Processing

Several important factors need to be taken into consideration in the design of food processing plants
in order to assure the quality of the end products. One of them is the question of rheology, which
concerns the flow behaviour of the products. A main issue is also the measurement, adaptation and
application of viscosity data, which concerns the design calculations of processing equipment.

Viscosity & Rheology

Theoretical and practical considerations
in liquid food processing
Dr Ulf Bolmstedt, Company Specialist in Heat Transfer & Fluid Mechanics,Tetra Pak AB

In the dairy industry there are cream and cultured milk
products whose characteristics can be partially or com-
pletely spoiled if their flow behaviour is not understood.
In the prepared food industry there are dessert prod-
ucts often containing starch based additives, soups
and sauces containing particles and tomato products
that require certain considerations regarding choice
and design of equipment.
What follows here is a brief guide to the flow behav-
iour of some typical food industry products, how to
classify the products and how to measure and adapt
viscosity data.
Definition
Rheology is defined as the science of deformation
and flow of matter. The term itself originates from
Greek rheos meaning to flow. Rheology is applicable
to all types of materials, from gases to solids.
The science of rheology is young,only about 70 years
of age, but its history is very old. In the book of Judges
in the Old Testament the prophetess Deborah declared
“The mountains flowed before the Lord...”.Translated
into rheological terms by Professor Marcus Reiner1,
this expression means everything flows if you just wait
long enough, a statement that is certainly applicable
to rheology. It was also described by the Greek philoso-
pher Heraclitus as “panta rei” - everything flows.
Professor Reiner, together with Professor Eugene
Bingham, was the founder of the science of rheology
in the mid-20s.
Rheology is used in food science to define the con-
sistency of different products. Rheologically the
consistency is described by two components, the vis-
cosity (“thickness”,lack of slipperiness) and the elasticity
(“stickiness”, structure). In practice, therefore, rheol-
ogy stands for viscosity measurements,characterisation
of flow behaviour and determination of material struc-
ture. Basic knowledge of these subjects is essential in
process design and product quality evaluation.
Characterisation of materials
One of the main issues of rheology is the definition
and classification of materials. Normal glass, for
Reprinted from New Food Volume 3 Issue 2, Summer 2000
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instance, is usually defined as a solid material, but if
the thickness of an old church window is measured
from top to bottom a difference will be noted. Glass
does in fact flow like a liquid, albeit very slowly. Also,
an air bubble captured in a glass object will rise, safe-
ly but slowly, due to the difference in density between
air and glass. The process may, however, take centuries
to observe and is of course not evident to human beings
- the time of observation is too short.
One way of characterising a material is by its relax-
ation time, i.e. the time required to reduce a stress in
the material by flow. Typical magnitudes of relaxation
times for materials are:
Gases < 10-6 seconds
Liquids 10-6 - 102 seconds
Solids > 102 seconds
The Deborah Number, D, named after the prophet-
ess Deborah,is a way of characterising the flow behaviour
of a material.The Deborah Number is the ratio between
time of relaxation and the time of observation:
D = time of relaxation
time of observation
Consequently, the Deborah Number is large for
materials of high viscosity and low for materials of
low viscosity.
Another way of defining materials rheologically is by
the terms viscous, elastic or viscoelastic. Gases and liq-
uids are normally described as viscous fluids.By definition
an ideal viscous fluid is unable to store any deformation
energy. Hence it is irreversibly deformed when subject-
ed to stress; it flows and the deformation energy is
dissipated as heat, resulting in a rise of temperature.
Solids, on the other hand, are normally described
as elastic materials. An ideal elastic material stores all
imposed deformation energy and will consequently
recover totally upon release of stress. A viscous fluid
can therefore be described as a fluid, which resists the
act of deformation rather than the state of deforma-
tion, while an elastic material resists the act as well as
the state of deformation.
A number of materials show viscous as well as elas-
tic properties, i.e. they store some of the deformation
 Processing
energy in their structure while some is lost by flow.
These materials are called viscoelastic and there are
many examples among foodstuffs,such as starch-based
puddings, mayonnaise, and tomato purées.
Fig 1: Different types of shearing
Shearing
In rheology, shearing of a substance is the key to
knowledge of flow behaviour and structure. A sheared
flow is achieved through flow between parallel planes,
rotational flow between coaxial cylinders where one
cylinder is stationary and the other one is rotating,
telescopic flow through capillaries and pipes, and tor-
sional flow between parallel plates.
To enable study of the viscosity of a material, the
shearing must induce stationary flow of the materi-
al. The flow occurs through rearrangement and
deformation of particles and through breaking of
bonds in the structure of the material.
Shear stress is defined as:
F
σyx = __
A
F = force, N
A = area, m2
shear rate as:
. dγ
γ = __ = __
dv
dt dy
and apparent viscosity of a fluid as:
.
ηa = σ/γ.
If we want to study the elasticity (structure) of a
material, the shearing must be very gentle so as not
to destroy the structure. One way to achieve this is to
apply an oscillating shear to the material with ampli-
tude low enough to allow an unbroken structure to
be studied. Shearing between parallel planes is nor-
mally used for the basic definition of shear stress and
shear rate, corresponding to how much deformation
is applied to the material and how fast.
Newtonian fluids
Newtonian fluids are those having a constant vis-
cosity dependent on temperature but independent of
the applied shear rate. One can also say that Newtonian
fluids have direct proportionality between shear stress
and shear rate in laminar flow:
σyx = η . __
dv .
=η.γ
dy
The proportionality constant is thus equal to the
viscosity of the material. The flow curve, which is a
plot of shear stress versus shear rate, will therefore
be a straight line with slope η for a Newtonian fluid.
The viscosity curve, which is a plot of viscosity ver-
sus shear rate, will show a straight line at a constant
value equal to η.
A Newtonian fluid can therefore be defined by a
single viscosity value at a specified temperature. Water,
mineral and vegetable oils and pure sucrose solutions
are examples of Newtonian fluids. Low-concentra-
tion liquids in general, such as whole milk, skim milk
and most single strength fruit juices, may for practi-
cal purposes be characterised as Newtonian fluids.
The viscosity temperature dependence of e.g. a
20OBx sugar solution is around 1.5% per degree at
20OC and around 3% per degree at 80OC. The figures
increase with increased concentration.
Fig 2: Definition of shear stress and shear rate is based
on shearing between planes (Isaac Newton, 1687).
Non-Newtonian fluids
Materials, which cannot be defined by a single vis-
cosity value at a specified temperature, are called
non-Newtonian. The viscosity of these materials must
always be stated together with a corresponding tem-
perature and shear rate. If the shear rate is changed
the viscosity will also change. Generally speaking,
high concentration and low temperature induce or
increase non-Newtonian behaviour.
Apart from being shear rate dependent, the viscos-
ity of non-Newtonian fluids may also be time dependent,
in which case the viscosity is a function not only of
the magnitude of the shear rate but also of the dura-
tion and, in most cases, of the frequency of successive
applications of shear. Non-Newtonian materials that
are time independent are defined as shear thinning,
shear thickening or plastic. Non-Newtonian materi-
als that are time dependent are defined as thixotropic,
rheopectic or anti-thixotropic.
Shear thinning flow behaviour
The viscosity of a shear thinning fluid (sometimes
also denoted pseudoplastic fluid) decreases with
increasing shear rate. Most liquid food systems belong
 Processing

Fig 3: Flow curves for Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. Fig 4:Viscosity curves for Newtonian
and non-Newtonian fluids.
to this category of fluids, e.g. yoghurt, fruit juice con-
centrates, salad dressings and tomato ketchup. The
shear rate dependency of the viscosity can differ sub-
stantially between different products, and also for a
given liquid, depending on temperature and con-
centration.The reason for shear thinning flow behaviour
is that an increased shear rate deforms and/or rearranges
particles, resulting in lower flow resistance and con-
sequently lower viscosity. It should be noted that
although sucrose solutions show Newtonian behav-
iour independent of concentration,fruit juice concentrates
are always significantly non-Newtonian.
Hence a non-Newtonian fluid like yoghurt or fruit
juice concentrate being pumped in a pipe shows
decreased apparent viscosity if flow rate is increased.
This means in practice that the pressure drop of a
non-Newtonian fluid in laminar flow is not directly
proportional to the flow rate as for Newtonian flu-
ids in laminar flow.

Shear thickening flow behaviour

The viscosity of a shear thickening fluid increases
with increasing shear rate. This type of flow behav-
iour is generally found among suspensions of very
high concentration. A shear thickening fluid exhibits
dilatant flow behaviour, i.e. the solvent acts as a lubri-
cant between suspended particles at low shear rates
but is squeezed out at higher shear rates, resulting in
denser packing of the particles. Typical examples of
shear thickening systems are wet sand and concen-
trated starch suspensions.
Plastic flow behaviour
A fluid, which exhibits a yield stress, is called a plas-
tic fluid. The practical result of this type of flow
behaviour is that a significant force must be applied
before the material starts to flow like a liquid (often
Fig 5: Flow curves for time-dependant non-Newtonian fluids.
referred to as the ketchup effect). If the force applied
is smaller than the force corresponding to the yield
stress, the material stores the deformation energy, i.e.
shows elastic properties, and hence behaves as a solid.
Once the yield stress is exceeded, the liquid can flow
like a Newtonian liquid and be described as a Bingham
plastic liquid, or it can flow like a shear thinning liq-
uid and be described as a viscoplastic liquid.
Typical plastic fluids are quarg, high pectin pineap-
ple juice concentrate,tomato paste and certain ketchups.
Outside the liquid food world toothpaste, hand cream
and greases are typical examples of plastic fluids.
A simple but still very effective way of checking a
fluid’s possible plastic properties is to just turn the
 Processing

ty increases with increasing shear rate, but also with

time at a constant shear rate. As with thixotropic flu-
ids, the flow behaviour is illustrated by a loop test.
This type of flow behaviour is very uncommon among
foodstuffs.

Flow behaviour models

For the adaptation of viscosity measurement data
to process design calculations some kind of mathe-
matical description of the flow behaviour is required.
For that purpose several models are available, e.g.
Ostwald, Herschel-Bulkley, Steiger-Ory, Bingham,
Ellis and Eyring. These models relate the shear stress
of a fluid to the shear rate, thus enabling the appar-
ent viscosity to be calculated, as always, as the ratio
between shear stress and shear rate.
By far the most general model is the Herschel-
Bulkley model, also called the generalised power law
equation, which in principle is an extended Ostwald
model. The main benefit of the generalised power
law equation is its applicability to a great number of

Shear rates
Fig. 6: Logarithmic flow and viscosity curves for a shear sedimentation 10-6 - 10-4 s-1
thinning power law fluid chewing 101 - 102 s-1
stirring 101 - 103 s-1
pumping 102 - 103 s-1
jar upside down. If the fluid will not flow by itself it
spraying 103 - 104 s-1
probably has a significant yield value. If it flows by rubbing 104 - 105 s-1
itself, but very slowly, it probably has no yield value
but a high viscosity. Information of this kind is of
vital importance to process plant design regarding Viscosities
the dimensions and layout of storage and process air 10-5 Pas
tank outlets and pump connections. water 10-3 Pas
olive oil 10-1 Pas
Time-dependent flow behaviour glycerol 106 Pas
A thixotropic fluid can be described as a shear thin- syrup 102 Pas
ning system where the viscosity decreases not only molten glass 1012 Pas
with increasing shear rate but also with time at a con- glass 1040 Pas
stant shear rate. Thixotropic flow behaviour is normally
studied in a loop test. In this test the material is sub-
n and k values
jected to increasing shear rates followed by the same
fruit concentrate n = 0.7 K = 2 Pasn
shear rates in decreasing order. The time-dependent molten chocolate n = 0.5 K = 50 Pasn
thixotropic flow behaviour is seen from the differ- sour milk n = 0.3 K = 3 Pasn
ence between the ascending and descending viscosity quarg n = 0.3 K = 4 Pasn
and shear stress curves. To recover its structure, the apple puree n = 0.3 K = 10 Pasn
material must rest for a certain period of time which tomato paste n = 0.2 K = 70 Pasn
is characteristic for the specific material. This type grease n = 0.1 K = 1000 Pasn
of flow behaviour is shown by all gel-forming sys-
tems. Typical examples of thixotropic fluids are
yoghurt, mayonnaise,margarine and ice cream.Outside Yield stress
the liquid food world, perhaps brush paint is the most ketchup 14 Pa
well-known product showing thixotropic behaviour. mustard 38 Pa
A rheopectic fluid can be described as a thixotrop- mayonnaise 85 Pa
ic fluid but with the important difference that the
structure of the fluid will only recover completely if Fig. 7:Typical data on shear rates, viscosities and power
subjected to a small shear rate. This means that a law constants n and K.Valid around room temperature
rheopectic fluid will not rebuild its structure at rest. (1 Pas = 1000 mPas = 1000 centiPoise).
An anti-thixotropic fluid can be described as a N.b.: only given as examples and should not be used for
shear thickening system, i.e. one where the viscosi- design calculations.
 Processing

non-Newtonian fluids over a wide range of shear

rates. Furthermore, the power law equation lends
itself readily to mathematical treatment, for instance
in pressure drop and heat transfer calculations.
The generalised power law equation is applicable
to plastic as well as shear thinning and shear thick-
ening fluids according to the following:
.
(σ−σ0) = Κ . γ n

where
σ = shear stress Pa
σ0 = yield stress Pa
.
K = consistency Pasn
γ = shear rate s-1
n = flow behaviour index -
Suitable modification of the generalised power law
equation makes it possible to rewrite it to express
each type of flow behaviour.

For Newtonian fluids the power law equation looks

like this: (K = η and n = 1):
. .
σ=Κ.γ = η.γ
n

For a plastic fluid the power law equation is used

in the fully generalised form, with n < 1 for viscoplastic
behaviour and n = 1 for Bingham plastic behaviour.
For a shear thinning or shear thickening fluid the
power law equation becomes:

.n
σ=Κ.γ

with n < 1 and n > 1, respectively. Fig 8: Operating principles of different types of viscometers.

For time-dependent fluids, which in practice means
thixotropic fluids, the mathematical models required
for description of rheological behaviour are gener-
ally far more complex than the models discussed so
far. These fluids are therefore often described by time-
independent process viscosities normally fitted to the
power law equation.
Measuring equipment
The main types of viscometers are rotational and
capillary. Rotational viscometers are of spindle, cone-
plate, plate-plate or concentric cylinder type. The
last-named may be of Searle (rotating bob) or Couette
(rotating cup) type. Capillary viscometers may be of
atmospheric or pressurised type. Generally speak-
ing, rotational viscometers are easier to use and more
flexible than capillary viscometers. On the other hand,
capillary viscometers are more accurate at low vis-
cosities and at high shear rates. However, for practical
use in liquid food viscometry they are less applicable
due to their sensitivity to even small particles like
fruit juice fibres.
Instead, a special design of the capillary viscome-
ter is the tubular viscometer, with a diameter of e.g.
25 or 38 mm compared to a few mm for the capillary
type. The tubular viscometer is used for the deter-
mination of the power law constants and is especially
suitable for particulate products. The drawback of
the tubular viscometer is that it often requires large
product volumes and that the measuring system can
be quite bulky and expensive.
Measurement of non-Newtonian fluids requires
instruments where the applied shear rate is accurate-
ly defined,i.e.where the shearing takes place in a narrow
gap with a small shear rate gradient. This fundamen-
tal requirement excludes viscometers where the gap is
too big or even undefined, as it is in viscometers of
spindle type. It must be strongly emphasised that vis-
cosity measurements of non-Newtonian fluids carried
out at undefined or out-of-range shear rates should
not be used as a basis for quantitative analysis of vis-
cosity figures or rheological parameters.
Rotational viscometers are available as portable as
well as stationary instruments. Portable types usually
 Processing
Fig 9: Output from a rheometric measurement showing
the elastic modulus G’, the viscous modulus G’’ and the
phase angle δ.
come in a shockproof case equipped with all neces-
sary accessories. They are basically manually operated,
although some manufacturers provide connections
for use with personal computers. Today many of the
portable instruments are equipped with processors
capable of running the viscometer according to the
desired scheme and also of storing all measuring data
for later download to a printer or a PC.
Stationary installations are normally computer
controlled for automation of measuring sequences
and data evaluation. The software usually includes
possible fitting to a number of rheological models,
plotting of flow curves, etc.
A rotational viscometer is normally insufficient for
carrying out a complete rheological analysis, for
instance determination of structure breakdown in
yoghurt. This type of analysis requires a more sophis-
ticated instrument, generally called a rheometer. With
a rheometer, operating with torsional vibration or
oscillation rather than rotation, the fluid can be rhe-
ologically analysed without its structure being destroyed.
Typical applications are viscoelastic fluids, for which
a rheometer can be used to determine the viscous and
elastic properties of the fluid separately.
Ordinary viscometers and rheometers should not
be used for measurement of substances with very
high viscosities, such as butter, cheese and vegetable
fats. Certain types of penetrometers are available
instead, but these cannot be used to obtain scientif-
ic rheological results since a penetrometer gives only
empirical information. A special type of consistometer
is preferably used within the tomato industry. This
type of instrument gives the result in so-called 0Bostwick,
which is a unit applicable only to comparison of dif-
ferent products.
Measuring techniques
Viscosity measurements should always be carried
out for a representative range of shear rates and
temperatures related to the process to be studied. The
intended use of the measured data should therefore
be considered before measuring takes place, for instance
if the viscosity data are to be used in the design of a
deep cooler or of the heating section of a steriliser.
Due to practical limitations the maximum applic-
able temperature for most viscometers is around 900C.
At higher temperatures the risk of evaporation from
the surface of the test sample followed by skin for-
mation leading to increased momentum and hence
false readings is significant. Hence a special type of
pressurised measuring system has to be employed.
With these systems temperatures up to 1500C are pos-
sible, i.e. a typical sterilisation process up to 1400C
can be fully covered regarding viscosity data.
It is also most important that the temperature is kept
constant during the test period and, of course, that it
is accurately measured. A temperature change of 30C
can often cause a change in viscosity of 10 per cent.
To increase the accuracy of data evaluation, mea-
surements should be made at as many different shear
rates and temperatures as possible. In addition, heat-
ing effects must be considered.In a substance containing
warm-swelling starch, for example, the viscosities
before and after heating above swelling temperature
will differ significantly.
Fig 10: Database for storage of viscosity and rheology
measurement data.
Example showing data for 5% Colflo 67 starch solution
from 30 to 1400C.
Furthermore, storage conditions and time factors
must be taken into consideration. The rheological
properties of many products, e.g. fermented dairy
products, change with time, and if the purpose of the
viscosity measurement is to supply data for process
design, the measurements should preferably be made
in as close connection as possible to the actual pro-
cessing stage.
When measurements are performed at a regular
basis the results are preferably stored in a database
in order to facilitate comparison of various products.
In practice all varieties of liquid food products are
unique regarding viscosity data, meaning that data
measured on one type of vanilla pudding, one type
of tomato purée or one type of yoghurt cannot be
safely applied to another type or brand of a product
with the same name or even with roughly the same
 Processing

composition. However, with access to a database con- n n

taining data on a substantial amount of products
there is always a possibility to extract a range of vis-
p = ( 4.n+2
________
n )( )
. Q
______
w . h2
2.L.K
. ______
h
cosities for a certain type of product in case no other
information is available.

.
Pressure drop in pipes
Some useful equations are given below for manu-
al calculation of pressure drop and shear rates for
γw = ( 2.n+1
________
n )( . )
. Q
______
w h2

laminar pipe flow. All equations are based on the

power law expression, as most food systems in pro-
cessing conditions can be described by this expression. The new parameters are:
The equations are applicable to Newtonian as well w = channel width m
as non-Newtonian fluids depending on the value of h = channel height m
n used in the calculation: n<1 for shear thinning
(pseudoplastic) fluids, n=1 for Newtonian fluids, and Pressure drop in fittings
n>1 for shear thickening (dilatant) fluids. For calculation of pressure drop in fittings,e.g.valves,
The relationship between flow rate and pressure bends, expansions and tees, the following equation can
drop and between flow rate and wall shear rate in a be employed:
circular channel is described as follows:
ρ . v2
p = Kf . _____
2
1/n
r . p
Q= ( n
________
3.n+1 ) . π .r . 3
( _______
2.L.K ) with the parameters
Kf
ρ
=
=
friction loss coefficient
density of fluid
-
kg/m3
v = velocity of fluid m/s
Values of the friction loss coefficient can be found
in ordinary chemical or food engineering textbooks
or as well as in specialised rheological textbooks. For
n n laminar flow, however, the data found are scarce and
hence accurate estimation of pressure drop for typ-
p = ( 3.n+1
________
n )( ) . Q
______
π . r3
.L.K
. 2_______
r
ical liquid food flow conditions is difficult to make.
Since the actual pressure drop is dependent on the
type of fluid as well as on the type and shape of the
and restriction and the friction loss, coefficients should
therefore preferably be determined from experimen-
tal data.
.
γw = ( .n+1
3_______
n ) ( π. )
. Q
______
r3 Reference
1) Reiner, M., The Deborah Number, Physics Today,
January 1964, p. 62
The parameters are:
Q = flow rate m3/s
r = channel radius m Dr Ulf Bolmstedt joined Alfa Laval in 1975 to imple-
p = pressure drop Pa ment dissertation work on computer software for
L = channel length m simulation of evaporators. He continued with Alfa
.
γw = wall shear rate s-1 Laval and Tetra Pak, to work with evaporators, heat
n = flow behaviour index - exchangers and rheology, mainly within liquid food
K = consistency Pasn
applications. He has published a number of articles
The corresponding equations for rectangular chan- within these areas and holds patents, mainly within
nels are as follows: evaporation equipment. He currently holds a position
within Tetra Pak as Company Specialist in Heat
h . p
Q= ( n
________
.
4 n+2 ) . w. h . 2
( _______
2.L.K ) 1/n Transfer & Fluid Mechanics and at the Lund Institute
of Technology as External Associate Professor
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