CHAPTER 1 – COMPLEX ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

Complex Number- is the combination of real and imaginary numbers. The square root of a negative
number is called imaginary number where the imaginary unit denoted as “j” satisfying the relation

𝑗 = √−1
Form of 𝑗 𝑚 where m is an integer either odd or even

𝑗 𝑚 = (𝑗 2 )𝑚/2 = ±1; where m is even powers of j

𝑗 𝑚 = 𝑗 (𝑚−1) 𝑗 = ±𝑗; where m is odd powers of j

Theorems on Complex Numbers
1. If (𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦) = 0, then x=0 and y=0
2. If (𝑥1 + 𝑗𝑦1 ) = (𝑥2 + 𝑗𝑦2 ), then x1=x2 and y1=y2
3. If (𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦) = 0, then (𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦) = 0 or (𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦) = 0. Since the product is zero, therefore
the multiplicand and multiplier are also zero.
Forms of Complex Numbers
1. Rectangular Form
𝑧 = (𝑥 ± 𝑗𝑦); where x = real part or component, and jy = imaginary part or component
2. Polar (or Steinmetz) Form
𝑧 = 𝑟∠𝜃; where r = magnitude/amplitude, 𝜃= argument/displacement in degrees, and ∠= bar
angle
3. Trigonometric Form
𝑧 = 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
4. Exponential Form
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 ±𝑗𝜃 ; where 𝜃= argument in radians
Argand’s Diagram (Jean-Robert Argand)
- is a coordinate system showing the real and imaginary axes for the representation of a complex
number.

Figure A – Argand’s Diagram of rectangular form of complex number (3 + j4) where x = 3, y = 4, and z is
the resultant.
Figure B – Showing the polar form of complex number. To solve for “r” and 𝜃, isolate the right triangle
then apply Pythagorean Theorem for “r” and definition of tangent function for angle “𝜃”

𝑟 = √32 + 42 = 5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
4
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
3
4
𝜃 = arctan = 53.13°
3
3 + 𝑗4 = 53.13°
Operations of Complex Numbers
1. Addition and Subtraction
a. To add or subtract two or more complex numbers in rectangular form, add or subtract real
part to real part and imaginary part to imaginary part.
b. To add or subtract two or more complex numbers not in rectangular form, convert first these
complex numbers to rectangular form and add or subtract real part to real part and imaginary
part to imaginary part.
2. Multiplication
Rule 1: The product of two or more complex numbers in polar form, is equal to the product of
their magnitudes and the sum of their directions.
Rule 2: To find the product of two or more complex numbers in rectangular form, i.e
(x1 + jy1)(x2 + jy2) = (x1 x2 – y1 y2) + j(x1 y2 + x2 y1)
Rule 3: Convert all complex numbers to polar form and apply rule 1.
3. Division
Rule 1: To perform division of complex numbers in polar form, divide their magnitude and get
the difference of their directions.
Rule 2: The procedures for division of complex numbers in rectangular form, multiply both
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator. The conjugate of a complex
number in rectangular form say (a + jb) is (a – jb). After multiplying the conjugate of the
denominator both numerator and denominator, apply rule 2 of multiplication of complex number.
Square Root of Complex Number
To evaluate the square root of a given complex number in polar form, simply take the square root of
magnitude and multiply the direction by one-half.

If the given complex number is in rectangular form, let that as (𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦) = √𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏, square both sides and
simplify then use theorem 2 of complex number, this is an alternate method.
Nth Root of Complex Numbers
From the general exponential form and trigonometric form.

𝑍 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗(𝜃+2𝜋𝑘) = 𝑟 𝑐𝑗𝑠(𝜃 + 360° 𝑘);

Take the nth root of both sides;
𝜃+2𝜋𝑘
𝑗( ) 𝜃+360° 𝑘 𝜃+360° 𝑘
𝑍1/𝑛 = 𝑟1/𝑛 𝑒 𝑛 = 𝑟1/𝑛 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑛
)+ 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑛
)]
 𝑛 𝜃+360° 𝑘 𝜃+360° 𝑘
𝑊𝑘 = √𝑟 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑛
) + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑛
)]

Where:
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . (n – 1)
W0 is the principal value or root, and "𝜃" must be a positive angle.
W1, W2, . . . Wn-1 are auxiliary values or roots.
De Moivre’s Theorem (Abraham De Moivre)
It states that for any complex numbers raised to the mth power, the outcomes will be equal to another
complex number with magnitude equal to the original complex number’s magnitude raised to the mth
power and the argument equal to the original complex number’s argument multiplied by “m”.

(𝑟𝑐𝑗𝑠𝜃)𝑚 = (𝑟𝑒 𝑗𝜃 )𝑚

𝑟 𝑚 (𝑐𝑗𝑠𝜃)𝑚 = 𝑟 𝑚 𝑐𝑗𝑠𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑚 𝑒𝑗 𝑚𝜃 ; where divide both sides by 𝑟 𝑚

(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝑚 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃 ; where m is any real number

Logarithm of Complex Numbers

The natural logarithm of a complex number can be obtained when it is expressed in exponential form;
𝑍 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑗(𝜃+2𝜋𝑘) so that 𝑙𝑛𝑧 = 𝑙𝑛𝑟 + 𝑗(𝜃 + 2𝜋𝑘) or 𝑍 = 𝑒 [𝑙𝑛𝑟+𝑗(𝜃+2𝜋𝑘)]
Where:
𝑥
𝜃 = arctan ( )
𝑦

𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

if k = 0, Z is the principal value.

Two Types of Logarithm:
1. Common (Brigssian) Logarithm
Notation: log
Base: 10
ie: log10 Z
2. Natural (Napierian) Logarithm
Notation: ln
Base: e = 2.718281828
ie log Z: lnz
Properties of Logarithm:
1. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑁 = 𝑥 ; 𝑁 = 𝑏𝑥
2. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑁 = 𝑦 ; ln 𝑁 = 𝑦 ; 𝑁 = 𝑒𝑦
3. ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥
4. 𝑒 𝑙𝑛𝑦 = 𝑦
 5. 10𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 𝑥
6. ln 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑙𝑛𝑥
7. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (𝑥𝑦) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦
𝑥
8. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑦

Euler’s Theorem (Leonhard Euler)

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
By Definition: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ( 2
)+ 𝑗( 𝑗2
)

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
By Theorem 2 of Complex Number: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ( 2
) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ( 𝑗2
)

Trigonometric Functions of Complex Numbers

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑒 𝑗𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜃
1. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ( 2
) 4. 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = 𝑗 (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
𝑗𝜃
𝑒 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 𝑗2
2. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = ( 𝑗2 ) 5. 𝑐𝑠𝑐𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )
𝑒 𝑗𝜃 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 2
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = −𝑗 (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 ) 6. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 = (𝑒 𝑗𝜃 +𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 )

Inverse Trigonometric Functions of Complex Numbers

1. arcsin 𝑥 = −𝑗𝑙𝑛(𝑗𝑥 ± √1 − 𝑥 2 )
2. arccos 𝑥 = −𝑗𝑙𝑛(𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1)
1+𝑗𝑥
3. arctan 𝑥 = −𝑗𝑙𝑛√1−𝑗𝑥
𝑥+𝑗
4. arccot 𝑥 = −𝑗𝑙𝑛√𝑥−𝑗
1±√1−𝑥 2
5. arcsec 𝑥 = −𝑗𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥
)
𝑗±√𝑥 2 −1
6. arccsc 𝑥 = −𝑗𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑥
)

Hyperbolic Functions of Complex Numbers

(𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 ) (𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 )
1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 2
4. 𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 )
(𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 ) 2
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 = 5. 𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑥 =
2 (𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 )
(𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 ) 2
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 𝑥 −𝑥 6. 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑥 =
(𝑒 +𝑒 ) (𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 )

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions of Complex Numbers

1. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑦 = ln(𝑦 + √𝑦 2 + 1 ; 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

2. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑦 = ln(𝑦 ± √𝑦 2 + 1 ; 𝑦 ≥ 1
1 1+𝑦
3. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑦 = 2 ln (1−𝑦) ; |𝑦| < 1
1 𝑦+1
4. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑦 = 2 ln (𝑦−1) ; |𝑦| > 1
 1±√1−𝑦2
5. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑦 = ln ( 𝑦
) ;0 < 𝑦 ≤ 1
1±√1+𝑦 2
6. 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑦 = ln ( ) ; +𝑦 > 0, −𝑦 < 0
𝑦

Hyperbolic Function Identities

1. cos ℎ2 𝑦 − sin ℎ2 𝑦 = 1
2. sec ℎ2 𝑦 + tan ℎ2 𝑦 = 1
3. cot ℎ2 𝑦 − csc ℎ2 𝑦 = 1
4. sin ℎ(𝜃 ± 𝛽) = sin ℎ𝜃 cos ℎ𝛽 ± cos ℎ𝜃 sin ℎ𝛽
5. cos ℎ(𝜃 ± 𝛽) = cos ℎ𝜃 cos ℎ𝛽 ± sin ℎ𝜃 sin ℎ𝛽
tan ℎ𝜃±tan ℎ𝛽
6. tan ℎ(𝜃 ± 𝛽) =
1±tan ℎ𝜃 tan ℎ𝛽

Relations between Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions

1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑗𝑥 = 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥
2. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑗𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥
3. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑗𝑥 = 𝑗𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑥
4. 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑗𝑥 = 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
5. 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑗𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
6. 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑗𝑥 = 𝑗𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥

CHAPTER QUIZ
1. Solve for the angle 𝜃 and ∝ of (1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃) − 𝑗√1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∝= 0.
2. Solve for the x and y of (𝑥 + 𝑗𝑦)2 = 2 + 𝑗4.
3. Convert (6 − 𝑗3) to polar, exponential, and trigonometric form.
4. Convert 6 − ∠30° to rectangular, exponential, and trigonometric form.
5. Perform the indicated operation: 3∠30° − (6 − 𝑗2) + 5∠ − 20°.
6. Find the product of (5 + 𝑗3)(6∠30°). Express the result in polar form.
7. Square root of the product of (3 + j4) and (2 + j8). Express the result in polar form.
8. Find the four roots of 16∠ − 20°.
3
1 √3
9. Evaluate (− 2 + 𝑗 2
) using De Moivre’s Theorem and express the result in polar form.
10. Determine the general value of ln(1 − 𝑗√3)3 .
Evaluate the following and express the result in polar form.
11. log (7 + j2)
12. cos (0.573 + j0.783)
13. cosh (0.375 – j0.485)
14. tanh (0.356 + j0.875)
15. arcsech j0.75
CHAPTER 2 – LAPLACE TRANSFORMS AND INVERSE LAPLACE
TRANSFORM
A. Laplace Transform- is the process of transforming a given function from real time domain to a
new function in the complex frequency domain, Let h(f) be rea time domain or original function.

Definition:

where:

 H(s) = new function in the complex frequency domain.

 h(t) = function in time domain
 s = complex frequency domain
 t = time domain
 e-st = kernel of transformation
THEOREMS ON LAPLACE TRANSOFRMATION
Theorem 1: Linearity Property
If h(t) and i(t) are any functions whose laplace transformations exist and ; “a” and “b” are
any constants, then

Theorem 2: First Shifting Theorem

bt
The transformation of e times a function of t is equal to the transform of the function with
“s” replaced by (s b).

Theorem 3: Second Shifting Theorem

Proof:
By Definition of Laplace Transform:

But h(t) = f(t – b) u (t – b)

ℒ [f (t - b) u (t – b)] = e-bs F (s) = e-bs ℒ h(t) (check)

where:
u(t – b) is the unit step function, it is also known as Heaviside’s unit step function which is
0 𝑡<𝑏 𝑒 −𝑏𝑠
defined as ; u(t – b) ={ }; and its laplace transform is 𝑠 ; s > 0.
1 𝑡>𝑏
Theorem 4 : Transforms of Derivatives
If h(t) is a continuous function of exponential order;

Theorem 5 : Transforms of Integrals

If h(t) is of exponential order and peacewise continuous.
 Table of Laplace Transforms

Time Domain Complex Frequency Domain

h(t) H(s) = ℒ h(t)
Unit Impulse ;(t) 1
Unit Step (Heaviside) ;(t) 1
𝑠
Unit Ramp ;t 1/s2
Polynomial ;f2 K! / s(k+1)
Exponential ; e±bt 1 / (s±b)
*th Order Exponential ; t k e2bt K! / (s±b)(k+1)
Sine Wave ; sin bt 𝑏
(𝑠 2 + 𝑏2)
Cosine Wave ; cos bt 𝑏
(𝑠 2
+ 𝑏2)
Damped Sine Wave ;e±kt sin bt 𝑠
[(𝑠 ± k)2 + 𝑏 2 ]
Damped Cosine Wave ;e±kt cos bt (𝑠 ± k)
[(𝑠 ± k)2 + 𝑏 2 ]
sinh bt 𝑏
(𝑠 2 − 𝑏 2 )
cosh bt 𝑏
(𝑠 2 − 𝑏 2 )
e±kt cosh bt (𝑠 ± k)
[(𝑠 ± k)2 − 𝑏 2 ]
t sin bt 2𝑏𝑠
(𝑠 2 + 𝑏 2 )2
t cos bt (𝑠 2 + 𝑏 2 )
(𝑠 2 + 𝑏 2 )2
t 1/2 √𝜋 / 2s1.5
t-1/2 𝜋
√
𝑠
THE GAMMA FUNCTION
∞
The gamma function denoted r(k) is defined by: 𝑟(𝑘) = ∫ 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 (𝑡 𝑘 ) 𝑑𝑡 ; which
convergent for k > 0. 𝑜

A recursion or recurrence formula for the gamma function is;

r (k+1) = r(k) = k!

Proof of the following Transforms by Gamma Function Definition such as;

From its definition;

1
1 𝜋
From the derived formula, ; it proved that 𝑟 (2) = √𝜋 and ℒ (𝑡 −2 ) = √ 𝑠

If k = ½
1 1
𝑟( +1) 1 1 1
2
ℒ (𝑡 ) =
2 1 ; but r( + 1) = 𝑟 ( ) from recursion or recurrence formula;
( +1) 2 2 2
𝑠 2
 1 1
𝑟( +1) 1
2
ℒ (𝑡 2 ) = 1 ; but 𝑟 (2) = √𝜋
( +1)
𝑠 2

1 1
2
√𝑒
ℒ (𝑡 ) =
2
3
𝑠2
1
√𝜋
ℒ (𝑡 2 ) = 3 (check)
2𝑠2

If k = 0;

1
; but ℒ(1) = 𝑠

; multiply both sides by s;

Relation Among Gamm Functions:

𝜋
1. r(y)𝑟(1 − 𝑦) = ; 0 < y < 1 ;if y =1/2 ; r(1/2) = √𝜋
sin 𝜋𝑦

1
2. 2(2𝑦−1) 𝑟(𝑦)𝑟 (𝑦 + ) = √𝜋𝑟(2𝑦) ; this is called duplication formula for gamma
2
function ;
1 1 139
𝑟(𝑦 + 1) = √2𝜋𝑦 ∙ 𝑦 𝑦 ∙ 𝑒 −𝑦 (1 + + 2
− + ⋯)
3. 12𝑦 288𝑦 51,840𝑦 3 ; this is called
stirling’s asymptotic series of gamma function.

THE BETA FUNCTION

The Beta Function denoted by 𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛) is defined by;
∞
𝛽(𝑚, 𝑛) = ∫ 𝑦 (𝑚−1) (1 − 𝑦)(𝑛−1) 𝑑𝑦 ; which is convergent for m > 0 ; n > 0. It is
0

connected with gamma function according to the relation;

𝑟(𝑚)𝑟(𝑛)
𝛽(𝑚 , 𝑛) =
𝑟(𝑚 + 𝑛)
THE BESSEL FUNCTION
The Bessel Function of the first kind of order “n”, is defined as;
𝑦
𝑦𝑛 𝑦2 𝑦4 (−1)𝑟 ( )(𝑛+2𝑟)
𝐽𝑛 (𝑦) = [1 − 2(2𝑛+2) + 2(4)(2𝑛+2)(2𝑛+4) − ⋯ ] =∑∞
𝑟=0 [
2
]
2𝑛 𝑟(𝑛+1) 𝑟!𝑟(𝑛+𝑟+1)

For n = 0 ; the equation becomes;

𝑦2 𝑦4 𝑦6
𝐽𝑜 (𝑦) = 1 − + − +. ..
22 22 42 22 42 62

Initial Value Theorem:

It states that if h(t) and its derivative are laplace transformable then the initial value is defined by;

ℎ(0+) = lim ℎ(𝑡) = lim [𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)]

𝑡→0 𝑠→∞

Proof;
From Theorem 4 of Laplace Transform:
; take the laplace transform of left side;

Final Value Theorem:

It states that of h(t) and its derivative are laplace transformable, then the final value h(∞) og h(t)
is;
Lim h(t) = Lim [𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)] = h( ∞)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0
B. Inverse Laplace Transform
It is the reverse process of Laplace Transform,i.e.
ℒ −1 {𝐻(𝑠)} = ℎ(𝑡)

TABLE OF INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM:

H(s) h(t) =ℒ −1 {𝐻(𝑠)}
1/s 1
1/s2 t
(k-1)! / sk 𝑘 (𝑘−1) (𝑘 = 1,2, . . . )
√𝜋/2𝑠 3/2 √𝑡
√𝜋/√𝑠 𝑡 −1/2
(1)(2)(5). . . (2𝑘 − 1)√𝜋 𝑠 (−𝑘−1/2) 𝑡 (𝑘−1/2) (𝑘 = 1,2, . . . )
2𝑘
1/(s±𝑘) 𝑒 ∓𝑘𝑡
𝑘/(𝑠 2 + 𝑘 2 ) sin kt
𝑠/(𝑠 2 + 𝑘 2 ) cos kt
𝑎/(𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 ) sin hat
𝑠/(𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 ) cos hat
2𝑎𝑠/(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )2 tsin at
(𝑠 2 − 𝑎2 )/(𝑠 2 + 𝑎2 )2 tcos at
(𝑘 − 1)/(𝑠 + 𝑎)𝑘 𝑡 (𝑘−1/2) (𝑘 = 1,2, . . . )
𝑎/[(𝑠 − 𝑏)2 + 𝑎2 ] 𝑒 𝑏𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑡
2𝑘 3 /(𝑠 2 + 𝑘 2 )2 sin kt – ktcos kt
 C. Partial Fractions;
𝑥𝑜 𝑠 𝑢 + 𝑥𝑜 𝑠 𝑢−1 +. . . +𝑥𝑢
A fraction of the form in which u and v are positive integers,
𝑦𝑜 𝑠 𝑣 + 𝑦1 𝑠 𝑣−1 +. . . +𝑦𝑣

is called a rational algebraic fraction. When the numerator has a lower degree than the denominator, it is
called proper fraction.
To resolve a given fraction into partial fractions, factor first the denominator into real factors.
The factors maybe linear or quadratic and some are repeated. From this, we can resolved proper fraction
into a sum of partial fractions by four cases.

Case 1 : Factors of Denominator Linear and Distinct:

Where E(s) can be factored into linear factor;i.e.
𝑣
𝑣 𝑣−1 𝑣−2
𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑦𝑜 𝑠 = 𝑦1 𝑠 + 𝑦2 𝑠 +. . . 𝑦𝑣−1 + 𝑦𝑣 = ∏(𝑠 − 𝑘𝑖)
1

where
ki’s are distinct roots of E(s) for all i=1,2,…v ; hence
𝑣
𝑀(𝑠) 𝑋𝑖
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑣 = ∑[ ]
∏𝑖=1(𝑠 − 𝑘𝑖) (𝑠 − 𝑘𝑖)
𝑖=𝑙

where:
Xi’s are constant to be determined.

Case 2 : Factors of Denominator Linear and Repeated:

If E(s) can be factored into E(s) =(s-k)v then
𝑣
𝑀(𝑠) 𝑋𝑣
𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑣
= ∑[ ]
(𝑠 − 𝑘) (𝑠 − 𝑘)𝑣

where:
Xi’s are constants to be determined.
Case 3 : Factors of Denominator Quadratic:
Suppose E(s) can be factored into then

𝐹(𝑠) =

where:
Xi’s and Yi”s are element of a real number to be determined.
Case 4 : Factors of Denominator Quadratic and Repeated:

If 𝐸(𝑠) = ∏𝑣1(𝑥𝑠 2 + 𝑦𝑠 + 𝑧)𝑖 ,where h is an element of positive integer then

where:
Xi’s and Yi’s are constant to be determined.

CHAPTER QUIZ
Find the inverse Laplace Transform of the following as a function of (“t”).
A. Linearity:
(10𝑠+8)
1. 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠3
;f(t) = 10t 4t2 Answer
8
2. 𝐹(𝑠) = 3 ;f(t) = 4t2 Answer
𝑠
(3𝑠3 +3𝑠) 3 1
3. 𝐹(𝑠) = ;f(t)= 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 4 Answer
𝑠6 2 8
(48−60√𝑠) 3 32 5/2
4. 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠4
;f(t) 8𝑡 − 𝜋 𝑡 Answer
√
18
5. 𝐹(𝑠) = (2𝑠−3) ;f(t) = 9e3(t/2) Answer
12
6. 𝐹(𝑠) = (3𝑠−5) ;f(t) = 4e+5t/3 Answer
(6𝑠−54)
7. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 +9) ;f(t) = 6cos3t -18sin3t Answer
(3𝑠+9) 9
8. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 +5) ;f(t) = 3cos√5𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛√5𝑡 Answer
√5
(16−12𝑠) 4 3𝑡 3 3𝑡
9. 𝐹(𝑠) = (16𝑠2 +9) ;f(t) = 3
𝑠𝑖𝑛 4 − 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 Answer
(16𝑠−24) 6
10. 𝐹(𝑠) = (4𝑠2 +20) ;f(t) = 4𝑐𝑜𝑠√5𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛√5 Answer
√5
−1
11. 𝐹(𝑠) = 2(𝑠 + 1) − 4(𝑠 + 3)−1 ;EE BP April’97 ;f(t) = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 4𝑒 −3𝑡 Answer
(10𝑠+15) 25 𝑡
12. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 −2𝑠+5) ;f(t) = 10𝑒 𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 + 2
𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡
Answer
 (2−6𝑠) 2 7 7
13. 𝐹(𝑠) = (2𝑠2 −7) ;f(t) = 14
𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ√2 𝑡 − 3𝑐𝑜𝑠√2 𝑡 Answer
√
(6𝑠−21) 7 21 5
14. 𝐹(𝑠) = (3𝑠2 +5) ;f(t) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠√2 𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛√3 𝑡 Answer
√15

(12𝑠+8) 5
15. 𝐹(𝑠) = ;f(t) = 2𝑡 3 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑡 4 𝑒 𝑡 Answer
(𝑠−1)5 6

B. Completing the Square and Translations:

(2𝑠+8)
1. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 +4𝑠+8)
(3𝑠+6)
2. 𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠2 −3𝑠+4)
(12𝑠−8)
3. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 −4𝑠+20)
(16𝑠+48)
4. 𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠2 −8𝑠+16)
(9𝑠+21)
5. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 −2𝑠−3)
(6𝑠+6)
6. 𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠2 +𝑠+1)
√2𝑠
7. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 −2𝑠+3)
(14𝑠+8)
8. 𝐹(𝑠) = (4𝑠2 +4𝑠+9)
(4𝑠+12)
9. 𝐹(𝑠) =
(4𝑠2 +4𝑠+1)
(12𝑠−24)
10. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 +16)

C. Partial Fractions:

6
1. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 −9)
(2𝑠−6)
2. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 −𝑠−2)
(3𝑠−15)
3. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 +6𝑠+5)
(6𝑠+4)
4. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠2 −2𝑠−3)
(6𝑠2 −12)
5. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)(𝑠−3)
(10𝑠2 −30𝑠−22)
6. 𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠+1)(𝑠−2)3
(16𝑠+48)
7. 𝐹(𝑠) = (4𝑠2 +4𝑠−3)
2
8. 𝐹(𝑠) = (𝑠+1)(𝑠2 +1)
4
9. 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠2 +4)
(2𝑠+42)
10. 𝐹(𝑠) = (2𝑠2 −7𝑠−15)
CHAPTER 3 – POWER SERIES EXPANSION
General method of expanding a function in power series in y and (y-a).
1. Taylor Series Expansion (TSE)
-Powers of (y-a).

𝑓°(𝑎)(𝑦 − 𝑎)° 𝑓 1 (𝑎)(𝑦 − 𝑎)1 𝑓 2 (𝑎)(𝑦 − 𝑎)2 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)(𝑦 − 𝑎)𝑛

𝑓(𝑦) = + + + ⋯+
0! 1! 2! 𝑛!
2. Maclaurin Series Expansion (MSE)
-special case of TSE where y=0

𝑓(0)𝑦 0 𝑓 1 (0)𝑦 1 𝑓2 (0)𝑦 2 𝑓𝑛 (0)𝑦 𝑛

𝑓(𝑦) = 0!
+ 1!
+ 2!
+ ⋯+ 𝑛!

CHAPTER QUIZ
A. Obtain the MSE of the following functions.

1 22 2 23 3 24 4 2𝑚
1. ℎ(𝑦) = 𝑒 2𝑦
; 𝑒 −2𝑦 = 1 − 2𝑦 + 2!
𝑦 − 3!
𝑦 + 4!
𝑦 − ⋯+ (-1) 𝑚! 𝑦 𝑚

2 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 𝑡 2𝑚
2. 𝑓(𝑡) = 3𝑒 𝑡 ; 3𝑒 𝑡 = 3(1 + 𝑡 2 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 +⋯+
2! 3! 4! 𝑚!

2 𝑡 2𝑚
Or 3𝑒 𝑡 = 3 ∑∞
𝑚=0 [ 𝑚! ]

𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6 𝑥8 𝑥 2𝑚
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 ; 2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 = 2 (1 + + + + +⋯+ )
2! 4! 6! 8! (2𝑚)!
𝑥 2𝑚
Or 2𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ𝑥 = 2 ∑∞
𝑚=0 [(2𝑚)!]

𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7 𝑥 (2𝑚−1)
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 ; 3𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 3 (1 + 1! + 3!
+ 5!
+ 7!
+ ⋯ + (2𝑚−1)!)
𝑥 (2𝑚−1)
Or 3𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ𝑥 = 2 ∑∞
𝑚=1 [(2𝑚−1)!]

5. ℎ(𝑦) = 2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦

2! 3 4! 5 6! 7 𝑦 (2𝑚−1)
2𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑦 = 2 [𝑦 − 𝑦 + 𝑦 − 𝑦 + ⋯ + (−1)(𝑚−1) +⋯]
3! 5! 7! (2𝑚 − 1)!
1
recall: 1+𝑦2 = 1 − 𝑦 2 + 𝑦 4 − 𝑦 6 + ⋯

𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
6. Given the following series; 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 𝑥 − 3!
+ 5!
+ ⋯ ; 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = 1 − 2!
+ 4!
− 6!
…;
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
and 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2!
+ 3!
+ 4!
+ ⋯ what relation can you draw from these series?
7. Prove the Euler’s equation using MSE.

8. Using MSE show that

a. sin30° = 0.500;
 b. cos45° = 0.707 and
c. e = 2.718281828…
B. Obtain the TSE of the following functions.

1. ℎ(𝑦) = 2 ln(1 + 𝑦) in powers of (𝑦 − 0)

𝑦2 𝑦3 𝑦4 1
2 ln(1 + 𝑦) = 2 [𝑦 − + − + ⋯ + (−1)(𝑚−1) ( ) (𝑦 𝑚 ) + ⋯ ] Answer
2 3 4 𝑚
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = √ in powers of (x-0)
2
1 3 1 5 1 7 1 (2𝑚−1)
𝑥 1 ( 𝑥) ( 𝑥) ( 𝑥) ( 𝑥)
sin = 𝑥 − 2
+ 2
− 2
+⋯+ (−1)(𝑚−1) 2(2𝑚−1)! +⋯ Answer
2 2 3! 5! 7!

𝑥 (−1)(𝑚−1) 𝑥 (2𝑚−1)
or sin 2 = ∑∞
𝑚=1 [ 2(2𝑚−1) (2𝑚−1)!
] Answer
3. ℎ(𝑡) = 2𝑡(1 + 𝑡)−1 in powers of (𝑡 − 1)

2𝑡 1 (𝑡−1) (𝑡−1)2 (𝑡−1)3

(𝑡+1)
= 2 [2 + 2 2 − 23
+ 24
− ⋯] Answer

2𝑡 1 (−1)(𝑚−1) (𝑡−1)𝑚
or = 2 { + ∑∞
𝑚=1 [ ]} Answer
(𝑡+1) 2 2(𝑚+1)
𝑦
4. 𝑔(𝑦) = 3𝑒 in powers of (y-2)
2

𝑦
1 1 (𝑦−2) 1 (𝑦−2)(𝑚−1) )
3𝑒 2 = 3𝑒 [1 + 2 (𝑦 − 2) + 4 2!
+ ⋯ 2(𝑚−1) (𝑚−1)!
] +⋯ Answer
CHAPTER 4 – FOURIER SERIES
PERIODIC FUNCTIONS
If h(t) is a periodic function with period T is h(t + T) = h(t) then;

FOURIER SERIES
Is a series used to represent a periodic wave in either exponential or trigonometric form. The
series has the form of;
∞
1
ℎ(𝑦) = 𝑎𝑜 + ∑[𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑦 + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑦] ; 𝑜𝑟
2
𝑛−1

1
ℎ(𝑦) = 𝑎𝑜 + 𝑎1 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑦 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑦 + 𝑎3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛𝑦
2
+𝑏1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑦 + 𝑏2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑦 + 𝑏3 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑦 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑦
DIRICHLET CONDITIONS
A function h(y) satisfying the following conditions:
1. h(y) is periodic with period 2𝜋 ; ie h(y + 2𝜋) = h(y)
2. h(y) is a single-valued and finite in each period.
3. h(y) has a finite number of finite discontinuities in each period.
4. h(y) has a number of finite maxima and minima in each period.
EXPONENTIAL FOURIER SERIES
1 2𝜋 1 𝑇
𝐴𝑚 = ∫ ℎ(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝑗𝑚𝑤𝑡 𝑑(𝑤𝑡) = ∫ ℎ(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑗𝑚𝑤𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 𝑜 𝑇 𝑜

COMPLEX NOTATION FOR FOURIER SERIES

+∞

ℎ(𝑦) = ∑ [𝐶𝑚𝑒 𝑗(𝑚𝑦/𝐿) ]𝑑𝑦

𝑚=−∞

where:
 CHAPTER QUIZ
Determine the Fourier Series of the following functions.
0 −5 < 𝑡 < 0
1. ℎ(𝑡) = 2 { } ; period = 10
4 0 < 𝑡 < 5

2. 𝑔(𝑡) = 2𝑡 2 ; -1800 < t < 1800 ; period = 3600

0 −180 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 0
3. ℎ(𝜃) = 2 { } ; period = 3600
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 1800

−𝑡 −4 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 0
4. ℎ(𝑡) = 3 { }
𝑡 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4

5. ℎ(𝜃) = 3𝜃 ; 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 6
CHAPTER 5 – MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS
MATRIX
A rectangular array of numbers enclosed within brackets or quantity and arranged in “m” rows
and “n” columns. Each number in the matrix is called an element. A matrix having only one row is called
a row matrix (row vector) while a matrix having only one column is called a column matrix (column
vector). If the number of row “m” and “n” are equal the matrix is called square matrix. A matrix is said to
be real matrix or complex matrix according as its elements are real or complex numbers.
PROPERTIES OF A MATRIX
1. Equality of Matrices:
Two matrices C and D are equal if they are of the same order and
corresponding elements are equal. When m = n, it is a square matrix. An n x n or square matrix
is said to be of order n. The number associated with a square matrix is called a determinant.

2. Addition of Matrices:
If C = (cjk) and D = (djk) have the same order, then the sum of C and D is C + D = (cjk
+djk).

3. Subtraction of Matrices:
If C = (cjk) and D = (djk) have the same order, then the difference between C and D is C -
D = (cjk - djk) or D - C = (djk - cjk)

4. Multiplication of Matrices:
If C = (cjk) is an “m x n” matrix while D = (djk) is an “n x p” matrix, then we define the
product of CD or DC of C and D as matrix E = Ejk
where; 𝐸𝑗𝑘 = ∑𝑛𝑙=𝑖 𝑑𝑙𝑘

Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar:

If C = (cjk) is said to be multiplied by scalar 𝜆 then 𝜆C = 𝜆(cjk). In multiplication of matrices, the
operation is row by column. Each element of the row is multiplied into the corresponding elements of the
column and then the product is summed.
5. Transpose of a Matrix
If we interchange rows and columns of matrix C, then resulting matrix is called the
transpose of C and is denoted by CT. In symbols, if C = (cjk) then CT = (cjk).
The following laws are valid:
a. CD ≠ DC; if C or D is not the identity matrix
b. C (D + E) = CD + CE or; (D + E) C = DC + EC
c. (CD)E = C(DE)
d. (CD)T = DT. CT

6. Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices:

 A square matrix B is called symmetric if BT= B and skew-symmetric if BT= -B; i.e.
𝑎 𝑥 𝑧 𝑜 𝑥 −𝑧
[𝑥 𝑏 𝑦] and [−𝑥 𝑜 𝑦]
𝑧 𝑦 𝑐 𝑧 −𝑦 𝑜
7. Division of Matrices:
C = (cjk) and D = (djk) then (C + C) or (D + D) is equal to identity matrix;

𝐶 𝐷 𝐶
𝐶
= 𝐼 or 𝐷 = 𝐼 and 𝐷 = 𝐶𝐷 −1

where:
1 0 0
𝐼 = [0 1 0] ; assuming matrices C and D are of order 3. det. I = 1.
0 0 1
D-1 is inverse matrix of D.
COFACTOR OF A MATRIX
𝑏11 𝑏21 𝑏31
If 𝐵 = [𝑏12 𝑏22 𝑏32 ], let say we want to find the cofactor at second row , third column, then the
𝑏13 𝑏23 𝑏33
𝑏 𝑏21
cofactor at second row, third column is; (−1)(2+3) [ 11 ]
𝑏13 𝑏23
RULES FOR FINDING THE INVERSE O A MATRIX
1. Find the determinant B. If determinant B is equal to zero, there is no inverse. If the determinant B
is not equal to zero, continue to apply the following steps, where the determinant of matrix b is
denoted by det. B
2. Form the transposed of matrix B, (BT)
3. Replace each element of BT by each corresponding cofactor. The resulting matrix is called the
adjoint matrix.
4. Divide each element of the adjoint matrix by det. B and the result is B-1.
PROPERTIES OF INVERSE MATRIX
1. The inverse of the inverse of the given matrix B is (B-1)-1 = B
2. The inverse of the product is the product of the inverse in reverse order;
(B1 . B2 …. Bn)-1 = Bn-1…. B2-1. B1-1
THEOREMS ON DETERMINANTS
Theorem 1:
The number of terms in the expansion of a determinant of order k is k!
Theorem 2:
If the corresponding rows and columns of a determinant are interchanged, its value is
unchanged; det. B = det BT, i.e.
 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = |𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 |
𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
Theorem 3:
If any two columns (or rows) of a determinant are interchange, the sign of the determinant
are changed, i.e.
𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑏12 𝑏11 𝑏31
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = |𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 | = − |𝑏22 𝑏12 𝑏32 | or;
𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑏32 𝑏13 𝑏33
𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = |𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 | = − |𝑏12 𝑏22 𝑏32 |
𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13

Theorem 4:
If all the elements in any two columns (or rows) of a determinant are zero, the values of
the determinant are zero, i.e;
𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏31 𝑏11 𝑏12 0
| 0 0 0 | = 0 also|𝑏21 𝑏22 0 = 0|
𝑏13 𝑏23 𝑏33 𝑏31 𝑏32 0
Theorem 5:
If any two columns (or rows) of a determinant have their corresponding elements
identical or proportional, its value is zero, i.e;
3 1 −2 3 6 −5
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = |−2 4 7 | = 0 ; 𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = |−2 −4 3 | = 0
3 1 −2 3 2 −1
Theorem 6:
If each element of a column (or rows) in determinant is multiplied by the same number k,
the value of the determinant is multiplied by k, i.e;
𝑏11 𝑘𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑏11 𝑏21 𝑏31
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = |𝑏21 𝑘𝑏22 𝑏23 | = 𝑘 |𝑏12 𝑏22 𝑏32 |
𝑏31 𝑘𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑏13 𝑏23 𝑏33
Theorem 7:
If three determinants D1 , D2 and D3 have corresponding elements equal, except for one
column (or row) in which the element of D1 are the sums of the corresponding elements of D2
and D3 , then, i.e;
D1 = (D2 + D3)
 𝑏11 + 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
𝐷1 = |𝑏21 + 𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 |;
𝑏31 + 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
𝑏11 𝑏21 𝑏31 𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
𝐷2 = |𝑏12 𝑏22 𝑏32 | ; 𝐷3 = |𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 |
𝑏13 𝑏23 𝑏33 𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
Theorem 8:
If each element of any column (or rows) of a determinant is multiplied by the same
number k and added to the corresponding elements of another column (or row), the value of the
determinant is unchanged, i.e;

𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13 𝑏11 (𝑏21 + 𝑘𝑏11 ) 𝑏31

𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = |𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 | = |𝑏12 (𝑏23 + 𝑘𝑏21 ) 𝑏32 |
𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33 𝑏13 (𝑏23 + 𝑘𝑏31 ) 𝑏33

Theorem 9:
The value of the determinant is the algebraic sum of the products obtained by multiplied
each element of a column (or row) by its cofactor or signed minor, i.e;
𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = |𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 | = 𝑏12 𝐵12 + 𝑏22 𝐵22 + 𝑏32 𝐵32
𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
𝑏21 𝑏23 𝑏 𝑏13 𝑏 𝑏13
𝐷 = 𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = 𝑏12 | | + 𝑏22 | 11 | − 𝑏32 | 11 |
𝑏31 𝑏33 𝑏31 𝑏33 𝑏21 𝑏23

METHODS IN EVALUATING A (M X M) DETERMINANTS

A. Determinant of (2 x 2) matrix:
𝑏 𝑏12
If 𝐴 = | 11 | , then the det. B can be determined by Cramer’s Rule.
𝑏21 𝑏22
𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = 𝑏11 𝑏22 − 𝑏21 𝑏21

B. Determinant of (3 x 3) matrix:
𝑏11 𝑏12 𝑏13
If 𝐵 = |𝑏21 𝑏22 𝑏23 | , then the det. B can be found by three methods.
𝑏31 𝑏32 𝑏33
1. By Basket Method:
𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = (𝑏11 𝑏22 𝑏33 + 𝑏12 𝑏23 𝑏31 + 𝑏13 𝑏21 𝑏32
− ( 𝑏31 𝑏22 𝑏13 + 𝑏32 𝑏23 𝑏11 + 𝑏33 𝑏21 𝑏12 )
 2. By Basket Method:
𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = (𝑏11 𝑏22 𝑏33 + 𝑏12 𝑏23 𝑏31 + 𝑏13 𝑏21 𝑏32
− ( 𝑏31 𝑏22 𝑏13 + 𝑏32 𝑏23 𝑏11 + 𝑏33 𝑏21 𝑏12 )

3. By Chio’s Method:
Is another method to evaluate the dereminant of an (mxm) order matrix where 𝑏11 ≠ 0.
The formula is;
1
𝑑𝑒𝑡. 𝐵 = (𝑚−2)
| |
𝑏11

C. Determinant of (4 x 4) matrix:
To evaluate the determinant of a (4x4) up to any (mxm) matrix, we can use the following
methods:
Using Pivotal Element Method:
Procedures:
a. Choose unity as the pivotal element (if there is)
b. Cross-out the row and column containing that pivotal element. However, if there is
no unity as an element, divide all the elements in any row or column by bij and
multiply the whole determinant by bij.
c. On each element of the resulting determinant subtract the product of the row and
column met by the row and column containing the pivotal element.
d. Multiply the resulting determinant by (-1)(1+j)
e. Then the order of the determinant is (m-1).

CHAPTER QUIZ

2 14 3 1
1 5 −1 3
1. Evaluate the determinant, 𝐴 = [1 −2 2 −3] using Chio’s Method and Laplace Development
3 −4 −3 −4
2. Find the values of x from the matrix equation.
𝑥 (3 + 𝑥) −10
[(𝑥 + 1) (2 + 𝑥) 5 ] = 40
2 (4 + 𝑥) −𝑥
(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 5)
2 3 −5
3. If 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐵 = [ 𝑥 −𝑥 ] find the values of x if AB = 25
6 7 8 −2𝑥 (2𝑥 + 1)
6 2 3 8 3
7 4 4 7 2
4. Evaluate the determinant 𝐴 = 8 3 2 6 1 using Pivotal Element
9 5 1 5 7
[7 6 7 4 8]
5. Given the three loop current equations, determine I1, I2, and I3 using Cramer’s Rule and Chio’s
Method.
 I1 + I2 + I3 = 12
2I1 + 5I2 - 3I3 = 6
3I1 + 3I2 + 3I3 = 36
6. Evaluate the determinant.
1 6 4 −1 8
2 7 8 4 4
𝐴= 3 4 7 6 5 using Chio’s Method
4 6 2 7 6
[5 −3 4 2 7]
CHAPTER 6 – VECTOR ANALYSIS
VECTOR QUANTITY
Is a quantity that is characterized by both magnitude and directions, such as displacement,
velocity, force and acceleration.
A vector can be represented by an arrow TH, defining the direction, the magnitude of the vector
being indicated by the length of the arrow. Th “tail end” “T” of the arrow is called the “initial point” of
the vector and the “head” is called the “terminal point” or “terminus”
SCALAR QUANTITY
Is a quantity having magnitude but no direction, such as mass, length, time, temperature and any
real nos. Scalars are indicated by letters in ordinary type.
VECTOR ALGEBRA
The following definitions are fundamentals:
1. Two vectors C and D are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction regardless of the
position of their initial positions, ie;

C D

2. A vector having direction opposite to that of vector “C” but with the same magnitude is denoted
as -C, ie;

+ -
C C
3. The “sum or the resultant” of vectors C and D shown is a vector “E” formed by placing initial
point of D on the terminal of C and joining the initial point of C to the terminal of D. The sum of
“E” is written as; E = C +D, ie;

Dv Dv C
C C E D
C
V

E Dv C
4. The difference of vectors C and D, represented by E is that E = (C-D) which when added to D
yields to vector C. Equivalently, (C-D) can be defined also as C + (-D). If C = D, then (C-D) is
defined as “null or zero vector”

Dv
C C
E= E = C+(-D)
V
C+
(- -D C
D) C
 5. The product of vector B by scalar “m” is a vector “mB” with magnitude |𝑚| times the magnitude
of B and with the direction the same as or opposite to that of B, according as “m” is positive or
negative. If m=o, mB is a null vector.
If m=2 If m=-2

B=2
mB=4 -mB=-4

LAWS OF VECTOR ALGEBRA

1. C+D=D+C ; Commutative Law for Addition
2. C + (D + E) = (C + D) +E ; Associative Law for Addition
3. mC = Cm ; Commutative Law for Multiplication
4. m(nc) = (mn)C ; Associative Law for Multiplicaton
5. (m + n)C = mC + nC ; Distributive Law
6. M(C +D) = mC + mD ; Distributive Law
UNIT VECTORS
𝐵 𝐵
Are vectors having unit length. If “B” is any vector with length B > 0, then = |𝐵|
is a unit
𝐵
vector denoted by “a”, having the same direction as B, then 𝑎𝐵 = 𝑎|𝐵|.
𝐵
𝑎𝐵 = |𝐵|
where |𝐵|= magnitude of vector B.

RECTANGULAR UNIT VECTOR

i(bx), j(by) and k(bz) are unit vectors having the direction of the positive x, y and z axes of a
rectangular coordinate systems.
COMPONENTS OF A VECTOR
Any vector “B” in a 3 dimensions can be represented by initial point “o” of a rectangular
coordinate system, let B1 , B2 and B3 be the rectangular coordinates of the terminal point of vector B with
initial point at “0”. The vectors or simply “component vectors” of B in the x, y and z axes direction
respectively.
In general, the position vector or radius vector “r” from “0” to a point (x,y,z) is r=xi + yj + zk
|𝑟| = 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

VECTOR OPERATIONS
A. Addition of Vectors:(2-Dimensional)
There are two methods in adding series of vectors in 2-dimenional axes. They are the Graphical
and Analytical Methods.
1. Graphical Method
This method is used to determine the resultant of series of vectors graphically. Two types:
a. Parallelogram Method
In this method if we are going to determine the resultant of the three vectors A, B, and C, take
the resultant first of the two vectors say A and B then the resulting vector is added to the third
vector which is vector C and the resulting vector is now the final resultant vector.
b. Polygon Method
In this method, we will connect the series of vectors graphically starting from the reference
point up to the last vector then the resultant vector is the vector connecting from a reference
point to the head of the last vector.
2. Analytical Method
This method is done through computation and this is of two types.
a. Component Method
In this method the magnitude of the resultant is obtained by the formula:
2
𝑅 = √(𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 )

𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦
𝜃𝑅 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐 tan ( )
𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥
b. By sine and cosine law:
Consider an oblique triangle CDE with sides c, d and e

Sine Law:
𝑐 𝑑 𝑒
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐸

Cosine Law:
𝑐 2 = 𝑑2 + 𝑒 2 − 2𝑑𝑒 cos 𝐶
𝑑2 = 𝑐 2 + 𝑒 2 − 2𝑐𝑒 cos 𝐷

𝑒 2 = 𝑑2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑑𝑐 cos 𝐸

B. Multiplication of Vectors:(3-Dimensional)
There are two methods in multiplication of vectors in 3-dimenional axes. They are the Graphical
and Analytical Methods.
1. Dot (or SCALAR) Product
The dot or scalar product of two vectors C and D denoted by C∙D which is denoted by 𝐶 ∙
𝐷 = |𝐶||𝐷|𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
Where ∅ = angle between vectors C and D, (0≤ ∅ ≤ 𝜋)
The following laws are valid:
a. C ∙ D = D ∙ C Commutative Law
for Dot Product
b. C ∙ (D + C) = C ∙ D + C ∙ C Distributive Law
for Dot Product
c. m ( C ∙ D ) = (mC) ∙ D – C ∙(mD) = (C ∙ D)m where m is a scalar
d. 𝑖 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑗 ∙ 𝑗 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑘 = 1
 but 𝑖 ∙ 𝑗 = 𝑗 ∙ 𝑘 = 𝑘 ∙ 𝑗 = 0
𝑗 ∙𝑖 =𝑘∙𝑗 =𝑗∙𝑘 =0
e. If 𝐶 = 𝐶1 𝑗 + 𝐶2 𝑗 + 𝐶3 𝑘 & 𝐷1 𝑖 + 𝐷2 𝑗 + 𝐷3 𝑘
𝐶 ∙ 𝐷 = 𝐶1 𝐷1 + 𝐶2 𝐷2 + 𝐶3 𝐷3
𝐶 ∙ 𝐷 − 𝐶 2 = 𝐶1 2 + 𝐶2 2 + 𝐶3 2
𝐷 ∙ 𝐷 = 𝐷 2 − 𝐷1 2 + 𝐷2 2 + 𝐷 2

f. If 𝐶 ∙ 𝐷 = 0 and; C and D are not null vectors; C and D are perpendicular; ∅ =

90°
2. Cross (or VECTOR) Product
The cross of vector product C and D denoted by C xD =C

𝐶 𝑥𝐷 = |𝐶||𝐷| sin ∅ 𝜇𝑁 ; 0≤∅≤𝜋

The following laws are valid:

a. C × D = −𝐶 × 𝐷 Commutative Law
for Cross Product
b. C × (D + E) = C × D + C ∙ E Distributive Law
for Cross Product
c. m ( C ×D ) = (mC) × D – C ×(mD) = (C ×D)m where m is a scalar

d. 𝑖 × 𝑖 = 0 ; 𝑖 × 𝑗 = 𝑘 ; 𝑗 × 𝑖 = −𝑘
𝑗×𝑗 =0 ;𝑗×𝑘 =𝑖 ; 𝑖 × 𝑘 = −𝑗

e. If 𝐶 = 𝐶1 𝑖 + 𝐶2 𝑗 + 𝐶3 𝑘 & 𝐷 = 𝐷1 𝑖 + 𝐷2 𝑗 + 𝐷3 𝑘 then

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝐶
𝐶×𝐷 = 1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐶3

f. |𝐶 × 𝐷| = area of parallelogram with sides C and D

= is the magnitude of ( C ×D )

g. If C ×D = 0 and (C and D) are not null vectors, then C and D are parallel

The Triple Product

The following laws are valid:
1. (𝐶 ∙ 𝐷)𝐸 ≠ 𝐶(𝐷 ∙ 𝐸) ; in general
2. C ∙ (D × 𝐸) = 𝐷 ∙ (E × 𝐶) = 𝐸 ∙ (C × 𝐷) = volume of parallelepiped having C,
D and E as edges or the negative of this volume according as C, D and E do or
do not form a right-handed screw system.
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝐶 ∙ (𝐷 × 𝐸) = 𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3
𝐸1 𝐸2 𝐸3
 Where 𝐶 = 𝐶1 𝑖 + 𝐶2 𝑗 + 𝐶3 𝑘
𝐷 = 𝐷1 𝑖 + 𝐷2 𝑗 + 𝐷3 𝑘
𝐸 = 𝐸1 𝑖 + 𝐸2 𝑗 + 𝐸3 𝑘

3. C × (D × E) ≠ (C × D) × E Associative Law
for Cross Product
4. C × (D × E) = (𝐶 ∙ 𝐸)𝐷 − (𝐶 ∙ 𝐷)𝐸
C × (D × E) = (𝐶 ∙ 𝐸)𝐷 − (𝐷 ∙ 𝐸)𝐶

CHAPTER QUIZ
𝜋 𝜋
1. Find the distance between (6, 4 , 10) and (4, 6 , 5) where the points are given in cylindrical
coordinates.
2. Transform each of the following vectors to spherical coordinates at the point specified.
a. 𝐵 = 10𝑗 𝑎𝑡 (2, 3, 4)
b. 𝐵 = (4𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 6𝑘) 𝑎𝑡 (2, 3, 4)
3. Given 𝐶 = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 3𝑘 and 𝐷 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘, find 𝐶 ∙ 𝐷 and 𝐶 × 𝐷
4. Find the resultant of four vectors 𝐴 = 3 < 70°, 𝐵 = 6 < −30°, 𝐶 = 8 < 45°, and
𝐷 = 7 < 90°, using graphical method.
5. Find the resultant vector of the three vectors 𝐴 = 10 < 30°, 𝐵 = (7 + 𝑗10) and
𝐶 = 7 < −35° using analytical method.
6. Transform 𝐶 = 4𝑖 − 2𝑗 − 4𝑘 at point (2,3,5) to cylindrical coordinates.
4𝑥 2 𝑘
7. Transform 𝐵 = 4𝑦𝑖 + 4𝑥𝑗 + to cylindrical coordinates.
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 )0.5
8. Prove the law of cosines for plane triangle using vector analysis.
9. Convert the vector field 𝐻 = 2(𝑥 − 𝑦) in cylindrical.
10. Find the vector directed from (10, 135°, 30°) to (5, 45°, 180°) where the points are given in
spherical coordinates in Cartesian Coordinates as vector B.
Prepared by:
Paula Lyka D. Espinas - Chapter 1
Winson July Riosa - Chapter 2 and 4
John Christian Golingan - Chapter 3, 5 and 6
For completion in AC Apparatus and Devices