Soil Mechanics-Ver1 PDF

Soil Mechanics
For Civil Engineering Students
Lecture Notes
Alsidqi Hasan
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Contents
1 Introduction 6
1.1 Basic definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Origin and formation of soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Soil Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Soil structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Clay mineralogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2 Soil Composition and Weight Volume Relationships 25

2.1 Components of soil and phase diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Definitions of void ratio, porosity, specific gravity, unit weights/density,
and degree of saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Relationship between the basic quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 Soil Classification and Classification Tests 37

3.1 Moisture Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Stresses in Soils 41
2
CONTENTS
4.1 Concept of Effective Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.2 Total Stress, Pore water pressure and Effective Stress . . . . . . . . 42
4.3 Effect of water table fluctuation on effective stress . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Effects of capillarity on effective stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5 Flow of Water through Soils 43

5.1 Surface tension and capillary rise in soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2 Permeability - Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3 Laboratory and field method of determination of permeability . . . 44
5.4 Factors affecting permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.5 Vertical and horizontal permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.6 Permeability of stratified soil deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6 Compaction 45
6.1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
6.2 Standard Proctor Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Modified Proctor Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.4 Field Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
6.5 Field Compaction Control Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3
CONTENTS
6.6 Relative Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7 Compressibility 60
7.1 One-dimensional compression of soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.2 Spring Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.3 Oedometer/Consolidation Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.4 e vs log p relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.5 Consolidation Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.6 Normally Consolidated Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.7 Overconsolidated Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.8 Preconsolidation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.9 Rate and Degree of Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.10 Coefficient of Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8 Shear Strength 96
8.1 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.1.1 Mohr Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.1.2 Coulomb’s Failure Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
8.2 Stress Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4
CONTENTS
8.3 Determination of Shear Strength Parameters in Laboratory . . . . . 117

8.4 Direct Shear Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.5 Unconfined Compression Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.6 Triaxial Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.6.1 Triaxial Test: Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) . . . . . . . . 132
8.6.2 Triaxial Test: Consolidated Undrained (CU) . . . . . . . . . 137
8.6.3 Triaxial Test: Consolidated Drained (CD) . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.7 Undrained Shear Strength/Cohesion of Normally Consolidated and
Overconsolidated Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5
Chapter 1: Introduction
Expected Course Outcomes for Chapter 1-5:
• Classify the physical properties of soil, effective stresses and flow

of water through soil. )
• Level of domain is C4 (Analysis)
Program Outcomes:
• Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering funda-

mentals or and engineering specialization to solve complex Civil
Engineering problems
• PO1 is part of cognitive domain
6
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Basic definitions

• Soils are material that are obtained from the disintegration of
rocks due to weathering process.
• Organic material, e.g. from decomposition of plants, may exist
within the soil. If the organic content is significant, then such
soil is called organic soil or peat soil or peat.
1.2 Origin and formation of soils

• Soils originate from rocks (also called parent rock).
• Weathering breakdown/disintegrate rocks into smaller particles
due to pyhsical/mechanical and chemical activities.
• Soils that are remained at their original location (location of
the parent rock) is called residual soil.
7
• Soils that are transported at different location is called trans-

ported soil.
• Agents of transportation: gravity, wind, water and glaciers.
• During transportation, the size and shape of particles can un-
dergo some change. The particles become smaller and more
rounded as their travel further.
1.3 Soil Types

• Soil types based on their texture:
– Gravels
– Sands
– Silts
– Clay
– Organic Soils or Peat Soils
8
• Gravels and sands are grouped as coarse-grained soils or co-

hesionless soils.
• Silts and clay are grouped as fine-grained soils or cohesive
soils.
• Peat soils are not grouped in one of the above since the organic
component is not formed as grain.
1.4 Soil structure

• Soil structure is also called soil fabric is defined as arrangement
of the mineral particles into structural frameworks.
• There are several common soil structures:
– Single grained structure
– Honeycomb structure (multi grained structure)
– Flocculated structure
9
– Deflocculated structure
– Aggregated structure
– Dispersed structure
– Coarse grained skeleton structure
– Cohesive matrix structure
• Single grained structure is a structure of coarse-grained soils
where each individual particles placed independently of each
other (e.g. coarse grained that deposited within suspension in
water).
– The deposition is caused primarily from gravitational and
the surface forces are insignificant.
– Soil particles are in stable positions.
– The shape and size distribution of the soil particles and
their relative positions influence the denseness of packing,
i.e. wide range of void ratio is possible.
10
Figure 1.1: Single grain structure
– Based on the void ratio, the single-grained structure has

two modes of packing:
∗ Loose – high void or low density.
∗ Dense – low void or high density.
11
• Honeycomb structure is loose structure of multiple grains that

is thought to exist in some silts (see Figure 1.2)
– Form small arches with chains of particles.

– Meta-stable structure – very sensitive to even the most mi-
nor disturbance.
– Have large void ratios and carry ordinary static load.
– Under heavy load, the structure breaks down, results in a
large settlements.
• Flocculated structure is the arrangement of soil particles that

have either edge-to-edge or edge-to-face association. Floccu-
lated structure exists in fine grain soils like clay.
• Deflocculated structure is the opposite of flocculated, i.e. no
association (no contact) between particles.It also exists in fine
grain soils.
12
Figure 1.2: Honey comb structure
13
Figure 1.3: Flocculated structure
14
Figure 1.4: Deflocculated structure
15
Figure 1.5: Aggregated structure
• Aggregated structure is face-to-face association of several clay

particles (fine grain soils).
• Dispersed structure is the structure that is the opposite of ag-
gregated, i.e. no face-to-face association between particles.
16
1.5 Clay mineralogy
• Clay is classified as mineral while gravel, sand and silt may or

may not be classified as mineral.
• Clay is categorized in light color (Felsic) silicate group.
• Clay consists of layers of silica sheet and alumina sheets alter-
nately.
• Silica sheet has atomic arrangement (structural unit) called sil-
icon tetrahedron or silica tetrahedron, i.e. triangular pyramid
that has four faces where one silicon atom (centre) surrounded
by 4 oxygen atoms (Fig. 1.6a).
• Alumina sheet has structural unit called aluminum octahedron,
i.e. two rectangular pyramid opposite each other that has eight
faces where one aluminum atom (centre) surrounded by 6 oxy-
gen atoms (Fig. 1.7a).
17
Figure 1.6: Silicon tetrahedron and silica sheet
18
Figure 1.7: Aluminum tetrahedron and aluminum sheet
19
• Silicon (Si) element is at group 14, valency of +4 (i.e. 4 va-

lence/outermost electrons).
• Oxygen (O) atom has -2 valence electron. Since only one is
given by Si, therefore each oxygen atom needs of 1 electron (-1
valency). Therefore the silica tetrahedron has -4 valency, i.e.
(SiO4 )−4 .
• The physical interaction between silicon and oxygen atoms is
called covalent bond.
• In order to become more stable, silicon tetrahedrons attract
each other. Each silicon tetrahedron is jointed by sharing one
of oxygen atom. The combination of several silica tetrahedron
forms a silica sheet (Fig. 1.6b)
• The silica sheet can grow indefinitely.
• Aluminum sheet is created in similar process as the silica sheet.
20
Figure 1.8: Three types of clay structure (Muni Budhu, 2010)
• The main group of clay includes Kaolinite (Al2 Si2 O5 (OH)4 ), il-
lite ((K, H3 O)(Al, M g, F e)2 (Si, Al)4 O10 [(OH)2 , (H2 O)]) and mont-
morillonite ((N a, Ca)0.33 (Al, M g)2 Si4 O1 0(OH)2 .n(H2 O)).
• The main group of clay includes Kaolinite, illite and montmo-
rillonite.
• The structure of the three clays is illustrated in Fig. 1.8
21
Figure 1.9: Kaolinite (after Mitchell and Soga, 2005)

22
Figure 1.10: Illite (after Mitchell and Soga, 2005)
23
Figure 1.11: montmorilonite (after Mitchell and Soga, 2005)
24
Chapter 2: Soil Composition and
Weight Volume Rela-
tionships
2.1 Components of soil and phase diagram

• Soil is a three-phase material consisting of a solid, water and
air.
• The solid is the skeleton of the soil.
• Water and air occupy the voids.
• If all voids (100%) is occupied by water (no air at all), the soils
is called fully saturated.
• If all voids (100%) is occupied by air (no water at all), the soil
condition is called dry.
25
CHAPTER 2. SOIL COMPOSITION AND WEIGHT VOLUME
RELATIONSHIPS
Figure 2.1: Three phases of soil
• If the void is occupied by air and water , the soil condition is

called unsaturated or partially saturated.
• Soil water is commonly known as pore water.
26
RELATIONSHIPS
• Referring to Figure 2.1, MT is a total mass of soil, Ma is mass of

air, Mw is mass of water, Ms is mass of solid (i.e. soil particles)
• The following relationship can be made:
MT = Ma + Mw + Ms (2.1)
since Ma ≈ 0 (2.2)
MT = Mw + Ms (2.3)
VT = Va + Vw + Vs (2.4)
Vv = Va + Vw (2.5)
VT = Vv + Vs (2.6)
• where, Vv is volume of voids.
27
RELATIONSHIPS
2.2 Definitions of void ratio, porosity, specific

gravity, unit weights/density, and degree of
saturation
• The following definitions are volume relationships:
– Void ratio (e)
Vv
e= (2.7)
Vs
– Porosity (n)
Vv
n= (2.8)
VT
Vv
Vv Vs e
n= = Vs Vv
= (2.9)
Vs + Vv Vs + Vs
1+e
28
RELATIONSHIPS
– Degree of Saturation (Sr )

Vw
Sr = (2.10)
Vv
(2.11)
– Specific Volume (v )
VT
v= (2.12)
Vs
Vs + V v
v= =1+e (2.13)
Vs
– Air voids content (Av ) = ratio of air void volume (void not
occupied with water) to the specific volume
Va
Av = (2.14)
v
29
RELATIONSHIPS
• The following definitions are weight relationship:

– Water content or moisture content (w )
Mw
w= (2.15)
Ms
• The following definitions are weight-volume relationships:
– Unit weight of soils (γ), sometimes it is called total unit
weight (γt )or bulk unit weight (γb ). When soil is fully sat-
urated it is called saturated unit weight (γsat )
MT
γ= ×g (2.16)
VT
– Density of soils (ρ)
MT γ
ρ= = (2.17)
VT g
30
RELATIONSHIPS
– Unit weight of solids (γs )

Ms
γs = ×g (2.18)
Vs
– Density of solids (ρs )
Ms γs
ρs = = (2.19)
Vs g
– Unit weight of water (γw )
Mw
γw = ×g (2.20)
Vw
– Density of water (ρw )
Mw γw
ρw = = (2.21)
Vw g
31
RELATIONSHIPS
– Specific gravity of solids (Gs )

γs
Gs = (2.22)
γw
• Please note that:
W =M ×g (2.23)
• W is weight (unit is in Newton, N)and M is mass (unit is in

kilogram, g)
• g is earth gravitational acceleration (gravity), 9.81 m/s2
• The unit weight of water is constant, 9.81 kN/m3 , there is a
slight variation due to the temperature. For practical use always
use 9.81 kN/m3 .
• From the above information we can calculate that the density
of water is equal to 1000 kg/m3 .
32
RELATIONSHIPS
Figure 2.2: Three phases of soil with relationship between quantities
2.3 Relationship between the basic quantities
• The basis of the relationship is by assuming Vs = 1 so that the

relationship formulation becomes simple.
33
RELATIONSHIPS
• Now, please find Vw and Va
γs
Gs =
γw
Ws
Vs
Gs = Ww
Vw
Ws
1
Gs = Ww
Vw
Ww Ws
=
Vw Gs
Ww
Vw = Gs
Ws
Vw = wGs (2.24)
34
RELATIONSHIPS
• when we relate it to Sr
Vw
Sr =
Vv
Vw
Sr =
e
Vw = Sr e (2.25)
• then Va :
V a = V v − Vw
Va = e − Sr e
Va = e(1 − Sr ) (2.26)
35
RELATIONSHIPS
• More important and useful phase relationships

WT Gs + Sr e
γ= = γw (2.27)
VT 1+e
Ws Gs
γd = = γw (2.28)
VT 1+e
Gs + e
γsat = γw (2.29)
1+e
Gs − 1
γ 0 = γsat − γw = γw (2.30)
1+e
• Note that the γ 0 is called submerged unit weight or effective
unit weight or bouyant unit weight.
36
Chapter 3: Soil Classification and
Classification Tests
• The objectives of this chapter:

– The students know how to classify the soil for engineering
purposes using one of soil classification system.
– The students know how to differentiate between cohesive
and cohesionless soils (granular soils)
– The students know how to perform the following tests:
∗ Moisture Content
∗ Sieve Analysis
∗ Atterberg’s Limit
∗ Specific Gravity of solids
• Several engineering soil classification systems e.g.:
37
CHAPTER 3. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION TESTS
– Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

– AASHTO Soil Classification System
– British Soil Classification System (BSCS)
– European Soil Classification System (ISO 14688)
– Etc.
• In order to classify the soil according to USCS, the following
tests need to be done:
– Sieve analysis
– Atterberg’s limits (requires moisture content tests)
• In order to characterize the soil Specific gravity test need to be
conducted but not for USCS classification.
• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) was proposed by Arthur
Casagrande (1948).
• In the past, USCS was also known as Airfield Classification
System.
38
• Used for general engineering purposes (e.g. construction)

• The USCS has been adopted by many institutions.
• Reference is D 2487 Standard Practice for Classification of Soils
for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System)
• USCS classifies soil based on:
– Particle (grain) size

– Plasticity (consistency)
3.1 Moisture Content
• Also known as water content

• Standard: ASTM D2216
• General definition: The percentage amount of moisture con-
tained in the soil.
39
• Engineering definition: the ratio expressed as a percent of the

mass pore water in a given mass of material to the mass of the
solid material.
Mw
w(%) = × 100% (3.1)
Ms
• w is moisture content, Mw is mass of water in grams and Ms is
mass of solid (soil particles) in grams.
• How to get a soil sample for moisture content?
• From the soil to be tested, take a minimum of:
– If max particle size 2mm or less, Take at least 20 g
– If max particle size 4.75mm, Take at least 100 g
– If max particle size 9.5mm, Take at least 500 g
– If max particle size 19mm, Take at least 2500 g
• Put the sample in a container and dry it in the oven with tem-
perature 110 ± 5o C until the mass is constant.
40
• In most cases, drying a test specimen overnight (about 12 to 16

h) is sufficient.
• Report the value to the nearest 0.1%
3.2 Sieve Analysis

• Standard: ASTM D422
• To determine the particle size or diameter of soil particles (grains).
• Particle size analysis:
– Sieve analysis -¿ for particle size equal to or larger than 75
micron or 0.075 mm
– Hydrometer analysis -¿ for particle size smaller than 75 mi-
cron or 0.075 mm
– Hydrometer analysis is not required in order to classify soil
according to USCS.
41
• How to get a soil sample for sieve analysis?

• Oven dry the soil to be tested with temperature 110 ± 5o C until
the mass is constant (about 12 to 16 h).
• Take the oven dried soil approximately about:
– If max particle size 9.5mm or less, Take minimum of 500 g
– If max particle size 19mm, Take minimum of 1000 g
– Note that according to ASTM D422, the above minimum
sample mass should all be retained on 2 mm sieve. There-
fore, if we expect some materials to be finer than 2 mm,
then increase the mass of the sample by +200 grams.
• Prepare a stack of sieves on a sieve shaker.
• Recommended ASTM sieve sizes:
– Sieve 19.0-mm
– Sieve 9.5-mm
– Sieve 2.36-mm (No. 8)
42
– Sieve 1.18-mm (No. 16)

– Sieve 600-µm (No. 30)
– Sieve 300-µm (No. 50)
– Sieve 150-µm (No. 100)
– Sieve 4.75-mm (No. 4)
– Sieve 75-µm (No. 200)
– pan
• Notes:
– Equivalent (approximately the same size) non-ASTM sieves
can also be used.
– Larger or smaller sieve sizes can be added if one anticipates
larger or smaller particle sizes exist in the sample.
– More sieve sizes can also be added into the stack.
– There is maximum number of sieves can be stacked depend-
ing on the type of the sieve shaker used.
43
• Special case if soil is lumpy:

– If the soil is lumpy then do not use sieve shaker.
– Instead, use wet washing, i.e. washing the soil in the stack
using clean water until the particles in each sieve is clean.
– In this case pan is not needed. Let the water drains from
the lowest sieve.
– After the wet washing, put the soil and sieve in the oven to
dry the retained soil.
• Measure the amount of soil retained in every sieve.
• Calculate the percent retained every sieve.
• Calculate the cumulative percent retained.
• Calculate the cumulative percent passing.
• Plot cumulative percent passing vs. sieve size.
• Sieve size = particle size
• Percent passing is also known as percent finer.
44
Figure 3.1: Sieve
45
Figure 3.2: Sieve shaker
46
Figure 3.3: Soil consistency
3.3 Atterberg’s Limits
• Atterberg’s limits are measures of the critical water contents of

a fine-grained soil that changes the consistency (plasticity) of
soil.
• The name is after Albert Atterberg (1916).
• The Atterberg’s limits consists of:
47
– Liquid limit
– Plastic limit
– Shrinkage limit -¿ not needed for the USCS classification
• Liquid limit is a moisture content at which soil begins to behave
like a liquid material (flowable)
• It defines the boundary between the semi-liquid and plastic
states
• Two type of samples needed: Oven dried sample (LL oven dried)
and non oven dried sample (LL non oven dried):
• Two type of tests/apparatus:
– Casagrande liquid limit apparatus – ASTM D4318
– Fallcone penetrometer – BS 1377 part 2: This test is con-
sidered less dependent on the judgment of the operator
• Liquid Limit (LL or wL) with Fallcone penetrometer (Proce-
dure):
48
Figure 3.4: Fallcone penetrometer
49
– A sample of about 300 g from passing sieve 425 µm.

– Mix with water to create paste for at least 10 min.
– Push a portion of the mixed soil into the cup.
– Strike off excess soil with the straightedge to give a smooth
level surface.
– With the penetration cone locked in the raised position
lower the supporting assembly so that the tip of the cone
just touches the surface of the soil.
– Release the cone for a period of 5 ± 1 s.
– Record the penetration to the nearest 0.1 mm.
– Conduct few tests on the same sample and get the average
penetration.
– Measure the water content.
– Repeat the procedure at least three more times (3 more
samples) with different water contents.
50
– The amount of water shall be such that a range of penetra-

tion values of approximately 15 mm to 25 mm.
– Plot the relationship between water content and cone pen-
etration.
– The water content corresponding to a cone penetration of
20 mm to the nearest whole number and report it as the
liquid limit of the soil sample.
• Plastic Limit (PL or wP) and the procedure:
– Plastic limit is a moisture/water content that defines the

boundary between the plastic and semi-solid.
– Reference ASTM D4318
– Determined by rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a
soil on a flat, non-porous surface (a ground glass plate at
least 30 cm (12 in.) square by 1 cm (3/8 in.) thick)
51
– Optional device: Plastic Limit-Rolling Device 3.2 mm rod

for comparison.
– Select a 20-g or more portion of soil from the material pre-
pared for the liquid limit test.
– Reduce the water content of the soil to a consistency at
which it can be rolled without sticking to the hands.
– Select a 1.5 to 2.0 g portion to form into an ellipsoidal mass.
– Roll the mass between the palm or fingers and the ground-
glass plate to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter
throughout its length.
– The thread shall be further deformed on each stroke so that
its diameter reaches 3.2 mm (1/8 in.), taking no more than
2 min.
– Conduct kneading and re-rolling, until the thread crumbles
under the pressure required for rolling and the soil can no
52
Figure 3.5: Plastic Limit test
53
Figure 3.6: Sample
54
longer be rolled into a 3.2-mm diameter thread.

– Gather the portions of the crumbled thread together and
put in the container.
– Select another 1.5 to 2.0-g portion of soil from the plas-
tic–limit specimen and repeat the operations until you have
the containers, where each has at least 6 g of soil.
– Oven dry the soil in the container in order to measure the
water content.
– Compute the average of the two water contents and round
to the nearest whole number. This value is the plastic limit.
3.4 Specific Gravity of Solids (Gs)

• Specific gravity is the parameter for the solids
55
Figure 3.7: Moisture content container
56
• Specific gravity of soil solid is the the ratio of the density of soil
solids to the density of standard, usually water of equal volume.
• Reference: ASTM D854
• The specific gravity of soil solid is not needed in determining
USCS classification but it can be used to estimate the type soil
(e.g. Sand, clay or silt).
• The volume is measured using pycnometers (250 ml or 500 ml).
• The weight is measured using high resolution balance (3 signif-
icant digits or above).
• Oven-dry soil passing sieve 4.75 mm (No. 4)
• Take about 35 to 60 grams if using 250 ml pycnometer or 50 to
100 grams if using 500 ml pycnometer (larger particles, larger
amount of samples) (Ms)
• Clean and dry pycnometer.
• Fill the pycnometer with deaired water (full).
57
• The water may be deaired using either boiling, vacuum, combi-

nation of vacuum and heat, or a deairing device.
• Measure the mass of pycnometer and water (Mw)
• Clean and dry pycnometer.
• Fill the pycnometer with the dry soil and add deaired water until
it is full and deaired using either boiling, vacuum, combination
of vacuum and heat, or a deairing device (Mws)
• The specific gravity of soil solid (Gs) is:
Ms
Gs = (3.2)
Mw − (Mws − Ms )
3.5 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

• Information needed:
58
• Percentage of gravel: particles that pass 75 mm sieve and be

retained on 4.75mm sieve.
• Percentage of sand: particles that pass 4.75mm sieve and be
retained on 75-µm sieve.
• Percentage of fines: particles that pass 75µm sieve.
• Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) from particle size distribution
plot
• D60=Particle diameter (size) that corresponds to 60% passing
D60
Cs = (3.3)
D10
• Coefficient of curvature (Cc) from particle size distribution plot
2
D30
Cc = (3.4)
D10 × D60
59

• LL oven dried
• LL non oven dried
• Plasticity Index (PI) = LL – PL
• Percent retained on 75mm sieve (plus 75mm)
• Location of PI above or below A-line (see plasticity chart)
• Once all the information are gathered, if more than 50% of soils
retained on 75mm sieve, then follow Chart A Figure??
• if less than 50% of soils retained on 75mm sieve, then follow
Chart B Figure??
• Organic soils follow Chart C Figure??
60
Figure 3.8: Plasticity chart
61
Figure 3.9: Chart A
62
63
Figure 3.10: Chart B
Figure 3.11: Chart C
64
Chapter 4: Stresses in Soils
The students who are reading this lecture notes should have learned:
• Soil Composition and Weight-Volume Relationships (Phase re-

lationships)
• Soil Classification and Classification Tests
• Stresses in Soils
• Flow of Water through Soils
65
CHAPTER 4. STRESSES IN SOILS
4.1 Concept of Effective Stress

4.2 Total Stress, Pore water pressure and Effec-
tive Stress
4.3 Effect of water table fluctuation on effective
stress
4.4 Effects of capillarity on effective stress
66
Chapter 5: Flow of Water through
Soils
The students who are reading this lecture notes should have learned:
• Soil Composition and Weight-Volume Relationships (Phase re-

lationships)
• Soil Classification and Classification Tests
• Stresses in Soils
• Flow of Water through Soils
67
CHAPTER 5. FLOW OF WATER THROUGH SOILS
5.1 Surface tension and capillary rise in soils

5.2 Permeability - Darcy’s Law
5.3 Laboratory and field method of determina-
tion of permeability
5.4 Factors affecting permeability
5.5 Vertical and horizontal permeability
5.6 Permeability of stratified soil deposits
68
Chapter 6: Compaction
Course Outcomes (C5 - Synthesis):

• Construct the compaction curve from proctor test
Program Outcomes (PO1 - Cognitive Domain):
69
CHAPTER 6. COMPACTION
6.1 General Principles

Compaction is a process of increasing the density of soils by reducing
the air content.
• Air content is reduced/removed

• Water content is not reduced/removed
• Normally achieved by using mechanical compactor
• Degree of compaction is measured by dry unit weight (γd )
Ws γ Gsγw
γd = = = (6.1)
V 1+w 1+e
W
γ= (6.2)
V
where is W is weight of moist soil (N), Ws is weight of solids
or dry soil (N), V is volume of the soil in a mould (m3 ), w is
70
water content or moisture content (%), Gs is specific gravity of

solids, γw is unit weight of water (kN/m3 ), and e is void ratio.
• From phase relationship we have:
Se = wGs (6.3)
wGs
e= (6.4)
S
where is S is degree of saturation (%)
• Substitute e in Equation (6.1) with e in Equation (6.4), Equa-
tion (6.1) becomes:
Gsγw
γd = (6.5)
1 + wG
S
s
• We can construct Figure 6.1 using Equation (6.5)

• In the case of no air in the void (S=100%), The maximum dry
unit weight curve is called ZAVL (Zero Air Void Line)
71
Figure 6.1: Theoretical maximum dry unit weight
72
6.2 Standard Proctor Test

Standard proctor test is a laboratory test for standard compaction
(ASTM D-698, BS 1377:4), using a hammer and a mould.
• Hammer weight = 24.6 N, mould volume = 944 cm3
• Three layers, (25 ASTM, 27 BS) blows , 304.8 mm drop
• Compaction energy per mould = 594 kJ/m3
• Once the soil is compacted in the mould (full), weight (kN) and
water content (%) are measured
• Dry unit weight is calculated using Equation (6.1)
• >4 tests need to be conducted using different water content
• Dry unit weight vs water content of each test is plotted, see
Figure 6.4
• Maximum dry density and optimum water content (OWC) can
be determined
73
Figure 6.2: Proctor Hammer and mould

Figure 6.2: Standard Proctor Test
(geotechdata.info)
74
Figure 6.3: Automatic proctor Hammer

75
Figure 6.4: Compaction curve
76
6.3 Modified Proctor Test

Similar to standard proctor (sp) test with more compaction effort
(ASTM D-1577, BS 1377:4)
• Hammer weight = 44.5 N
• Mould volume = 944 cm3 (the same as sp)
• Five layers, number of blows is the same as standard proctor,
457.2 mm drop
• Compaction energy per mould = 2695 kJ/m3
• The rest of the procedure is the same as standard proctor test
• The maximum dry density is expected to be higher and than
standard proctor test
• The optimum water content (OWC) is expected to be lower and
than standard proctor test
• See Figure 6.5
77
Figure 6.5: Compaction curves: Standard Proctor and Modified Proctor tests
78
6.4 Field Compaction

In the field, compaction is conducted using heavy machinery via
static and vibratory vertical forces.
• Laboratory compaction tests are not directly applicable to the

field compaction due to different compaction effort
• Two common examples of field compactor:
– Sheepfoot/padfoot roller, suitable for granular soils (coarse)
– Drum roller, suitable for fine soils
• Soil is compacted in layers (lifts), 250-300 mm lift thickness for
coarse soils, 100-150 mm lift thickness for fine soils.
• A minimum number of passes must be made to produce required
dry density.
79
Figure 6.6: Sheepfoot/padfoot roller Figure 6.6: Drum roller (volvoce.com)

(loadex.com.au)
80
6.5 Field Compaction Control Equation

A measure to check the field compaction is to calculate a Degree of
compaction (DC). DC is the ratio between the measured dry unit
weight (γd ) and the desired (expected) dry unit weight (γd ).
M easured γd
Degree of Compaction = (6.6)
Desired γd
• Specification for earth structures usually call for a minimum
95% of max dry unit weight from proctor test.
• 95% of max dry unit weight has two water content, dry side
(dry of optimum) and wet side (wet of optimum)
• Tests to determine field density: Sand Cone Test (ASTM D
1556), Balloon test (ASTM D 2167), Nuclear Density meters
(ASTM D 2922, ASTM D 5195)
81
6.6 Relative Density

Relative density is an index that indicate the degree of compaction
for coarse grain soils(%). Remember! only applied to coarse grain
soils such as sand. It is formulated as:
emax − e
Dr = × 100% (6.7)
emax − emin
1 1
γd,min − γd
Dr = 1 1 × 100% (6.8)
γd,min − γd,max
• emax and emin =maximum and minimum void ratios (loosest and
densest conditions)
• γd,max and γd,min =maximum and minimum unit weights (dens-
est and loosest conditions)
• e and γd =current void ratio and current unit weight
82
How to determine emin and emax ?

ASTM D 4253 and ASTM D 4254 give the standard laboratory pro-
cedure to determine the emin and emax .
• According to the standard emin is the void ratio of coarse grain
soils inside a mould subjected to 8 minutes vibration (3600 Hz
and amplitude if 0.064 mm) under 13.8 kPa vertical stress.
• Vibration is done by putting the mould (contains soil) on a
shaking table.
• emax is the void ratio of coarse grain soils inside a mould de-
posited via pouring via funnel (gravitation)
• Volume of the mould is 2830 cm3
83
Chapter 7: Compressibility

• Predict the compressibility properties of soil
• Identify, formulate and analyze complex Civil Engineering prob-
lems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences
84
CHAPTER 7. COMPRESSIBILITY
7.1 One-dimensional compression of soil

• Compression is an application of a compressive force to a soil
mass such that the volume decreases.
• The compression of saturated soil under a steady static pressure
is known as consolidation.
• Unsaturated soil is not covered (refer to compaction).
• In coarse soil such as sand, the consolidation is extremely fast
• In fine soil such as clay, the consolidation is slow, therefore the
consolidation mechanism is more applicable for clay.
85
Compaction Consolidation
• The soil is unsaturated • The soil is saturated
• Reduction in thickness is due • Reduction in thickness is due
to the expulsion of air to expulsion of pore water
• Reduction in thickness is in- • Reduction in thickness occurs
stantaneous. over time
• Normally, the mechanism is • Normally, the mechanism as-
associated with coarse soil, sociated with fins soil, i.e. clay
i.e. sand - to - silt
86
7.2 Spring Analogy

When saturated consolidates in one dimensional direction (top to
bottom), it can be analogized as a spring in a contained full of water
being compressed.
Figure 7.1: Spring analogy (source: wikimedia commons)
87
• Spring represents the soil solids

• Water represents the pore water in soil. Note that water is
incompressible.
• The opening represents the permeability (big opening - high
permeability, small opening - low permeability)
• No.1 The soil is under no additional load
• No.2 Load is applied to the soil, all the load is transferred to the
water first (excess pwp). No load is transferred to the spring.
The water level in the pipe rises
• The water goes out through the opening The excess pore water
(pwp) pressure decreases (dissipates) depending the size of the
opening. As the excess pwp dissipates, the load on the spring
increases gradually, i.e. effective stress increases. Increase in ef-
fective stress = decrease in excess pwp. The spring compresses,
i.e. the soils settles
88
• All the excess pwp released (zero). There is no further flow of

water. All the load transferred to the spring, i.e. increase in
effective stress = initial excess pwp. The compression in spring
completed. i.e., primary consolidation settlement is completed.
• In soil, initially
Total stress = σini , excess pwp= ∆u = 0 (Note u6=0)
Note that σ=σ 0 +u, σ 0 =effective stress and u = pore water pres-
sure (general definition, keep in mind!)
• Due to compression.
Increase in total stress = ∆σ , excess pwp = ∆u = ∆σ i.e.
the pore water pressure increases by the same amount as the
increase in the total stress.
• At the end of consolidation
all excess pwp dissipated σend = σini + ∆σ, excess pwp= ∆u =
0 0
0, and σend = σini + ∆σ
89
7.3 Oedometer/Consolidation Test

Consolidation test in the laboratory is called Oedometer test.
• A thin cylindrical soil specimen is prepared in a sample ring

• The soil specimen us subjected to a series of vertical stress in-
0
crement, σend or σ 0 (e.g. 0, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200
kPa)
• At each stress level, the soil specimen is consolidated until con-
solidation finished (sample no more deforms, normally 24 hours
is enough), Time vs deformation measurements are taken
• H0 = Initial height of soil sample
• Hs = height of solid
• Hf = Final height of soil sample
• ∆H = Change in height (before and after 24 hours consolida-
tion)
90
Figure 7.2: Oedometer
• σ 0 = vertical stress (effective) applied to the soil sample

At each vertical stress increment, time vs deformation measure-
ments can be plotted in semi-log chart (see Figure 7.4a) or square
root time vs deformation chart (see Figure 7.4b).
• Deformation measurement is taken using dial gauge.
• If there are 7 vertical stress increment, there will be 7 time vs
deformation curves
91
Figure 7.3: Oedometer
• ∆H = Change in height of the sample, mm (measured and

calculated at the end of consolidation of each vertical stress
level)
• ∆e = Change in void ratio can be calculated
92
Figure 7.4: 24 hours reading of consolidation test
93
7.4 e vs log p relationship
e vs log p or e log σ 0 is a typical plot (common plot) used to present

the compressibility of soil. Table 7.1 give an example of one set of
consolidation test result.
Table 7.1: An Example of result from one set of the consolidation test
V. Stress, σ 0 (kPa) 0 50 100 200 400 800 1600 3200 0
∆H (mm) 0 0.253 0.507 0.892 1.551 2.392 3.324 4.263 3.520
∆e (mm) 0 0.025 0.050 0.089 0.154 0.238 0.331 0.424 0.350
e (mm) 0.891 0.0866 0.841 0.802 0.736 0.653 0.560 0.467 0.541
94
Vv,initial A(H0 − Hs )
e0 = = (7.1)
Vs A Hs
Vv,f inal A(Hf − Hs )
ef = = (7.2)
Vs A Hs
H0 Hf
Hs = = (7.3)
1 + e0 1 + ef
∆Vv A ∆H 1 + e0 1 + ef
∆e = = = ∆H = ∆H (7.4)
Vs A Hs H0 Hf
• ∆Vv =change in void • Hf =final height of sample

• Vs =volume of solid • e0 =initial void ratio
• Hs =height of solid • ef =final void ratio
• H0 =initial height of sample
95
Figure 7.5: e vs log p or e log σ 0
96
7.5 Consolidation Properties

• From the data we can calculate the following properties:
– Coefficient of compressibility (av ): the ratio between change
in void ratio and the change of stress
∆e e1 − e2
av = = (7.5)
∆σ 0 σ20 − σ10
For example: av for the pressure range between 50 and 100
kN/m2 in Figure 7.5
0.866 − 0.841
av == = 5.0 × 10−4 m2 /kN (7.6)
100 − 50
– Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv ): Coefficient of
compressibility over the volume
av e1 − e2
mv = = (7.7)
1 + e1 (1 + e1 )σ20 − σ10
97
For example: av for the pressure range between 50 and 100

kN/m2 in Figure 7.5
5.0 × 10−4
mv == = 2.7 × 10−4 m2 /kN (7.8)
1 + 0.866
– Compression index (Cc ): the ratio between void ratio and
log of change in stress, i.e. the slope of the linear portion
of the curve e vs log p (modulus, positive value)
∆e e1 − e2
Cc = − = − (7.9)
∆log σ 0 log σ20 − log σ10
For example: Cc for the pressure range between 200 – 2000
kN/m2 in Figure 7.5
0.53 − 0.802
Cc = − = 0.272 (7.10)
log 2000 − log 200
98
7.6 Normally Consolidated Clays

• If e vs log p shows only linear relationship, than the soil (clay)
is normally consolidated
• Normally consolidated clay is never been consolidated. Exam-
ple: remoulded clay
• Normally consolidated clay undergoes non-elastic deformation
Figure 7.6: Normally consolidated clay
99
7.7 Overconsolidated Clays

• If e vs log p shows non linear relationship (deflect), than the
soil (clay) is overconsolidated
• See Figure 7.5
• Overconsolidated clay has been consolidated at once in the past.
Example: residual clay
• Overconsolidated clay undergoes elastic and non-elastic defor-
mation
• Before the deflection, the behaviour is elastic until it reach past
maximum pressure or preconsolidation pressure (stress)
100
7.8 Preconsolidation Pressure

0
Preconsolidation pressure (stress), σpc is the maximum pressure (stress)
that soil underwent in the past. The procedure to obtain:
1. Find a point of deflection (maximum curvature)
2. Draw horizontal line from the point of maximum curvature
3. Draw tangential line at point of maximum curvature
4. Draw a line that bisect the angle formed between horizontal line
and tangential line
5. Extend the virgin compression line (straight portion of the curve)
such that interset with bisector line
6. The abscissa of the intersection point is the preconsolidation
pressure
101
Figure 7.7: Preconsolidation pressure (stress)
102
7.9 Rate and Degree of Consolidation
• Rate of consolidation for homogeneous soil depends on the soil’s

hydraulic conductivity (permeability), the thickness and the
length of drainage path.
• Rate and degree of consolidation can be analyzed using One
Dimensional Consolidation Theory, by Terzaghi (1925)
• The theory has the following assumptions:
– Soil is fully saturated

– Darcy’s law is valid
– The strains are small
– Flow occurs one direction (one dimension)
103
• The flow rate is equal to the product of the velocity and area
δV
= δv × δA (7.11)
δt
δV δv
= × δz × δA (7.12)
δt δz
• The volumetric strain can be expressed as
δV δe
= (7.13)
V 1 + e0
δe
δV = V (7.14)
1 + e0
δe
δV = × δz × δA (7.15)
1 + e0
δV = mv × δσz0 × δz × δA (7.16)
104
• The change in stress will cause change in pore pressure, there-

fore:
δV = mv × δu × δz × δA (7.17)
• Combining equation 7.12 and equation 7.17:
δv
× δt × δz × δA = mv × δu × δz × δA (7.18)
δz
δv δu
= mv × (7.19)
δz δt
• Darcy’s law:
δh
v=k (7.20)
δz
(7.21)
105
• The k is the hydraulic conductivity and δh is head loss. Partial

differentiation with respect to z:
δv δ2h
=k 2 (7.22)
δz δz
• Pore water pressure can be expressed as:
u = h γw (7.23)
1
h= u (7.24)
γw
• Partial differentiation equation 7.24 (twice) with repect to z of

the pore water pressure gives:
δ2h 1 δ2u
= (7.25)
δz 2 γw δz 2
106
• Substituting with equation 7.22

δv k δ2u
= (7.26)
δz γw δz 2
• Substituting with equation 7.19
δu k δ2u
= (7.27)
δt mv γw δz 2
• We can expressed a coefficient, Cv :
k
Cv = (7.28)
mv γw
• Then equation 7.27 becomes:
δu δ2u
= Cv 2 (7.29)
δt δz
107
• Equation 7.29 is called Terzaghi one dimensional consolidation

and the Cv is the coefficient of consolidation.
• In order to solve the equation 7.29 we need to define boundaries:
– There are two boundaries, top and bottom, i.e. the water
can flow to top and bottom of the soil
– At time t=0, ∆u = ∆uo = ∆σz , i.e. initial excess pore
water pressure equal to stress increase
– Top boundary, z = 0 and ∆u = 0
– Bottom boundary, z = 2H and ∆u = 0
– H is length of drainage path (from middle to top or middle
to bottom)
• The solution of the equation 7.29 is given by Fourier sine series:
∞
X 2∆u0 M z
∆u(z, t) = sin exp(−M 2 Tv ) (7.30)
m=0
M H
108
Figure 7.8: Soil being consolidated
where
– M = (π/2)(2m + 1), m is positive integer from 0 to ∞

Cv
– Tv = H 2 , is called time factor
– z is the depth from the top of the soil, see Figure 7.8
109
• Fourier sine series solution, i.e. equation 7.30 can be drawn in

the following chart called Isochrone, see Figure 7.9
• We now define a new parameter called degree of consolidation Uz
in %, which represent how much the soil has been consolidated
at depth z, 0% means starting of the consolidation, 100% means
the consolidation has been completed
∆u
U =1− (7.31)
∆u0
∞
X 2 M z
U =1− sin exp(−M 2 Tv ) (7.32)
m=0
M H
• Frequently, we are more interested to know the consolidation of

the overall depth (entire depth) not at particular depth z.
110
Figure 7.9: Isochrone
111
• Then we can define a term, average degree of consolidation U ,

which can be calculated as:
∞
X 2
U =1− exp(−M 2 Tv ) (7.33)
m=0
M
• Equation 7.33 can be plot in the form of relationship between

U and Tv , see Figure 7.10
• The relationship in Figure 7.10 can be expressed mathematically
as:
2
π U
Tv = f or U < 60% (7.34)
4 100
Tv = 1.781 − 0.933 log (100 − U ) f or U ≥ 60% (7.35)
112
Figure 7.10: Average degree of consolidation vs Tv

113
7.10 Coefficient of Consolidation

• Coefficient of consolidation, Cv is the rate of consolidation oc-
curs in a particular soil (m2 /year or mm2 /min)
• Cv can be determined through graphical procedures or curve
fitting from Terzaghi’s equation
• There are two graphical procedures:
√
– Taylor t method
– Casagrande log t method
√
• Taylor t method:
– From the√oedometer test result, draw dial gauge reading
(mm) vs t (min), see Figure 7.11
– Extend the initial straight line portion of the curve to meet
the y-axis at A and x-axis at B.
114
– With A as origin, draw line AC such that OC=1.15 OB.

This line intersects the curve at D. √
– From D draw a vertical line to intersect t axis at E. The
point E corresponds
√ to U = 90 %
– From the figure t 90 is about 3.5 min or t = 12.25 min
– By knowing t90, Tv = 90 (from equation 7.35) and H
(length of drainage path), Cv can be calculated:)
Tv(90) × H 2
Cv = (7.36)
t(90)
• Casagrande log t method:

– From the oedometer test result, draw dial gauge reading
(mm) vs log t (min), see Figure 7.12
– In the initial curved portion, consider two points corre-
sponding to two different time t1 and t2 such that t2 =
115
√
Figure 7.11: Taylor t method
116
Figure 7.12: Casagrande log t method

117
4t1 (e.g. t1=0.25 min and t2=1min)

– The dial gauge readings corresponding to t1=0.25 to t2=1
min are 2.407 and 2.343, respectively. The difference is
0.064 mm.
– The initial reading for the beginning of primary consolida-
tion d0=2.407+0.064=2.471 mm.
– Extend the middle and final linear portions of the curve
and find their intersection point. This point gives the time
(t100) an dial gauge reading (d100) for 100% consolidation.
t100 = 16 min, d100 = 2.130 mm
– The consolidation = d0-d100 = 2.471-2.130 = 0.341 mm.
– When average degree of consolidation U=50%, the consol-
idation = 0.341/2 = 1.170 mm.
– The dial gauge reading for U=50% is = 2.471-0.170 = 2.301
mm.
118
– The time corresponding to 2.301 mm or t50 = 1.8 min

– The time factor Tv corresponding to U=50% (from equa-
tion 7.34) is 0.197
– By knowing t50, Tv = 50 and H (length of drainage path),
Cv can be calculated:
Tv(50) × H 2
Cv = (7.37)
t(50)
119
Chapter 8: Shear Strength

• Predict stress-strain behavior of soil under undrained and drained
condition using laboratory tests
120
CHAPTER 8. SHEAR STRENGTH
8.1 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Theory

• Mohr–Coulomb theory mathematical model describing the re-
sponse of materials to shear stress as well as normal stress
• Mohr-Coulomb is perhaps the most popular model in evaluating
stresses in soil mechanics.
• Note: Soil model is formulation of mathematical representation
the behavior of the soil.
• Mechanically, soil is subjected to stress and strain
• Stress is the intensity of load, i.e. load per unit area (kN/m2 )
• Strain is the intensity of deformation, i.e. change in dimension
per original dimension
• Two types of stress: Normal stress and shear stress
• Two types of strain: Normal strain and shear strain
121
normal force in the direction

of z (vertical)
• Two sub symbols for Fs
• The first sub symbol in Fs
indicates the axis that nor-
mal (perpendicular) to the
plane where the shear force
acts
• the second sub symbol in Fs
indicates the direction of the
Figure 8.1: Forces state in soil
Fs on the plane where the
• Fn and Fs are normal and shear force acts.
shear forces (kN) • e.g. Fs, zx is normal force
• The sub symbol in Fn indi- acting on the plane that is
cates the force direction in normal (perpendicular) to z
global axis : e.g. Fn, z is (vertical) direction, and the
122
shear force is in x direction
Then the normal stresses are:

Fx
σx = (8.1)
yz
Fx
σy = (8.2)
xz
Fx
σz = (8.3)
xy
The shear stresses are:

Fs,xy Fs,xz
τxy = τxz = (8.4)
yz yz
Fs,yx Fs,yz
τyx = τyz = (8.5)
xz xz
Fs,zx Fs,zy
τzx = τzy = (8.6)
xy xy
123
Due to normal forces, according to elastic theory the soil will undergo
displacements (change in dimensions) as illustrated in the Figure 8.2:
• ∆x ∆y and ∆z are dis-

placemnet (change in dimen-
sion) due to normal force
Fn,x Fn,y and Fn,z are normal
and shear forces (kN)
Figure 8.2: Displacements due to nor-

mal stresses
124
Then the normal strains are:

∆x ∆x ∆x
x = y = z = (8.7)
x y z
Due to shear force, according to elastic theory the soil will undergo
shear displacement as illustrated in the Figure 8.3:
• ∆x is the relative displace-

ment (change in dimension)
due to shear force and γzx
is the angular distortion cre-
ated in the soil body due to
shear force
Figure 8.3: Displacements due to nor-

mal stresses
125
• Then the shear strain is cal-

culated as:
∆x
γzx = tan−1 (8.8)
z
for small strain:

∆x
γzx = (8.9)
z
Using similar way, we can calculate the rest of shear strains in the
other direction:
∆y ∆z ∆x ∆z ∆y
γxy = γxz = γyx = γyz = γzy = (8.10)
x x y y z
8.1.1 Mohr Circle

• Mohr is a German Engineer and Professor (1835)
126
• Mohr proposed graphical solution (Circle) to determine stresses

within a material
• For example, we want to determine stress at along plane A
oriented θ = 38o with respect to horizontal A-A (see figure 8.4)
• Let’s simplify stress state into 2D in order to look into detail
the stresses acting on a soil element and how Mohr-Circle can
be used to determine the stress
Figure 8.4: 2D stress state on a soil element
127
• Normal stresses are independent

• Shear stresses are NOT independent, but in oder to maintain
equilibrium we are know that:
τxz = −τzx (8.11)
• Let’s draw Mohr Circle to find stress state at plane A within
the soil.
• Sign convention: Compressive = +, Tension = -, Counterclock-
wise shear = +, Clockwise shear = -
• Let’s impose σz > σx
• Plot a graph, x-axis for normal stress and y-axis for shear stress.
• Mark in the graph point (σx , τxz ) and point (σz , τzx ), remember
τxz = −τzx . These points represent side plane and top plane of
the soil element.
• Draw a line between these two points, the line intersects the x
axis. This point of intersection will be the centre of the circle
128
• Draw the circle passing the two points.

• The circle intersect x-axis, i.e. τ = 0, name them point σ1 and
σ3 . These points are called Principal stesses (Major and Minor,
respectively)
• Mark point P (Pole). This point is obtained by extending line
from the point (σx , τxz ) and point (σz , τzx ) parallel to their
planes
• Draw a line 38o with respect to horizontal (i.e P and (σz , τzx )),
the line will intersect the circle and we name it point A.
• Draw a line between point P and σ1
• Measure the angle between line point P - σ1 and P - (σz , τzx ),
that is a plane where principal stresses lie
• Measure the angle between line P - A and line P - σ1 , that is the
angle between the plane A and principal stresses plane, name it
ψ, in this case we get ψ = 57o . According to trigonometry the
129
angle between x axis and line between circle’s centre and plane
A will always be 2 x 57o = 114o
Figure 8.5: Mohr Circle
130
• The major principal stresses, σ1 and σ1 can be calculated as:
s 2
σz + σx σz − σx 2
σ1 = + + τzx (8.12)
2 2
s 2
σz + σx σz − σx 2
σ3 = − + τzx (8.13)
2 2
• The stresses on the plane oriented at an angle θ (i.e. from the

horizontal plane) are:
σz + σx σz − σx
σθ = − cos2θ + τzx sin2θ (8.14)
2 2
σz − σx
τθ = τzx cos2θ − sin2θ (8.15)
2
131
• The stresses on the plane oriented at an angle ψ (i.e. from the

principal stress plane) are:
σ1 + σ3 σ1 − σ3
σψ = − cos2ψ (8.16)
2 2
σ1 − σ3
τψ = sin2ψ (8.17)
2
• The maximum shear stress would be at the top of the circle:
σ1 − σ3
τmax = (8.18)
2
8.1.2 Coulomb’s Failure Mechanism

• Coulombs was a French physicist (1736)
• Coulomb’s failure mechanism is based in Coulomb’s law of fric-
tion
132
• Lets have a look at slip mechanism between two rigid bodies,

representing the mechanism within soil particles when they are
mobilized to failure.
• According to Coulomb’s frictional law, the force required to
slide a block with weight of W :
H=W µ (8.19)
Figure 8.6: Coulomb friction mechanism
133
• µ is coefficient static friction between the block and body un-

derneath it.
µ = tanφ0 (8.20)
• Applying the concept to soil, in terms of stress:
τf = σ0 nf tanφ0 (8.21)
• τf is shear stress at failure, σ0 n is normal effective stress at

failure, and tanφ0 is effective friction angle
• The φ0 is a characteristic of a soil. One soil may have different
φ’ with other soil. Therefore, a laboratory test is needed to
know the value of φ’.
• Figure shows the plot of Coulomb failure envelope.
134
Figure 8.7: Coulomb failure envelope
• The question is: how to determine the σn0 f while we don’t know
where is the slip surface within the soil.
• The Mohr circle is helpful to do the job, therefore Mohr and
Coulomb is combined as a powerful presentation of stresses in
135
soil at failure called Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope

• We can draw several Mohr circles that touch the Coulomb fail-
ure envelope
• These Mohr circles represent set of stresses at failure
• Let’s draw one Mohr circle that touch the Coulomb failure en-
velope. See figure 8.8
• A set of effective normal stress and shear stress at failure is the
point where the circle touches the Coulomb failure envelope. It
is called tangential point
• These stresses at failure are caused by set of principal stress σ1
and σ3
• These stresses at failure are located on a plane 123o /2 = 61.5o
with respect to (from) the principal stress plane.
136
Figure 8.8: Mohr Coulomb failure envelope
137
8.2 Stress Path
• Stress path is a plot showing the relationship between stress

parameters p and q, where p is in abscissa (x-axis) and q is in
ordinate (y-axis).
• Stress path provide information regarding changes in stress within
the soil that is caused by any loading condition.
• p is mean stress, defined as:
p = p0 + ∆p (8.22)
∆σ1 + 2∆σ3
∆p = (8.23)
3
0
∆p = ∆p − ∆u (8.24)
138
• q is deviatoric stress, defined as:
q = q0 + ∆q (8.25)
∆q = ∆σ1 − ∆σ3 (8.26)
• where:
– p0 and q0 are initial mean stress and initial deviatoric stress,

respectively.
– ∆p is change in mean stress
– ∆p0 is change in effective mean stress
– ∆u is change in pore water pressure or excess pore water
pressure
– ∆σ1 is change in major principal stress
– ∆σ3 is change in minor principal stress
139
• It is convenient to draw the plot by calculating the slope, which

can be expressed as:
∆q ∆q
and (8.27)
∆p ∆p0
• The example of stress path will be given in the next sections
140
8.3 Determination of Shear Strength Parame-

ters in Laboratory
Laboratory Tests:
• Direct Shear Test

• Unconfined Compression Strength (UCS) Test
• Triaxial test:
– Unconsolidated Undrained (UU)
– Consdolidated Undrained (CU)
– Consolidated Drained (CD)
• Laboratory Vane Shear Test
Advanced Laboratory Tests:
• Simple Shear Test
141
• True Triaxial Test

• Biaxial Test
• Hollow Cylinder Test
Field Tests:
• Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
• Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
• Field Vane Shear Test
In this course we will cover Direct Shear Test, UCS and Triaxial
Tests. Other tests will be discussed in the Geotechnical Engineering
course (next semester). The laboratory exercise will be conducted
next semester.
142
8.4 Direct Shear Test
Figure 8.9: Direct Shear Test

143
• Soil is place in a shear box, The vertical force (Fv) is imposed

to the soil, constant throughout the test
• The soil is sheared until it fails and the horizontal force (Fh) is
measured
• The horizontal and vertical displacements are measured
• Two types of failure, peak and residual (critical)
• If peak is nout found then the test can be stopped at 15%
horizontal strain
• Test is repeated for at least 3 levels of vertical force
• Horizontal displacement vs horizontal load is plotted for each
test (see example in Figure 8.10)
• Peak and residual (critical) horizontal force is determined from
the plot
• Plot Coulomb failure criterion, Vertical forces vs horizontal forces
(peak and residual), see Figure 8.11
144
Figure 8.10: Example: Horizontal Force vs Displacement
145
Figure 8.11: Vertical Force vs Horizontal Force
146
• The lines in Figure 8.11 are obtained from linear curve fitting
• From Figure 8.11, Coulomb failure criterion for peak:
F hp = 0.5643 F v + 1 (8.28)
The forces are divided by the cross sectional area of the soil
sample, the equation becomes:
τp = 0.5643 σ + 1 (8.29)
0.5643 = tanφ0p (8.30)
φ0p = 29.4o (8.31)
value of 1 = intercept value obtained from curve fitting, called

apparent cohesion (c) for peak.
147
• Similarly, from Figure 8.11, Coulomb failure criterion for resid-

ual(critical):
F hc = 0.4464 F v + 3.5 (8.32)
The forces are divided by the cross sectional area of the soil
sample, the equation becomes:
τc = 0.4464 σ + 3.5 (8.33)
0.4464 = tanφ0c (8.34)
φ0c = 24.1o (8.35)
value of 3.5 = apparent cohesion (c) for residual (critical).
148
8.5 Unconfined Compression Test

• Applicable for intact soil sample, i.e. soil sample that can stand
on itself. For example, rock, clay, etc. Soil such as sand is not
applicable.
• The test is to determine shear strength at failure (τf ) of the
sample
• If the sample is saturated clay, then the shear strength at failure
(τf ) is equal to undrained shear strength (su )
• The soil sample is cylindrical in shape.
• The sample is compressed vertically until the sample fails.
• The vertical force (Fv ) and vertical displacement (axial) are
measured throughout the test
• There is no horizontal force or stress is applied, σ3 = 0.
149
Figure 8.12: UCS test
150
• Calculate vertical stress (σ1 ), kPa:

Fv
σ1 = (8.36)
A
where A is cross sectional area of the sample (circle)
• Calculate vertical (axial) strain (a ):
V ertical Displacement(mm)
a = (8.37)
Initial sample length (mm)
• Plot vertical stress vs vertical (axial) strain, see example in
Figure 8.13
• Determine peak stress (stress at failure), σ1,peak
• Residual stress cannot be determine since the stress will drop
suddenly after the peak stress has been achieved
• By having σ1 value and σ3 =0, we can plot Mohr-Coulomb chart.
• τf or su can be determined from the Mohr-Coulomb chart.
151
Figure 8.13: Example: UCS test result
152
Figure 8.14: UCS, Mohr Coulomb
153
Therefore:
σ1,peak
τf = su = (8.38)
2
Stress Path during shearing (only one stage):
∆σ1 + 2∆σ3 ∆σ1 + 0 ∆σ1
∆p = = = (8.39)
3 3 3
∆q = ∆σ1 − ∆σ3 = ∆σ1 − 0 = ∆σ1 (8.40)
∆q 3
= (8.41)
∆p 1
The initial stage:
p0 = 0 q0 = 0 (8.42)
154
Figure 8.15: UCS, stress path
155
8.6 Triaxial Test
8.6.1 Triaxial Test: Unconsolidated Undrained (UU)

• The test is similar to UCS, but the σ3 greater than 0
• The soil sample is fully saturated.
• In order to be able to apply σ3 :
– The sample is placed inside a triaxial chamber filled with
water, see Figure 8.16
– The sample is encapsulated with latex membrane to avoid
contact with water
• In UU test, the sample is unconsolidated prior to shearing and
undrained throughout the test (the drainage valve is closed)
• Two or more samples with different level of σ3 are normally
tested. Note that that the samples have to be from the same
156
soil and the same density
• During shearing pore water pressure (∆u is developed due to

the undrained condition)
• Each sample has its own stress-strain curve
• σ1 at failure at each test is to be determined
• The failure can be at peak or residual
• Each sample has it own Mohr circle, see Figure 8.18
• The shear strength at failure (τf ) or under shear strength (su )
σ1,peak − σ3
τf = su = (8.43)
2
• The stress path is the same as UCS test
157
Figure 8.16: Sample in the triaxial chamber
158
Figure 8.17: UU test

159
Figure 8.18: UU, Mohr Coulomb

160
8.6.2 Triaxial Test: Consolidated Undrained (CU)

• The test is similar to Triaxial UU, but prior to shearing the
sample is consolidated.
• Excess pore water pressure (∆u) can be monitored, therefore
effective stress can be computed
• During the consolidation, the water is drained from the sample.
• The sample is consolidated until no more excess pore pressure
developed or no more change in the sample volume.
• Figure 8.19 and 8.20 show the consolidation and shearing stage
of the CU test, respectively
• Two or more samples with different level of σ3 are normally
tested. Note that that the samples have to be from the same
soil and the same density
• Figure 8.22 shows the Mohr - Coulomb failure ’envelope’
161
Figure 8.19: CU, Consolidation stage
162
Figure 8.20: CU, Shearing stage
163
Stress Path during consolidation:
∆u = 0 (8.44)
∆σ1 = ∆σ3 (8.45)
∆σ10 = ∆σ1 − ∆u = ∆σ1 (8.46)
∆σ30 = ∆σ30 − ∆u = ∆σ3 (8.47)
∆σ1 + 2∆σ3 ∆σ1 + 2∆σ1
∆p = = = ∆σ1 (8.48)
3 3
∆p0 = ∆p − ∆u = ∆p (8.49)
∆q = ∆σ1 − ∆σ3 = ∆σ1 − ∆σ1 = 0 (8.50)
∆q ∆q
=0 =0 (8.51)
∆p ∆p0
164
Stress Path during shearing:
∆σ1 > 0 ∆σ3 = 0 ∆u > 0 (8.52)

∆σ1 + 2∆σ3 ∆σ1 + 0 ∆σ1
∆p = = = (8.53)
3 3 3
∆σ 1
∆p0 = ∆p − ∆u = − ∆u (8.54)
3
∆q = ∆σ1 − ∆σ3 = ∆σ1 − 0 = ∆σ1 (8.55)
∆q
=3 (8.56)
∆p
∆q ∆σ1 3
= = (8.57)
∆p0 ∆σ1
3 − ∆u
1 − 3∆u
σ1
• Mohr - Coulomb failure ’envelope’ in Figure 8.22 is basically

tangential line ’touching’ the two circles
165
Figure 8.21: CU, Stress Path
166
Figure 8.22: CU, Mohr Coulomb
167
• The line represent the relationship between shear stress τ and

normal stresses σ
• The line (envelope) is linear, therefore the equation of the line
would be:
τ = c + σtanφ (8.58)
• The φ is angle between the envelope and the horizontal

• The φ is the angle friction of the soil sample
• The c is the apparent cohesion obtain from curve fitting
• Note that the Figure 8.22 and equation 8.58 are for total stress
parameters (τ , σ, φ)
• Effective stress parameters can be obtain in similar way by sub-
stracting the stresses with the excess pore water pressure (∆u),
168
8.6.3 Triaxial Test: Consolidated Drained (CD)

• The test is similar to CU, except that the water inside the sam-
ple is allowed to drained during the shearing period, therefore
excess pore water pressure (∆u) is 0.
• Consolidation stage is the same as triaxial CU, see Figure 8.19
• Figure 8.23 shows the shearing stage of the CD test
• Stress path during consolidation is the same as CU
• Stress path during shearing:
∆σ1 = ∆σ1 > 0 ∆σ3 = ∆σ30 = 0 (8.59)

0 ∆σ10 + 2∆σ30 ∆σ10
∆p = ∆p = = (8.60)
3 3
0 0 0
∆q = ∆σ1 − ∆σ3 = ∆σ1 (8.61)
∆q ∆q
= =3 (8.62)
∆p ∆p0
169
Figure 8.23: CD, Shearing stage
170
Figure 8.24: CD, Stress Path
171
• Figure 8.25 shows example of Mohr - Coulomb failure ’envelope’

for CD
• The line (envelope) is linear, therefore the equation of the line
would be:
τ 0 = c0 + σ 0 tanφ0 (8.63)
• The φ0 is the angle between the envelope and the horizontal

• The φ0 is effective angle friction of the soil sample
• The c’ is the effective apparent cohesion obtain from curve fit-
ting
• Note that only effective stress parameters (τ 0 , σ 0 , c’, and φ0 ) can
be obtained from CD test
172
Figure 8.25: CD, Mohr Coulomb
173
8.7 Undrained Shear Strength/Cohesion of Nor-

mally Consolidated and Overconsolidated De-
posits
• Attempts to make empirical relationship of the undrained shear

strength (cohesion) have been conducted by researchers.
• Empirical relationships are useful to predict the strength with
known physical properties
• For Normally Consolidated Clays:

su
= 0.11 + 0.0037 P I (Skempton, 1957) (8.64)
σz0 nc

su
0
= 0.22 (M esri, 1975) (8.65)
σzo
174
• For Overconsolidated Clays:

su
σz0
oc = (OCR)0.8 (Ladd et al., 1977) (8.66)
su
σz0 nc
su
0
= (0.23 ± 0.04)OCR0.8 (Jamiolkowski et al., 1985)
σz
(8.67)
• Where:
– P I=Plasticity Index
– su =undrained shear strength
– σz0 =effective vertical stress
– nc=normally consolidated
– oc=over consolidated
– OCR=over consolidation ratio
175
OCR is defined as the highest stress experienced by the soil

divided by the current stress
0
σpc
OCR = 0 (8.68)
σz
• Where:
0
– σpc =past max pressure or preconsolidation pressure
176

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Soil Mechanics

For Civil Engineering Students

2 Soil Composition and Weight Volume Relationships 25

3 Soil Classification and Classification Tests 37

4.1 Concept of Effective Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5 Flow of Water through Soils 43

6.6 Relative Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

8.3 Determination of Shear Strength Parameters in Laboratory . . . . . 117

Expected Course Outcomes for Chapter 1-5:

• Classify the physical properties of soil, effective stresses and flow

• Apply knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering funda-

1.1 Basic definitions

1.2 Origin and formation of soils

• Soils that are transported at different location is called trans-

1.3 Soil Types

• Gravels and sands are grouped as coarse-grained soils or co-

1.4 Soil structure

Figure 1.1: Single grain structure

– Based on the void ratio, the single-grained structure has

• Honeycomb structure is loose structure of multiple grains that

– Form small arches with chains of particles.

• Flocculated structure is the arrangement of soil particles that

Figure 1.2: Honey comb structure

Figure 1.3: Flocculated structure

Figure 1.4: Deflocculated structure

Figure 1.5: Aggregated structure

• Aggregated structure is face-to-face association of several clay

1.5 Clay mineralogy

• Clay is classified as mineral while gravel, sand and silt may or

Figure 1.6: Silicon tetrahedron and silica sheet

Figure 1.7: Aluminum tetrahedron and aluminum sheet

• Silicon (Si) element is at group 14, valency of +4 (i.e. 4 va-

Figure 1.8: Three types of clay structure (Muni Budhu, 2010)

Figure 1.9: Kaolinite (after Mitchell and Soga, 2005)

Figure 1.10: Illite (after Mitchell and Soga, 2005)

Figure 1.11: montmorilonite (after Mitchell and Soga, 2005)

2.1 Components of soil and phase diagram

Figure 2.1: Three phases of soil

• If the void is occupied by air and water , the soil condition is

• Referring to Figure 2.1, MT is a total mass of soil, Ma is mass of

• where, Vv is volume of voids.

2.2 Definitions of void ratio, porosity, specific

– Degree of Saturation (Sr )

• The following definitions are weight relationship:

– Unit weight of solids (γs )

– Specific gravity of solids (Gs )

• W is weight (unit is in Newton, N)and M is mass (unit is in

Figure 2.2: Three phases of soil with relationship between quantities

2.3 Relationship between the basic quantities

• The basis of the relationship is by assuming Vs = 1 so that the

• Now, please find Vw and Va

• More important and useful phase relationships

• The objectives of this chapter:

– Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

• Used for general engineering purposes (e.g. construction)

– Particle (grain) size

3.1 Moisture Content

• Also known as water content