OPEN ENDED LAB 1

Objective #1

To model the single-phase transformer by performing open circuit and short circuit test.
Also find out the efficiency and voltage regulation of that transformer. Draw phasor
diagrams for both positive and negative voltage regulation.

Apparatus:

1. Transformer
2. Loads (Different ratings)
3. Voltmeter
4. Ammeter
5. Wattmeter

Theory:

Open-Circuit Test

In the open-circuit test, one transformer winding is open-circuited and the other winding is
connected to full rated line voltage. Under the conditions described, all the input current must be
flowing through the excitation branch of the transformer. The series elements, RP and XP are too
small in comparison to RC and XM to cause a significant voltage drop, so essentially all the input
voltage is dropped across the excitation branch.

The open-circuit test connections are shown in figure. Full line voltage is applied to one side of
the transformer and the input voltage, input current and input power to the transformer are
measured. (This measured is normally done on the low-voltage side of the transformer, since
lower voltages are easier to work with). From this information, it is possible to determine the
power factor of the input current and therefore both the magnitude and the angle of the excitation
impedance.
To calculate the values of RC and XM is to look first at the admittance of the excitation branch.
The conductance of the core-loss resistor is given by

GC =

And the susceptance of the magnetizing inductor is given by

BM =

Since these two elements are in parallel and the total excitation admittance is

YE = GC - jBM

YE =

The magnitude of the excitation admittance (referred to the side of the transformer used for the
measurement) can be found from the open-circuit test voltage and current:

YE =

The angle of the admittance can be found from knowledge of the circuit power factor. The open-
circuit power factor (PF) is given by

PF = cosθ =

The power factor is always lagging for a real transformer, so the angle of the current always lags
the angle of the voltage by θ degrees. Therefore, the admittance YE is

YE = ∠-θ

YE = ∠ - cos-1 PF
Short-Circuit Test

In the short-circuit test, the low voltage terminals of the transformer are short-circuited and the
high-voltage terminals are connected to a variable voltage source. (This measurement is
normally done on the high-voltage side of the transformer, since currents will be lower on that
side and lower currents are easier to work with). The input voltage is adjusted until the current in
the short-circuited windings is equal to its rated value. The input voltage, current and power is
again measured.

Since the input voltage is so low during the short-circuit test, negligible current flow through the
excitation branch. If the excitation branch current is ignored, then all the voltage drops in the
transformer can be attributed to the series elements in the circuit. The magnitude of the series
impedances referred to the primary side of the transformer is

ZSC =

The power factor of the current is given by

PF = cosθ =

and is lagging. The current angle is thus negative and the overall impedance angle θ is positive:

θ = cos-1

Therefore,
∠
ZSE = = ∠θ
∠

The series impedance ZSE is equal to

ZSE = Req + jXeq

It is possible to determine the total series impedance referred to the high-voltage side by using
this technique.

Procedure:

1. Make connections according to the given circuits.

2. Connect primary of transformer with variable AC voltage supply.
3. Now keep on increasing voltage until the rated current reading is shown on the ammeter
connected.
4. Once rated current reading is achieved at any specific voltage level, note down reading of
instruments.
5. Calculate different parameters.

Observations:

Observation Table (Open-Circuit Test)

S.No Wo (Watts) Vo (Volts) Io (Ampere)

1. 0.2 x 2 = 0.4 24 0.1

Observation Table (Short-Circuit Test)

S.No Wsc (Watts) Vsc (Volts) Isc (Ampere) Isec (Ampere)

1. 16 x 2 = 32 256 0.03 x 2 = 0.06 0.5 x 2 = 1

Results:

The iron losses of single phase transformer are found are watts.

The copper losses of single phase transformer are watts.

Calculations:

Open-Circuit Test:

Short-Circuit Test:
Theory:

Efficiency of Transformer

The efficiency of transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. It is denoted
by . As the output power is always less than the input power due to the losses in the
transformer, practically the transformer efficiency is always between 0 and 1 but it can never be
1 or 100%. The efficiency of an ideal transformer is equal to 1 or 100% since the losses in the
ideal transformer are zero.

The graph of output power versus efficiency of transformer is shown in the figure. The figure
shows that the efficiency increases with the increase in the output power up to a certain value
and after a particular value of output power, the transformer efficiency decreases.

The value of transformer efficiency will be maximum when the copper losses will be equal to
iron losses in the transformer. The value of maximum efficiency can be found by taking total
losses equal to 2pi. It also depends on load power factor and has the maximum value at a power
factor of unity.

%= x 100

%=
The transformer has no moving parts so the losses due to friction and windage are absent
therefore its efficiency is very high. It can be at least equal to 90%.

Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation is the difference between the transformer secondary no-load and full-load
voltage with respect to its full load voltage. Essentially, every transformer has a voltage drop
caused by its own impedance (which is composed of its winding resistive and inductive
properties). Therefore, at different voltages and loading conditions, this internal voltage drop
across the transformer windings will vary and will ultimately affect the final secondary output
voltage.

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as shown in figure.

2. Switch the primary supply and read the no load secondary voltage.
3. Increase the load on the secondary side in steps.
4. Following every step take readings.
Observations:

Observation Table (Efficiency & Voltage Regulation)

No-load secondary voltage VSNL = volts.

S.No Amount of Vp (Volts) Ip (Ampere) Vs (Volts) Is (Ampere)

Load
1. No-Load 13
2. Half-Load

Calculations:

(For Efficiency & Voltage Regulation)

For Half-Load:

For Full-Load:
Result:

It is observed that at full load condition, efficiency of transformer is maximum.

Positive Voltage Regulation (Phasor Diagram):

The diagram shows that the phase angle of current in the line affects voltage regulation
significantly. Lagging current makes the required magnitude of sending end voltage quite large
relative to the receiving end. The phase angle difference between sending and receiving end is
minimized.

Negative Voltage Regulation (Phasor Diagram):

Leading current in actually allows the sending end voltage magnitude be smaller than the
receiving end magnitude, so the voltage counter-intuitively increases along the line.
 OPEN ENDED LAB 2
Objective:

To perform the parallel operation of two single-phase transformers.

(a) Do polarity test on each transformer and connect them with regard to their
polarities.
(b) Connect load on parallel connection of transformer and prove the equal load
sharing according to the KVA rating of each transformer.

Apparatus:

1. Transformer
2. Load
3. Voltmeter
4. Ammeter

Theory:

Polarity Test

We use dot convention to identify the voltage polarity of the mutual inductance of two windings.
The two used conventions are:

 If a current enters the dotted terminal of one winding, then the voltage induced on the
other winding will be positive at the dotted terminal of the second winding.

 If a current leaves the dotted terminal of one winding, then the polarity of the voltage
induced in the other winding will be negative at the dotted terminal of the second
winding.
Parallel Operation of Single-Phase Transformers

Paralleling is done by connecting same polarity terminals of the primary winding together. A
similar procedure is done for the secondary winding. Paralleling will increase the power
supplying capacity and also the reliability of the system.

We do polarity test on parallel transformers to ensure that we connect the same polarity windings
and not the opposite ones. If we accidentally connect the opposite polarities of the windings, it
will result in a short-circuit and eventually damage the machine.

We can categorize the polarity of the transformer to two types:

1. Additive Polarity
2. Subtractive Polarity
Additive Polarity
In additive polarity, the voltage (Vc) between the primary side (Va) and the secondary side (Vb)
will be the sum of both high voltage and the low voltage, i.e. we will get Vc = Va + Vb.

Subtractive Polarity
In subtractive polarity, the voltage (Vc) between the primary side (Va) and the secondary side
(Vb) will be the difference of both high voltage and the low voltage, i.e. we will get Vc = Va – Vb.

In subtractive polarity, if Vc = Va – Vb, it is a step-down transformer and if Vc = Vb – Va, it is a

step-up transformer.

We use additive polarity for small-scale distribution transformers and subtractive polarity for
large-scale transformers.

Procedure of Polarity Test of Transformer

The practical working figure of a polarity test on the transformer is shown.

 Connect the voltmeter across the primary windings and the voltmeter across the
secondary windings. The third voltmeter is connected across the two windings.
 Slowly vary the auto-transformer to its rated value; we observe the voltmeter readings
begin to change.
 Note all the readings of voltmeters. From the values of voltmeters, we can able to
conclude the polarity whether it is additive or subtractive.
 If the reading of the third voltmeter is the addition of both voltmeters then, it is an
additive type.
 If the reading of the third voltmeter is subtractive of both voltmeters then, it is a
subtractive type.
Observations:
Observation Table (Parallel Load Sharing)

S.No Connected Vp (Volts) Is-1 Vs (Volts) Is-2

Load (Ampere) (Ampere)
1.

Precautions

 Check the practical connections are not loose.

 Do not touch the wires while operating.

Conditions for Parallel Operation of Single-Phase Transformers

 Same voltage and turns ratio (both primary and secondary voltage rating should be
same).
 Same percentage impedance and X/R ratio.
 Identical position of tap changer.
 Same KVA rating.
 Same phase angle shift (vector group must be same).
 Same frequency rating.
 Same polarities.
 Same phase sequences.