The A m e r i c a n Association iif Pflroleuni (icologists Bullclin
V. 7 l , N o . 6 ( J i i n L ' 1987). F' 633-642, 6 higs.
Assessing the Relative Importance of
Compaction Processes and Cementation to
Reduction of Porosity in Sandstones^
DAVID W. HOUSEKNECHT'
ABSTRACT
At the depositional surface, well-sorted sand has
approximately 40% porosity. During burial diagenesis,
that porosity is reduced by mechanical compaction, inter-
granular pressure solution, and cementation. Mechanical
compaction and intergranular pressure solution can both
be considered compactional processes because they irre-
versibly reduce the intergranular volume of sand. In con-
trast, cementation occludes, but does not reduce,
intergranular volume.
The relative importance of compactional processes and
cementation to porosity reduction can be quantified using
a graph of intergranular volume vs. cement. This diagram
can be used to evaluate which diagenetic processes have
been most influential to intergranular porosity reduction
and to determine why some sandstones retain better reser-
voir quality than others. The diagram can also be used to
reconstruct pathways taken by sandstones during burial
diagenesis.
Results of applying this technique to data from the Nug-
get Sandstone and Bromide sandstone (Simpson Group)
indicate that mechanical compaction and intergranular
pressure solution were much more important than cemen-
tation in determining ultimate porosity. Moreover, the best
porosity is preserved in samples that have undergone the
least intergranular pressure solution. These conclusions
emphasize the importance of integrating an evaluation of
these compactional processes into analyses of reservoir
sandstones and into models of burial diagenesis.
©Copyright 1987. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
^Manuscript received, June 16,1986; accepted, January 19,1987.
^Department of Geology University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211.
Acl<nowledgment is made to the donors of The Petroleum Research Fund,
administered by the American Chemical Society, for partial support of this
research (14417-AC2). Amoco Production Company (for work on the Nugget
Sandstone) and Tenneco Oil Company (for work on the Simpson Group Bro-
mide sandstone) also provided partial support. SEM work was performed in the
University of Missouri Geology SEM facility, managed by Lou Ross. The
National Science Foundation (EAR-8217931); Amoco Foundation, Inc.; Chev-
ron U.S.A.; Marathon Oil Company; Mobii Oil Corporation; Phillips Petroleum
Company; and Texaco Philanthropic Foundation, Inc., provided funding for
the SEM facility. The cathodoluminescence microscope used in this research
was partially funded by the Research Council of the Graduate School, Univer-
sity of Missouri-Columbia.
I sincerely thank my friends at Amoco, Chevron, and Exxon research labs for
numerous discussions and suggestions that helped mold my perceptions of
sandstone diagenesis. Friends at Exxon convinced me that "intergranular vol-
ume" is more appropriately descriptive than terms I used in the past. Finally, I
thank Earle McBride, Lee Stephenson, and Donna Summers for thoughtful
reviews that improved this paper.
633
INTRODUCTION
Sandstone reservoir quality is largely determined by dia-
genetic processes that either reduce or enhance porosity
Mechanical compaction, intergranular pressure solution,
cementation, framework grain dissolution, and cement dis-
solution have all been documented as playing significant
roles in modifying porosity of various sandstones. Never-
theless, current literature tends to emphasize that cementa-
tion reduces porosity and that framework grain and cement
dissolution enhance porosity, and tends to ignore the impor-
tance of mechanical compaction and intergranular pressure
solution. For example, AAPG's recently published memoir
on clastic diagenesis (McDonald and Surdam, 1984) con-
tains 22 papers, of which only four briefly mention the role
of compactional processes in determining ultimate reservoir
quality.
In contrast to the other diagenetic processes, mechanical
compaction and intergranular pressure solution reduce the
intergranular volume (minus cement porosity) of sands and
sandstones. The intergranular volume eliminated by these
processes might otherwise have been occupied by pore
space or by some soluble cement (e.g., calcite) that could
potentially dissolve during later diagenesis. Thus, reducing
the intergranular volume by these two processes represents
irreversible destruction of porosity and potential porosity in
sandstones.
This paper presents a technique with which the relative
importance of compactional processes and cementation to
porosity reduction can be quantified, and illustrates the use
of the technique with data from two reservoir sandstones.
This technique is intended for use on sandstones composed
primarily of nonductile grains and is useful for analyzing
intergranular porosity only; it cannot be used to analyze
secondary porosity generated by dissolution of framework
grains.
ORIGINAL POROSITY OF SAND
The porosity of naturally deposited sand is difficult to
measure because sampling procedures tend to disturb origi-
nal packing arrangements. The most extensive data base
collected from natural sands is that of Pryor (1973), who
measured the porosity, permeability, and textural character-
istics of sands from river point bars, beaches, and eolian
dunes adjacent to beaches. Porosity values were found to
vary considerably within deposits of each environment.
634 Compaction Processes and Cementation
Point bar sand porosity ranged from 17 to 52%, with a
mean of 41 %; beach sand porosity ranged from 39 to 56%,
with a mean of 49%; and dune sand porosity ranged from
42 to 55%, with a mean of 49%. However, most of the low
porosity values in point bar sands represents poorly to mod-
erately sorted samples; in well and very well sorted samples,
no porosity values below 40% were reported (Pryor, 1973,
his Figure 18). Beard and Weyl (1973) determined that the
porosity of 25 Holocene barrier-island sand samples ranged
from 40 to 45%. Others have reported porosity values to
range from 35 to 45% in sands from a variety of modern
environments (e.g., Eraser, 1935; Hamilton and Menard,
1956).
Numerous researchers investigated the relationships
among texture, porosity, and permeability of unconsoli-
dated, natural sand by making "artificial" grain packs in
the laboratory. The most comprehensive study is that of
Beard and Weyl (1973). After mixmg sand into discrete sort-
ing categories and artificially packing the sand in water,
they reported mean poroshies as follows: very poorly
sorted, 27.9%; poorly sorted, 30.7%; moderately sorted,
34.0%; well sorted, 39.0%; very well sorted, 40.8%; and
extremely well sorted, 42.4%. Beard and Weyl (1973) also
artificially packed sand samples collected from Holocene
barrier islands and found the sand to be well to extremely
well sorted and the porosities to range from 38 to 43%.
They found excellent agreement (within 3% porosity)
among the porosities of naturally packed sand, artificially
packed sand with natural sorting, and artificially packed
sand with sorting controlled by laboratory mixing of sieved
sand fractions. In similar, but less comprehensive studies,
numerous other researchers found porosities to range from
35 to 47% for sands well sorted and better (e.g., Gaither,
1953; Rogers and Head, 1961).
An alternative approach to determining relationships
among texture, porosity, and permeability has been to work
with geometric packing of perfect spheres. The landmark
work of Fraser (1935) and Graton and Fraser (1935) pro-
vided the basic concepts of how grain size, sorting, and
grain packing affect porosity. Fraser and Graton demon-
strated that porosity is independent of grain size, but
decreases significantly with poorer sorting. They also estab-
lished the existence of a limited number of ideal packing
arrangements for perfectly sorted spheres and calculated
the porosity associated with each, ranging from a minimum
of 25.95% for rhombohedral (tightest) packing to 47.64%
for cubic Ooosest) packing. These ideal packing models pro-
vide a conceptual framework within which one may visual-
ize natural intergranular porosity.
The research cited above suggests that most sands that
are well sorted or better contain at least 40% porosity at the
depositional surface. That value (40%) is used throughout
this paper as the original porosity that is subsequently modi-
fied by diagenetic processes during burial. Variations in
original porosity will affect the results obtained from the
technique discussed below, and these variations will be
addressed in a subsequent section. This technique analyzes
the modification of intergranular porosity only (including
cement-dissolution porosity), and does not include the
development of grain-dissolution porosity
REDUCTION OF POROSITY BY
COMPACTION AND CEMENTATION
Operational Definitions
Three diagenetic processes are important in modifying
intergranular porosity: mechanical compaction, chemical
compaction, and cementation. Before the relative impor-
tance of each can be quantified, clear definitions of these
processes must be estabUshed.
Mechanical compaction. —Mechanical compaction is the
bulk volume reduction resulting from processes other than
framework grain dissolution. Generally induced by litho-
static stress, mechanical compaction is characterized by the
reorientation and repacking of competent (brittle) grains,
by local fracture or cleavage of brittle grams, and by plastic
deformation of ductile grains. In sands composed predomi-
nately of nonductile grains, mechanical compaction does
not reduce the volume of framework grains; mechanical
compaction is characterized entirely by the reduction of
intergranular volume and, therefore, porosity
Chemical compaction.—Chemicsl compaction is the
bulk volume reduction caused by the dissolution of frame-
work grains at points of contact (also see Fiichtbauer, 1967).
Chemical compaction is generally induced by lithostatic
stress and is characterized by intergranular pressure solu-
tion, although the definition can include stylolitization that
may be induced by either lithostatic or tectonic stress.
Chemical compaction reduces the volume of framework
grains; it also reduces intergranular volume and, therefore,
porosity by causing the closer packing of framework grains
(e.g., Rittenhouse, 1971a).
Cementation.—Csmsntation is the occlusion of inter-
granular volume by the precipitation of authigenic miner-
als, with no directly related reduction of bulk volume.
Cementation always results in the reduction of intergranu-
lar porosity.
Conceptualization
When assessing the diagenetic modification of intergran-
ular porosity, it is useful to separate the effects of compac-
tional processes from the effects of cementation by using
the diagram shown in Figure 1. The vertical axis represents
intergranular volume (expressed as a percentage of the
whole rock), which is the sum of intergranular porosity plus
all cements that occupy intergranular space. The term
"intergranular volume" was apparently first used by Weller
(1959), and is synonymous with minus-cement porosity
(Rosenfeld, 1949; Heald, 1956). This variable is easily
quantified by point counting, although the point counting
must be performed on a cathodoluminescence microscope
if, on a standard petrographic microscope, the outlines of
detrital grains are not clearly distinguishable from cements
(e.g., Houseknecht, 1984).
Compactional processes determine the modification of
intergranular volume during burial, as outlined in the pre-
vious section. At the depositional surface, a well-sorted
sand has an intergranular volume (i.e., intergranular poros-
ity, inasmuch as there is no cement present) of about 40%;
 David W. Houseknecht 635

CEMENT / INTERGRANULAR VOLUME fragments can undergo a total destruction of intergranular

0 0.5 1.0 volume during mechanical compaction as a result of plastic
deformation of the lithic fragments and the generation of
pseudomatrix (Dickinson, 1970; Rittenhouse 1971b). This
paper deals only with sandstones composed predominately
of nonductile framework grains; the presence of abundant
ductile lithic fragments has not yet been incorporated into
the analysis.
The extent to which chemical compaction can reduce the
intergranular volume of nonductile-grain sands depends on
one's perspective of mechanical compaction. If we assume
that mechanical compaction can reduce intergranular vol-
ume to about 26%, then any further reduction can occur
only through chemical compaction. Alternatively, if we
assume that mechanical compaction does not significantly
reduce intergranular volume, then any reduction of inter-
granular volume below 40% can be attributed to chemical
compaction. Heald (1956) demonstrated that intergranular
pressure solution can destroy virtually all intergranular vol-
ume in certain situations.
The horizontal axis of Figure 1 represents cementation;
the proportion of intergranular volume occluded by cement
is the quantity plotted on this axis. (Again, this variable is
Figure 1—Diagram Ulustrating how intergranular porosity of calculated from point-count data easily collected during
sandstones is dependent upon intergranular volume and propor-
tion of intergranular volume that is occluded by cement. Vertical routine petrographic analysis.)
axis represents compactional processes, horizontal axis repre- As shown by the curved lines on Figure 1, the volume of
sents cementation. A, B, C, and D are data plotted for end- intergranular porosity present in a sandstone is a function
member sandstones discussed in text and illustrated in Figures 2 of how much intergranular volume has been destroyed by
and 3. mechanical and chemical compaction (vertical axis) and
how much of that intergranular volume is occluded by
cement (horizontal axis). For example, a sandstone that
during burial, that sjmd may undergo mechanical compac- contains 10% intergranular porosity may plot anywhere
tion and chemical compaction, both of which will reduce its along the 10% curve of Figure 1. The sandstone's porosity
intergranular volume. The relative importance of these two may be predominately a function of mechanical and chemi-
compactional processes is difficult to establish and is, there- cal compaction (in which case it would plot close to the ver-
fore, rather controversial. It is widely assumed that, in a tical axis), may be predominately a function of cementation
sand composed of nonductile grains that are fairly spherical (in which case it would plot close to the horizontal axis), or
and well rounded, intergranular volume potentially can be may be a function of both compaction and cementation (in
reduced to 26% (approximate closest packing) by mechani- which case it would plot at some point between the two
cal compaction alone, a 35% reduction in original inter- axes).
granular volume. However, some argue that it is impossible Note that many previous workers have attempted to esti-
to reduce the intergranular volume of a sand below about mate the effects of compactional processes by quantifying
40% by pure mechanical compaction, without introducing grain packing in various ways. Noteworthy are the works of
a source of negative entropy (Lee Stephenson, personal Kahn (1956a, b) and the summary provided by Griffiths
communication). Essentially, the intergranular volume (1967). None of these proposed techniques has gained wide-
would have to be increased in some way and then the grains spread popularity, probably because they are difficult to
repacked by some process that is more efficient than the apply in a quantitative way.
original depositional medium. Finally, other workers
argued that mechanical and chemical compaction work
together to reduce the intergranular volume of sand during Petrographic Characteristics
shallow burial. For example, Fiichtbauer (1967) demon-
strated how small amounts of intergranular pressure solu- Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the petrographic characteristics
tion can remove corners of grains and allow them to slide of sandstones that occupy end-member positions on the
past each other to assume a tighter packing arrangement. compaction-cementation diagram of Figure 1. In Figures 2
Thus, depending on one's point of view, mechanical com- and 3, the letter with which each micrograph is labeled cor-
paction may be a significant process that reduces intergran- responds to the letters shown on Figure 1. Sandstones origi-
ular volume to as Uttle as 26% or may be a relatively nally composed almost exclusively of spherical and well
insignificant process that hardly modifies the original inter- rounded, monocrystalline quartz grains have been chosen
granular volume established by the depositional medium. for these illustrations because they represent the simplest
Sands containing significant volumes of ductile lithic and most easily visuahzed situations possible.
636 Compaction Processes and Cementation
 David W. Houseknecht 637

Figure 2—Thin-section micrographs of sandstones that display end-member compaction-cementation characteristics. (A) Plane-
polarized light photomicrograph of sandstone containing 30% intergranular volume and virtually no cement. All grains are quartz,
and pores are filled with blue stained epoxy. St. Peter Sandstone, St. Qair County, Illinois; depth = 2,164 ft. (B) Cathodolumines-
cence micrograph of sandstone containing 29'fo intergranular volume, most of which is occluded by quartz cement (overgrowths).
Quartz grains luminesce various shades of red and blue; quartz cement is nonluminescent to slightly luminescent in shades of red;
porosity appears black. Bromide sandstone, McClain County, Oklahoma; depth = 10,184 ft. (C) Cathodoluminescence micrograph
of sandstone containing 5<Vo intergranular volume and virtually no cement. Luminescence is the same as described for (B). Bromide
sandstone, McClain County, Oklahoma; depth := 10,175 ft. (D) Cathodoluminescence micrograph of sandstone containing 6% inter-
granular volume, most of which is occluded by quartz cement (overgrowths). Luminescence is the same as described for (B), except
that here, black areas represent nonluminescent illite, which is easUy observed in plane light. This sample contains virtually no poros-
ity. Bromide sandstone, Cleveland County, Oklahoma; depth = 8,132 ft. All scale bars = 0.25 mm.

Figures 2A and 3 A illustrate typical thin section and scan-
ning electron microscope (SEM) views of a sandstone that
has undergone a minor reduction of intergranular volume
and virtually no cementation. Intergranular volume in this
sandstone is 30%, as determined by point counting (300
points). Following the line of reasoning presented earlier,
we might expect that this sandstone has undergone some
mechanical compaction, but probably no chemical com-
paction. Thin-section analysis confirms this because most
of the quartz grains display either no contacts (floating
grains) or tangential contacts with neighboring grains (Fig-
ure 2A). Very few long and concave-convex contacts are vis-
ible. However, the scanning electron micrograph of Figure
3A clearly shows the presence of small pressure solution
scars, indicating that at least slight intergranular pressure
solution has occurred. This observation is significant
because even small increments of intergranular pressure
solution significantly reduce intergranular volume (Rit-
tenhouse, 1971a). Thus, it appears that mechanical com-
paction does not necessarily reduce intergranular volume to
the minimum possible value (26%) before chemical com-
paction begins. For this reason, it is difficult to assess pre-
cisely how much of the reduction in intergranular volume
results from mechanical compaction and how much results
from chemical compaction, even in sandstones that have
large intergranular volumes preserved.
Figures 2B and 3B illustrate typical thin section and SEM
views of a sandstone that has undergone a minor reduction
of intergranular volume and significant quartz cementa-
tion. Intergranular volume in this sandstone is 29%, so we
can assume that its compaction history is similar to that of
the sandstone discussed in the preceding paragraph. In
cathodoluminescence (Figure 2B), the grain contact geome-
tries are similar to those shown in Figure 2A. This sample
emphasizes the importance of using cathodoluminescence;
neither the intergranular volume nor the nature of grain
contacts could be accurately determined using standard pet-
rographic techniques or scanning electron microscopy
because of the abundance of quartz cement. Recognizing
samples that fall into the upper-right portion of Figure 1 is
particularly important in dealing with sandstones that con-
tain relatively soluble cements, such as calcite. These
cements may allow large volumes of cement-dissolution
porosity to be generated if suitable geochemical conditions
occur.
Figures 2C and 3C illustrate typical thin section and SEM
views of a sandstone that has undergone a major reduction
of intergranular volume and virtually no cementation.
Intergranular volume in this sandstone is 5%, and no
cement is present. Reducing intergranular volume to such a
low value required significant chemical compaction. The
modification of grain shape and the nature of grain con-
tacts confirms this inference. Carbonate cemented nodules
within this sandstone display large intergranular volumes
and well-sorted quartz grains that are as spherical and well
rounded as those shown in Figures 2A and 2B (Bajsarowicz
and Houseknecht, 1983). The nonspherical and poorly
rounded appearance of most of the quartz grains in Figure
2C can thus be attributed to shape modification by inter-
granular pressure solution that occurred throughout most
of the sandstone where carbonate cement is absent. Addi-
tionally, the predominance of concave-convex and sutured
contacts and the absence of floating grains and tangential
contacts indicate that a significant amount of intergranular
pressure solution has occurred. SEM examination of sand-
stones that have undergone so much chemical compaction
is difficult because samples tend to break through, rather
than around, grains during sample preparation. Neverthe-
less, the predominance of grain contacts indicative of pres-
sure solution and the small intergranular porosity are
diagnostic of a sandstone that has undergone extreme
chemical compaction (Figure 3C). Sandstones that have
such low intergranular volumes also have very low permea-
bilities because the remaining porosity tends to be isolated
and, therefore, noneffective.
Figures 2D and 3D illustrate typical thin section and SEM
views of a sandstone that has undergone a major reduction
of intergranular volume and quartz cementation. Inter-
granular volume in this sandstone is 6%, so we can assume
that its compaction history is similar to that of the sand-
stone discussed in the preceding paragraph. Grain-shape
modification and the geometry of grain contacts are identi-
cal to those shown in Figure 2C. However, in this sandstone
all of the intergranular volume is occluded by quartz and ill-
ite cements, so there is essentially no intergranular porosity
preserved.
QUANTinCATION
Figure 1 is useful for conceptualizing the relative roles of
compaction and cementation in modifying intergranular
porosity, but it is somewhat awkward to use for analyzing
large volumes of data. As an alternative, Figure 4 can be
used to rapidly and accurately assess the relative importance
of compaction and cementation, and to calculate intergran-
ular porosity values from point-count data. The vertical
axis of Figure 4 represents intergranular volume, with the
assumption that well-sorted sand has an original porosity of
638 Compaction Processes and Cementation
 David W. Houseknecht 639

Figure 3—Scanning electron micrographs of Figure 2 sandstones, displaying end-member compaction-cementation characteristics.
(A) St. Peter sample displays large intergranular volume, very little quartz cement, and small grain-contact scars (dimples) caused by
intergranular pressure solution. (B) Bromide sample displays large intergranular volume that is almost totally occluded by quartz
cement. Note relatively small grain-contact scars (ovoid, rough-looking areas). (C) Bromide sample displays small intergranular vol-
ume, very little quartz cement, and sutured grain-contact scars that are large and pervasive. (D) Bromide sample displays small inter-
granular volume, most of which is occluded by quartz cement (e.g., lower left), and sutured grain-contact scars that are large and
pervasive. All scale bars = 0.10 mm.

40%. As shown on Figure 4, this axis can also be used to
quantify the percentage of original porosity that has been
destroyed by mechanical and chemical compaction; this
value can be quantified using the following equation:
Percent of original porosity destroyed by compaction
_ 40 - intergranular volume
X 100, (1)
40
where intergranular volume is expressed as a percentage of
whole rock.
The horizontal axis of Figure 4 represents the percentage
of cement present, and it can be used to plot the percentage
of original porosity destroyed by cementation, with that
value quantified using the following equation:
The dashed, diagonal line on Figure 4 separates samples
in which compaction has been more important than cemen-
tation (lower left) from samples in which cementation has
been more important than compaction in determining inter-
granular porosity (upper right). Thus, when individual sam-
ples are plotted on this diagram, a rapid assessment can be
made as to the relative importance of compaction and
cementation in determining ultimate reservoir quality. The
four end-member sandstones discussed previously are plot-
ted on Figure 4 to illustrate this method. Moreover, diagen-
etic pathways can be drawn on this diagram by plotting
intergranular volumes and cement percentages for discrete
paragenetic events based on cement-stratigraphy relation-
ships (an example is illustrated in a subsequent section).

Percent of original porosity destroyed by cementation

cement EXAMPLES
40
X 100, (2)

where cement is the volume of cement present expressed as a
percentage of whole rock.
Lines of equal intergranular porosity plot as straight
diagonals on this diagram, and intergranular porosity can
be estimated either directly from the figure, or by using the
following equation:
Intergranular porosity = intergranular volume - cement. (3)
CEMENT (%)
Data from two reservoir sandstones, presented in this
section, illustrate how the techniques presented above can
be used to evaluate the relative importance of compaction
and cementation to the development of reservoir quality.
Each example is based on detailed cathodoluminescence
petrography (3(X) points counted per sample) and scaiuiing
electron microscopy of quartzose sandstones. In each case,
thin sections that display a unimodal grain-size distribution
are treated as individual samples, and thin sections that dis-
play pronounced laminations defined by significant grain-
size variation were divided so that each lamination was
treated as an individual sample during point counting (see
Houseknecht, in press, for additional details). Data were
collected following the techniques desaibed by House-
knecht (1984).

Example 1: Nugget Sandstone

The Jurassic Nugget Sandstone in the Anschutz Ranch

East field (Summit County, Utah) is fine to medium grained
and moderately to well sorted. On the average, monocrys-
talline quartz comprises 87% and feldspar comprises 11%
of the framework grains. Porosity development has been
influenced by both textural characteristics imposed by flu-
vial and eolian depositional environments and by diagenetic
processes that included mechanical compaction, intergran-
ular pressure solution, precipitation of cements, and partial
ORIGINAL POROSITY DESTROYED dissolution of cements (Lindquist, 1982; Aucremann, 1984;
BY CEMENTATION (%) Aucremann and Houseknecht, 1984). Cements present
include ilUte, dolomite, calcite, and quartz, although none
Figure 4—Diagram for evaluating relative importance of com-
pactional processes and cementation to porosity development. of these are pervasively abundant. At least some porosity
A, B, C, and D are data plotted for end-member sandstones dis- enhancement, caused by the dissolution of carbonate
cussed in text and illustrated in Figures 2 and 3. cements, seems to have occurred.
640 Compaction Processes and Cementation

CEMENT (%) CEMENT (%)

ORIGINAL POROSITY DESTROYED BY CEMENTATION (%) ORIGINAL POROSITY DESTROYED BY CEMENTATION (%)

Figure 5—Intergranular volume vs. cement data for Nugget Figure 6—Intergranular volume vs. cement data for Bromide
Sandstone, Anschutz Ranch East field, Utah. Dots represent sandstone, central Oklahoma platform. Dots represent well-
well-sorted samples, circles represent moderately sorted samples, sorted samples, and circles represent moderately sorted samples.
and star represents mean of all samples. Total number of samples Squares represent samples that contain both quartz and caldte
plotted = 111. cement, with empty squares indicating quartz only, and squares
enclosing dots and circles indicating total cement (quartz plus
calcite). Star represents mean of all samples. Total number of
The intergranular volume-cement diagram in Figure 5 samples plotted = 69. Arrows A, B, and C represent diagenetic
shows Nugget data. Note that 97% of the data points clus- pathways, as explained in text.
ter in the lower-left portion of the diagram, indicating that
these samples have undergone significant reduction of plot close to the vertical axis of Figure 5, indicating that
intergranular volume by compactional processes and rela- compactional processes were more important than cemen-
tively little cementation. Sorting appears to have played an tation in determining ultimate porosity. Moreover, the high-
insignificant role in determining intergranular volume; est porosity samples contain about 10% more intergranular
moderately and well-sorted samples display no preferred volume and about 5% less cement than average. Thus, the
distribution on the diagram. This distribution suggests that best quality reservoir samples are those that have undergone
using a single original value of intergranular volume (40%, less destruction of intergranular volume by intergranular
in this case) is a reasonable assumption. The wide range in pressure solution, and that contain less cement than aver-
intergranular-volume values is the result of varied amounts age, although the former is somewhat more important.
of intergranular pressure solution, which was largely con-
trolled by the variation in grain size and clay content, as
explained by Houseknecht (in press). The mean values for
Example 2: Simpson-Bromide Sandstone
all data (indicated by the star on Figure 5) are 15.3% inter-
granular volume and 10.8% cement (which includes all
cements). Assuming that the average original porosity of The Ordovician Bromide sandstone (Simpson Group of
the Nugget was 40%, then 62% of the original porosity has the central Oklahoma platform) is fine to medium grained
been destroyed by compactional processes, whereas only and moderately to very well sorted. On the average, 99% of
27% has been destroyed by cementation. Petrographic the framework grains are monocrystalline quartz. Porosity
observations support these results, as most grains display development has been influenced by mechanical compac-
concave-convex or sutured contacts, or both, as well as tion, intergranular pressure solution, and the precipitation
other evidence of significant intergranular pressure solution of cements that include quartz, illite, and local calcite
(Aucremann, 1984; Houseknecht, in press). (Heald, 1956; Bajsarowicz, 1983; Bajsarowicz and
Note that most of this study's samples were collected Houseknecht, 1983).
from cores of the upper and lower portions of the Nugget The intergranular volume-cement diagram of Figure 6
Sandstone, and only a few were available from the middle, shows the Bromide data. The data plotted as dots and cir-
highest porosity portion of the reservoir. Thus, most of the cles reflect the sum of all cements present. Note that 70% of
Nugget samples plot between the 0 and 10% intergranular the samples plot in the lower left portion of the diagram,
porosity lines on Figure 5, and the average porosity for all indicating that a larger percentage of their original porosity
samples, calculated using equation 3, is only 4.5%. The five has been destroyed by compactional processes than by
samples that plot between the 10 and 20% lines on Figure 5 cementation. As with the Nugget, sorting does not appear
are from the middle portion of the reservoir, where both to influence significantly the intergranular volumes of the
porosities and permeabilities are higher. Even these samples Bromide. The wide range of intergranular-volume values is
 David W. Houseknecht
the result of varied amounts of intergranular pressure solu-
tion, which was controlled by variation in grain size and
clay content (Heald, 1956; Houseknecht, in press). The
mean values for all data (indicated by the star on Figure 6)
are 20.6% intergranular volume and 15.2% cement (which
includes all cements). Assuming that the original porosity
of the Bromide was 40%, then 48% of the original porosity
has been destroyed by compactional processes, whereas
only 38% has been destroyed by cementation. The predom-
inance of concave-convex and sutured contacts, as illus-
trated in Figures 2C, 2D, 3C, and 3D (also see House-
knecht, in press), indicates the importance of chemical com-
paction.
Each of the five samples that contain significant volumes
of calcite cement is plotted as two separate points indicated
by squares in Figure 6; empty squares include only quartz
cement and the squares enclosing dots and circles include
the sum of quartz plus calcite. Cement-stratigraphy rela-
tionships clearly indicate that the calcite cement postdates
the quartz cement, so the two points representing each of
those five samples reflect two distinct steps in the parage-
netic sequence followed by those samples. This relationship
allows generalized diagenetic pathways to be plotted in Fig-
ure 6. As shown by the arrows, an early phase of diagenesis
involved reducing the intergranular volume to about 30%
(the mean intergranular volume of the 5 calcite-cemented
samples is 31%). This reduction of intergranular volume
probably involved both mechanical compaction and slight
intergranular pressure solution (Bajsarowicz and
Houseknecht, 1983). At some time during or following this
compaction, an average of 12% quartz cement was precipi-
tated. The combination of compaction and quartz cementa-
tion suggests that the diagenetic pathway approximately
followed arrow A. At that point in the diagenetic history,
calcite cement was locally precipitated and a limited number
of samples followed arrow B. However, most samples
underwent no calcite cementation, but were subjected to
significant amounts of intergranular pressure solution dur-
ing rapid burial to depths in excess of 3 km (10,000 ft)
(Bajsarowicz and Houseknecht, 1983). Thus, most of the
Bromide sandstone followed arrow C, and underwent a sig-
nificant reduction of intergranular volume (Houseknecht,
in press).
Those samples that display the best reservoir quality—they
plot between the 10 and 20% intergranular porosity lines-
have had less destruction of intergranular volume by inter-
granular pressure solution, and contain less cement than
average. These two contributing factors appear to be equally
important in the retention of relatively high porosity.
DISCUSSION
The techniques and examples presented above demon-
strate the importance of mechanical compaction and inter-
granular pressure solution in determining the ultimate
porosity of sandstones that are predominately composed of
fairly spherical, well-rounded, and well-sorted grains.
Before these techniques can be indiscriminately applied,
one must consider the effects of variation in original poros-
641
ity, sorting, grain shape, and roundness. The choice of 40%
as the original porosity of unconsolidated sand may not be
appropriate in all cases. For example, if a sandstone is
poorly sorted, its original porosity would certainly have
been less than 40%. On the other hand, if a sandstone is
extremely well sorted, composed of very angular grains, or
displays very large values of intergranular volume within
nodules of cement precipitated during shallow burial, then
its original porosity would likely have been greater than
40%. In cases such as these, the figures and equations pre-
sented herein will yield distorted estimates of the relative
importance of compaction vs. cementation. This problem
can be solved by substituting more appropriate values for
original porosity into the figures and equations. For exam-
ple, if evidence suggests that the original porosity of a sand
was 50%, Figures 1 and 4 can be redrawn with that value as
the maximum intergranular volume possible, and equations
1 and 2 can be rewritten with 50% substituted for 40%.
As yet unknown are the effects that variations in grain
shape and roundness may have on results obtained using
these techniques. It has been shown that sands composed of
nonspherical and poorly rounded grains tend to have higher
original porosities than sands composed of spherical and
well-rounded grains (Beard and Weyl, 1973). However, such
sands tend to have a more rapid reduction of intergranular
volume during burial, both as the result of mechanical com-
paction and intergranular pressure solution (Renton et al,
1969). These relationships suggest that the compaction-
cementation diagram will yield reliable estimates of the rela-
tive importance of compaction and cementation, but that it
may be more difficult to evaluate the relative roles of
mechanical compaction and intergranular pressure solution
in reducing intergranular volume if a sandstone is com-
posed of nonspherical or poorly rounded grains, or both.
This technique can also be applied to carbonate grain-
stones composed of fairly spherical and well-rounded
grains. For example, McLimans and Videtich (in press)
have demonstrated this technique's utility in analyzing
oolitic grainstones that contain less than 5% matrix.
Although it appears that the approach presented here can
potentially be applied to a wide range of sandstones and car-
bonate grainstones, it almost certainly will not work in
sandstones that contain abundant ductile grains. The tech-
nique is also restricted to evaluating intergranular porosity
(including cement-dissolution porosity), and is not applica-
ble to grain-dissolution porosity.
CONCLUSIONS
Intergranular porosity of sand and sandstones is deter-
mined by the amount of compaction and cementation
undergone during burial diagenesis. Compactional effects
can be evaluated by quantifying existing intergranular vol-
umes and by determining the nature of grain contacts.
Assuming an original intergranular volume of 40% for
well-sorted sand composed of nonductile grains, that 40%
intergranular volume can potentially be reduced to about
30% by mechanical compaction (wiiich includes reorienta-
tion and repacking of grains, as well as local fracture and
642 Compaction Processes and Cementation
cleavage of grains). Further reduction of intergranular vol-
ume can occur only as a result of chemical compaction,
which most commonly mvolves intergranular pressure solu-
tion. This process can destroy virtually all intergranular vol-
ume, resulting in a predominance of concave-convex and
sutured grain contacts. Porosity is also dependent upon
how much of the existing intergranular volume is occluded
by authigenic cements.
A simple graph of intergranular volume vs. cement can
be used to quantify the relative roles of compactional pro-
cesses and cementation in determining intergranular poros-
ity This diagram is useful for evaluating which diagenetic
events were most influential to porosity reduction, and to
determine why some sandstones retain better reservoir
quality than others. Moreover, the diagram can be used to
reconstruct diagenetic pathways of reservoir sandstones by
sequentially plotting discrete paragenetic phases. Such a
reconstruction, when coupled with time-temperature calcu-
lations based on burial history, may be useful for estimating
reservoir quality during peak hydrocarbon generation.
Data from two sandstone reservoirs demonstrate the use
of the compaction-cementation diagram. The Jurassic
Nugget Sandstone in the Anschutz Ranch East field shows
more significant reduction of intergranular porosity by
compaction than by cementation. In 97% of the samples
analyzed, mechanical compaction and intergranular pres-
sure solution have destroyed more porosity than has cemen-
tation. The Ordovician Bromide sandstone (Simpson
Group) frtjm the central Oklahoma platform was also sub-
jected to significant compactional processes. In 70% of the
samples analyzed, mechanical compaction and intergranu-
lar pressure solution have destroyed more porosity than has
cementation. In both of these examples, the key to predict-
ing the distribution of high porosity sandstones is under-
standing the geological variables that have controlled
mechanical and chemical compaction; the best quality res-
ervoir rocks contain somewhat less cement than most sam-
ples, but also show significantly less destruction of
intergranular volume.
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