CP8101 Questions Answers - 01

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1. Write a short note on monotonic reasoning vs nonmonotonic reasoning.
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Monotonic Reasoning
The use of inference rules to draw conclusions from a knowledge base relies implicitly on a
general property of some logics (including propositional and FOPL) called monotonicity. Logic
is monotonic if when we add some new rules to a knowledge base, then all the original sentences
of this knowledge base still follow from the larger one.
In monotonic reasoning is a knowledge base is of fixed size and it cannot be updated as it has
fixed size during the clause checking and do not update that automatically.
Nonmonotonic Reasoning
In non-monotonic reasoning, the set of beliefs does not grow monotonically over time. This
means that when new knowledge is gained, some previous conclusions may be retracted.
In nonmonotonic reasoning a machine got a capability to learn self by getting possible operations
on it so when u give some clauses to it ,It does update database if it doesn't create conflicting
situations with the database otherwise it would demoted from current set and moved to update
set that is not being in use and checked further for its positive clause of fact.
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2. What are the major components of a nonmonotonic reasoning systems? Explain briefly.
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A non-monotonic reasoning system is one which allows retracting of oldknowledge due to
discovery of new facts which contradict or invalidate a part of thecurrent knowledge base. Such
systems also take care that retracting of a fact maynecessitate a chain of retractions from the
knowledge base or even reintroduction ofearlier retracted ones from K.B.
Major components of a Non-monotonic reasoning system
A typical non-monotonic reasoning system (NMRS) consists of thefollowing three major
components:
(1) Knowledge base (KB),
(2) Inference Engine (IE),
(3) Truth-Maintenance System (TMS).
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The KB contains information, facts, rules, procedures etc. relevant to the type ofproblems that
are expected to be solved by the system.
The component IE of NMRSgets facts from KB to draw new inferences and sends the new facts
discovered by it(i.e., IE) to KB.
The component TMS, after addition of new facts to KB.either fromthe environment or through
the user or through IE, checks for validity of the KB. Itmay happen that the new fact from the
environment or inferred by the IE mayconflict/contradict some of the facts already in the KB.
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3. Write a short note on truth-maintenance systems (TMS).
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Truth-Maintenance Systems (TMS)
The truth-maintenance system, after addition of new facts to KB.either fromthe environment or
through the user or through IE, checks for validity of the KB. Itmay happen that the new fact
from the environment or inferred by the IE mayconflict/contradict some of the facts already in
the KB.
Thus, the main job of the TMS is to maintain consistency of the knowledge being used by the
problem solver and not to perform any inference functions.
Architecture of the problem solver (PS) with TMS

When new discoveries are made, more recent information can displace previous conclusions that
are no longer valid. In this way, the set of beliefs available to the problem solver will continue to
be current and consistent.
The main responsibilities of a truth maintenance system as part of a problem solver are:
 Enforcing logical relations among beliefs.
 Generating explanations for conclusions.
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 Finding solutions to search problems
 Supporting default reasoning.
 Identifying causes for failure and recover from inconsistencies.
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4. Write a short note on default reasoning.
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Default reasoning is the ability of the reasoning system to reach conclusions that are notstrict
consequences of the current state. A default reasoning ability allows a system to continue
tooperate on partial data.
Default reasoning is another form of non-monotonic reasoning which eliminates the need
toexplicitly store all facts regarding a situation. It is expressed as
where M is a consistency operator.
The inference rule (A) states that if a(x) is true and none of the conditions bk (x) is in conflict
orcontradiction with the K.B, then you can deduce the statement C(x).
The idea of default reasoning is explained through the following example:
The above can be interpreted in the default theory as:
If a person x is an adult and in the knowledge base there is no fact (e.g., x is blind, orx has both
of his/her hands cut in an accident etc) which tells us something making xincapable of driving,
then x can drive, is assumed.
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5. Write a short note on closed world assumptions.
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Closed World Assumption (CWA)
The simplest formalization of default reasoning is called the closed world reasoning.The number
of negative facts about a given domain is typically much greater than the number of the positive
ones.
In closed world assumption (CWA), the complete knowledge is assumed unless an atomic
sentence is known to be true; it can be assumed to be false.
In many natural applications, the number of negative facts is so large that their explicit
representation becomes practically impossible.
Example: Consider the data base of a WCAS lending library.Suppose there are 1000 readers and
10000 books, and each reader is allowed to borrow up to 5 books. In order to keep track of all
readers and all the books they do not currently borrow(the negative facts)we would need to store
a hugeamount of data.
The natural solution to this problem is to assume that all positive information has been specified,
and conclude that any positive fact that has not been specified or cannot be inferred from this
information is false.
This is precisely the CWA rule.
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6. Write a short note on frames.
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Frames represent knowledge as structured objects which are composed of labeled slots with their
values. All the information relevant to a particular concept is stored in a single complex entity,
called a frame. Frames look like the data structure, record. Frame systems can be formed by
connecting frames to each other.Frames support inheritance. They are often used to capture
knowledge about typical objects or events, such as a car, or even a mathematical object like
rectangle.
Slots are similar to attributes in object-oriented approach, however, they can contain broader
information not only declarative, but also procedural information.
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Frame Structure
Types of Frame
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We may represent some knowledge about a vehicle in frames as follows:
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7. Write a short note on scripts.
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Script is a structure that describes sequence of events in a particular context. Script consists of
set of slots. Every slot is associated with some information.Scripts are used in natural language
understanding systems to organize a knowledge base in terms of the situations that the system
should understand.
Components of Scripts:
A script is composed of following components:
 Entry conditions that must be true for the script to be called.
 Results or facts that are true once the script has terminated.
 Props or the “things” that make up the content of the script.
 Roles are the actions that the individual participants perform.
 Scenes which present temporal aspects of the script.
Scripts: Actions
Script: An Example-
Write a script for eating food in a Restaurant.
Answer: See the next page.
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12. Write the steps for A* search algorithm.
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A* algorithm is a best-first search algorithm in which the cost associated with a node is f*(n) =
g*(n) + h*(n), where g*(n) is the cost of the path from the initial state to node n and h*(n) is the
heuristic estimate or the cost or a path from node n to a goal. Thus, f*(n) estimates the lowest
total cost of any solution path going through node n. We maintain two lists of node type as open
and closed. Nodes on the open list are nodes that have been generated but not yet expanded,
while nodes on the closed list are nodes that have been expanded and whose children are,
therefore available to the search program.
STEPS FOR A* ALGORITHM
1. Place the starting node s onopen.
2. If open is empty, stop and return failure.
3. Remove from the open the node n that has the smallest value of f*(n). If the node is a
goal node, return success and stop. Otherwise,
4. Expand n, generating all of its successors n' and place n on closed. For every successor n',
if n' is not already on open or closed attach a back pointer to n, compute f*(n') and place
it on open.
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5. Each n' that is already on open or closed should be attached to back pointers which
reflect the lowest g*(n') path. If n' was on closed and its pointer was changed, remove it
and place it on open.
6. Return to step 2.
NOTE: A* will always find an optimal path, if one exists.
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13. Write the steps for AO* search algorithm.
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AO* ALGORITHM
AO* is a best-first algorithm for searching AND/OR graph. We need to exploit a value that we
call FUTILITY. If the estimated cost of a solution becomes greater than the value of FUTILITY,
then we abandon the search.
STEPS FOR A* ALGORITHM
1. Initialise the graph to start node.
2. Traverse the graph following the current path accumulating nodes that have not yet been
expanded or solved.
3. Pick any of these nodes and expand it and if it has no successors call this value
FUTILITY otherwise calculate only f’ for each of the successors.
4. If f’ is 0 then mark the node as SOLVED.
5. Change the value of f’ for the newly created node to reflect its successors by back
propagation.
6. Wherever possible use the most promising routes and if a node is marked as SOLVED
then mark the parent node as SOLVED.
7. If starting node is SOLVED or value greater than FUTILITY, stop, else repeat from 2.
NOTE: AO* will always find a minimum-cost solution tree if one exists.
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15. Write a short note on rule based systems.
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Rule-based expert systems aredesigned to be able to use the same rules that the expert would use
to drawconclusions from a set of facts that are presented to the system.
Rule-based systems or production systems are computer systems that userules to provide
recommendations or diagnoses, or to determine a courseof action in a particular situation or to
solve a particular problem.
A rule-based system consists of a number of components:
 a database of rules (also called a knowledge base)
 a database of facts
 an interpreter, or inference engine
In a rule-based system, the knowledge base consists of a set of rules that representthe knowledge
that the system has.
The database of facts representsinputs to the system that are used to derive conclusions, or to
cause actions.
The interpreter, or inference engine, is the part of the system that controlsthe process of deriving
conclusions. It uses the rules and facts, and combinesthem together to draw conclusions.
Two main kinds of rule-basedsystems:

a) forwardchainingand
b) backwardchaining.
Forward chaining
startswiththefacts,andseeswhatrulesapply(andhencewhatshouldbedone)giventhefacts.
Backward chaining
startswithsomethingtofindout,andlooksforrulesthatwillhelpinansweringit.
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17. Explain the knowledge acquisition process and validation in an expert system briefly.
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Knowledge Acquisition& Validation
The knowledge acquisition component allows the expert to enter their knowledge orexpertise
into the expert system, and to refine it later as and when required.Historically, the knowledge
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engineer played a major role in this process, but automatedsystems that allow the expert to
interact directly with the system are becomingincreasingly common.
The knowledge acquisition process is usually comprised of three principal stages:
1) Knowledge elicitation is the interaction between the expert and the knowledge
engineer/program to elicit the expert knowledge in some systematic way.
2) The knowledge thus obtained is usually stored in some form of human friendly intermediate
representation.
3) The intermediate representation of the knowledge is then compiled into an executable form
(e.g. production rules) that the inference engine can process.
The iterative nature of the knowledge acquisition process can be represented in the following
diagram:
Pulling together and correctly interpreting the right knowledge to solve a set of complex tasks in
an onerous job. Typically, experts do not know what specific knowledge is being applied nor just
how it is applied in the solution of a given problem. Even if they do know, it is likely they are
unable to articulate the problem solving process well enough to capture the low level knowledge
used and the inferring processes applied. The knowledge engineer elicits information from the
experts and codes this knowledge into a form suitable for use in the expert system.
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18. Write a short note on radian rule master.
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Radian Rulemaster: It is developed by the Radian Corporation was written in C language to run
on a variety of mini and microcomputer sytems. Rulemaster is a rule-based building tool which
consists of tow main components: Radial, a procedural, block structured language for expressing
decision rules related to a finite state machine, and Rulemaker, a knowledge acquisition system
which induces decision trees from examples supplied by an expert. A program in Rulemaster
consists of a collection of related modules which interact to affect changes of state. The modules
may contain executable procedures, advice, or data.
Radian Rulemaster Building System

Rulemaster’s knowledge can be based on partial certainty using fuzzy logic or heuristic methods
defined by the developer. One of the unique features of Rulemaster is the Rulemaker component
which has the ability to induce rules from examples. The examples are transformed into rules by
Rulemake through an induction process.
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20. Discuss the advantages, disadvantages and limitations of expert systems.
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Advantages of Expert System:
1. Can be used by the user more frequently.
2. Can work round the clock.
3. Never "forgets" to ask a question, as a human might.
4. Encourages organizations to clarify the logic of their decision-making.
5. Holds and maintains significant levels of information.
6. Provides consistent answers for repetitive decisions, processes and tasks.
Disadvantages of Expert System:
1. Lacks common sense needed in some decision making.
2. Cannot make creative responses as human expert would in unusual circumstances.
3. Domain experts not always able to explain their logic and reasoning.
4. Errors may occur in the knowledge base, and lead to wrong decisions.
5. Cannot adapt to changing environments, unless knowledge base is changed.
Limitations of Expert Systems
No technology offers an easy and total solution. Large systems are costly and require significant
development time and computer resources. Expert systems\(ES) also have their limitations which
include:
1. Limitations of the technology
2. Problems with knowledge acquisition
3. Operational domains as the principal area of ES application
4. Maintaining human expertise in organizations

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Architecture of the problem solver (PS) with TMS

where M is a consistency operator.

The idea of default reasoning is explained through the following example:

The above can be interpreted in the default theory as:

We may represent some knowledge about a vehicle in frames as follows:

Write a script for eating food in a Restaurant.

Answer: See the next page.

STEPS FOR A* ALGORITHM

1. Place the starting node s onopen.

2. If open is empty, stop and return failure.

NOTE: A* will always find an optimal path, if one exists.

STEPS FOR A* ALGORITHM

1. Initialise the graph to start node.

4. If f’ is 0 then mark the node as SOLVED.

Two main kinds of rule-basedsystems:

Radian Rulemaster Building System

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