh of electrical output. Suppose an electric car can travel 10 miles per kWh.
How much hydrogen would be needed to give the car a range of 300 miles if the
source of electricity is an on-board fuel cell with an efficiency that is 50 percent of
the ideal?
4.9 SOLN:

With a 50 percent “de-rating,” the fuel cell will need 2 x 0.03035 kg H2 / kWh. For a
range of 300 miles, at 10 miles/ kWh, the car needs
300 miles 2 ⋅0.03035 kg H2
Hydrogen = x = 1.8 kg H2
10 miles/kWh kWh

4.10 An ideal PEM fuel cell with an efficiency of 83 percent needs 30.35 g of hydrogen
to generate 1 kWh. For a real cell with half that efficiency, how much hydrogen per
day would be needed to power a house that uses 25 kWh per day?

4.10 SOLN:
30.35 g H2
Hydrogen = 25 kWh/d ⋅2 ⋅ = 1517 g H2 / d ≈ 1.5 kg/day
kWh

Chap 4 REEPS, G. Masters Pg. 7 2/9/10