HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED

ACCESORIES DIVISION, LUCKNOW

PROJECT ON

AS PART OF SUMMER TRAINING INTERNSHIP COMMENCING

FROM 01ST JUNE 2019 TO 30TH JUNE 2019

PROJECT SUBMITTED BY

SATVIK VATSA
Reg no: RA1611011010180

SRM Institute of Science and Technology

Chennai - 603203

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The training opportunity that I had with HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED, ACCESSORIES
DIVISON, LUCKNOW was a great chance for learning and professional development. Therefore, I
consider myself as a very lucky individual as I was provided with an opportunity to be a part of it. I am also
grateful for having a chance to meet so many wonderful people and professionals who led me through this
internship period.

Bearing in mind previous I am using this opportunity to express my deepest gratitude to The Chief
Manager (Training) of HAL, Accessories Division, Lucknow who in spite of being extraordinarily busy with
his duties, took time out to hear, guide and allowed me to carry out my project at their esteemed organization
during the training.

I express my deepest thanks to Mr. Abhishek Sharma, Manager (Training) for taking part in useful
decision and giving necessary advice and guidance. I choose this moment to acknowledge his contribution
gratefully.

I perceive this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development. I will continue to work on their
improvement, in order to attain the desired career objectives. I hope to continue co-operation with all of you
in the future,

Sincerely,

Satvik Vatsa
Lucknow
07-06-2019

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project entitled “PROJECT ON

AERODYNAMICS” taken up by Mr.Satvik Vatsa (Registration
no JN091) during summer internship training at Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited, Lucknow Division from 1ST June 2019 to
30TH June 2019 is an outcome of his own efforts and is an
original work.

HOD
Training Department
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited
Lucknow Division

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This summer training internship, carried out at Hindustan Hindustan Aeronautics Limited,
Lucknow Division from 1st June 2019 to 30th June 2019 included familiarizing with the
various processes involved in the company such as Outsourcing, Planning, Indigenization,
HR, Maintainence, Design, Testing, Quality control etc. A first hand exposure to industrial
methods and practices along with methods to improve output, increase efficiency and
increase profits was also provided. The need to perform green and clean manufacturing was
introduced to the trainees.
This project work, which enabled better understanding of the fundamentals of aircraft
aerodynamics. The project consists of two parts: Aerodynamics fundamentals, which dwells
upon the basic principles, laws and theorems of fluid statics and dynamics and Applied
Aerodynamics, which deals with various aero devices, airfoil characteristics and
performance parameters.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
i. Project description
ii. Project purpose
iii. Scope
iv. Salient Study
v. Outline
2. OVERVIEW OF ORGANIZATION
i. Brief history
ii. Introduction to organization
iii. Policy of the organization
iv. Competitors
v. Organizational structure
3. PLAN OF TRAINING PROGRAM
i. Introduction to Lucknow Division
ii. Start and End Dates of Training
iii. Details of various department familiarized
iv. Learnings of each topic
4. STUDY REPORT
 Aerodynamic fundamentals
 Applied Aerodynamics
5. CONCLUSION
6. REFERENCES AND SOURCES
7. ANNEXURE

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1. INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT
1. Project description
The project is primarily based on Aerodynamics of aircraft. This has been divided into two
subcategories: 1. Aerodynamics fundamentals, where the basic theorems, lays and derivation of
important principles of fluid statics and kinematics have been discussed along with definitions of
important terminologies, and 2. Applied Aerodynamics, which ranges from different planforms, airfoils,
lift characteristics of different airfoil shapes, primary aero devices and secondary aero devices. Devices
such as vortex generators, LEX and Canards have been discussed in detail.
The project also includes various learnings from theory lessons and practical site visits along with
organization structure and role and functions of various departments. General aircraft construction and
subsystems have also been discussed.
Concepts like Lean manufacturing, Indigenization, Outsourcing etc. have also been briefed about.
2. Project purpose
The purpose of this project is to enhance my knowledge about aircraft and aviation industry in general.
Not only does this additional information about this new domain has enriched my box of knowledge,
but also I feel that this project will s broaden my scope and has inspire me to broaden my field of
expertise further. The reason behind selection of Aerodynamics is that this would go on to further
strengthen my fundamentals on this vast topic called fluid dynamics and extend my understanding of
vehicle aerodynamics to aeronautical aerodynamics.
3. Scope
The scope of this project is based on establishing the fundamentals of aerodynamics first by detailed
study of fluid statics and fluid kinematics, and later on, build on this foundation by applying the same
underlying principles over to aircraft aerodynamic devices, both primary and secondary devices.
4. Salient Study
The project highlights the Bernoulli Principle, Kutta Condition, Kutta Joukowski theorem, Equation of
continuity and Vortex along with Boundary Layer.
Deep discussion of Vortex Generators, canards, LEX, Cantered tail wings and Delta wing
configurations have been carried out.
5. Outline
The outline of the project is to build the foundation stones of aircraft aerodynamics based on the pre
acquired knowledge of automobile aerodynamics.

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2. OVERVIEW OF THE ORGANIZATION

 BRIEF HISTORY

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) came into existence on 1st October 1964. The
Company was formed by the merger of Hindustan Aircraft Limited with Aeronautics India
Limited and Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur.
The Company traces its roots to the pioneering efforts of an industrialist with
extraordinary vision, the late Seth Walchand Hirachand, who set up Hindustan Aircraft
Limited at Bangalore in association with the erstwhile princely State of Mysore in
December 1940. The Government of India became a shareholder in March 1941 and took
over the Management in 1942. HAL was established as Hindustan Aircraft Limited in
Bangalore on 23 December 1940 by Walchand Hirachand who became Chairman of the
company. The companies office was opened at a bungalow called "Eventide"
on Domlur Road.
The organization and equipment for the factory at Bangalore was set up by William D.
Pawley of the Intercontinental Aircraft Corporation of New York, who had already
established Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company (CAMCO) in partnership with
Chinese Nationalist government. Pawley obtained a large number of machine-tools and
equipment from the United States.
The Indian Government bought a one-third stake in the company and by April 1941 by
investing 25 lakhs as it believed this to be a strategic imperative. The decision by the
government was primarily motivated to boost British military hardware supplies in Asia to
counter the increasing threat posed by Imperial Japan during Second World War. The
Kingdom of Mysore supplied two directors, Air Marshal John Higgins was resident director.
The first aircraft built was a Harlow PC-5. On 2 April 1942, the government announced
that the company had been nationalized when it had bought out the stakes of Seth
Walchand Hirachand and other promoters so that it could act freely. The Mysore Kingdom
refused to sell its stake in the company but yielded the management control over to the
Indian Government.
In 1943 the Bangalore factory was handed over to the United States Army Air
Forces but still using Hindustan Aircraft management. The factory expanded rapidly and
became the centre for major overhaul and repair of American aircraft and was known as
the 84th Air Depot. The first aircraft to be overhauled was a Consolidated PBY
Catalina followed by every type of aircraft operated in India and Burma. When returned to
Indian control two years later the factory had become one of the largest overhaul and
repair organizations in the East. In the post war reorganization the company built railway
carriages as an interim activity.
After India gained independence in 1947, the management of the company was passed
over to the Government of India.
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) was formed on 1 October 1964 when Hindustan
Aircraft Limited joined the consortium formed in June by the IAF Aircraft Manufacturing
Depot, Kanpur (at the time manufacturing HS748 under licence) and the group recently
set up to manufacture MiG-21 under licence, with its new factories planned in Koraput,
Nasik and Hyderabad. Though HAL was not used actively for developing newer models of
fighter jets, except for the HF-24 Marut, the company has played a crucial role in
modernization of the Indian Air Force. In 1957 company started manufacturing Bristol
Siddeley Orpheus jet engines under licence at new factory located in Bangalore.

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 During the 1980s, HAL's operations saw a rapid increase which resulted in the
development of new indigenous aircraft such as the HAL Tejas and HAL Dhruv.

 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATION

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is an Indian

state-owned aerospace and defence company headquartered in Bangalore, India. It is
governed under the management of the Indian Ministry of Defence.
The government-owned corporation is primarily involved in the operations of the
aerospace and is currently involved in the design, fabrication and assembly of aircraft, jet
engines, helicopters and their spare parts. It has several facilities spread across India
including Nasik, Korwa, Kanpur, Koraput, Lucknow, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Kasarag
od. The HAL HF-24 Marut fighter-bomber was the first fighter aircraft made in India.
In March 2017, HAL Chairman and Managing Director T Suvarna Raju announced
that the company had finalised plans for an indigenisation drive. The company plans to
produce nearly 1,000 military helicopters, including Kamov 226, LCH (Light Combat
Helicopter) ALH (Advanced Light Helicopter), and over 100 planes over the next 10 years.
HAL will manufacture the Kamov 226T helicopter under a joint venture agreement with
Russian defence manufacturers. The Kamov 226T will replace the country's fleet of
Cheetah and Chetak helicopters. Over the next 5 years, HAL will carry out major upgrade
of almost the entire fighter fleet of Indian Air Force including Su-30MKI, Jaguars, Mirage
and Hawk jets to make them "more lethal". The company will also deliver 123 Tejas Light
Combat Aircraft to the IAF from 2018–19, at a rate of 16 jets per year
Today, HAL has 19 Production Units and 9 Research and Design Centre in 7 locations
in India. The Company has an impressive product track record - 12 types of aircraft
manufactured with in-house R & D and 14 types produced under license. HAL has
manufactured over 3550 aircraft, 3600 engines and overhauled over 8150 aircraft and
27300 engine.
HAL's supplies / services are mainly to Indian Defence Services, Coast Guards and
Border Security Forces. Transport Aircraft and Helicopters have also been supplied to
Airlines as well as State Governments of India. The Company has also achieved a foothold
in export in more than 30 countries, having demonstrated its quality and price
competitiveness.
HAL has won several International & National Awards for achievements in R&D,
Technology, Managerial Performance, Exports, Energy Conservation, Quality and
Fulfillment of Social Responsibilities.

 POLICY OF THE ORGANIZATION

VISION
"To make HAL a dynamic, vibrant, value-based learning organization with
human resources exceptionally skilled, highly motivated and committed to meet the
current and future challenges. This will be driven by core values of the Company
fully embedded in the culture of the Organization"

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MISSION
To become a globally competitive aerospace industry while working as an
instrument for achieving self reliance in design, manufacture and maintenance of
aerospace defence equipment and diversifying to related areas, managing the
business on commercial lines in a climate of growing professional competence.

OBJECTIVES
• To ensure availability of Total Quality People to meet the Organizational Goals and
Objectives
• To have a continuous improvement in Knowledge, Skill and Competence
(Managerial, Behavioral and Technical
• To promote a Culture of Achievement and Excellence with emphasis on Integrity,
Credibility and Quality
• To maintain a motivated workforce through empowerment of Individual and Team-
building
• To enhance Organizational Learning
• To play a pivotal role directly and significantly to enhance Productivity,
Profitability and improve the Quality of Work Life.
STRATEGY
• To be in total alignment with Corporate Strategy
• Maintain Human Resource at optimum level to meet the objectives and goals of the
Company
• Be competent in Mapping, Analysis and Upgradation of Knowledge and Skills
including Training, Re-training, Multi-skilling etc
• Cultivate Leadership with Shared Vision at various levels in the Organization
• Focus on Development of Core Competence in High-Tech areas
• Build Cross-functional Teams
• Create awareness of Mission, Values and Organizational Goals through out the
Company
• Introduce / Implement personnel policies based on performance that would
ensure growth, Rewards, Recognition, Motivation.

 COMPETITORS

Triumph Group, Chinese Defence, Boeing, Airbus, Northrop Grumman, Bombardier,Tata

Group, Mahindra Defense Systems, Dynamatic Technologies, Larsen & Toubro etc.

 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

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HAL DIVISIONS

Sl No. Name of Business unit Present Activity

Accessories Complex

1 Transport Aircraft Manufacture: DO-228 (Military, Civil)

Division, Kanpur

2 Accessories Division, Manufacture and ROH of Electromechanical and

Lucknow hydraulic systems like wheels and brakes, flight control
systems, ejector release units etc.

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3 Accessories Division, Manufacture and ROH of Communication systems and
Hyderabad EW Suites like Radar and Radio and navigation unit

4 Avionics Division, Manufacture and ROH of Navigation systems such as

Korwa Inertial Navigation System

BANGALORE COMPLEX
5 Aircraft Division Manufacture of LCA

6 LCA Division Manufacture of LCA

7 Engine Division Manufacture of various engines

8 Overhaul Division Upgrade of Jaguar, Mirage2000

9 Aerospace Division Manufacture of PSLV, GSLV, INSAT etc.

10 Foundry and forge Manufacture of castings, forgings and rolled ring for
Division aircraft and aero engines.
11 Industrial and Marine Manufacture of Industrial and Marine engine.
Gas Turbine Division
12 Airport Service Centre Air traffic Control and HAL Airport

13 Facility Management Facility management of Bangalore based divisions

Division
MIG COMPLEX
14 Aircraft Manufacture Manufacture: Su30MKI
Division, Nashik
15 Aircraft Overhaul ROH: MIG 21, Su30MKI
Division, Nashik
16 Engine Division, Manufacture of RD-33 engines
Koraput
17 Sukhoi Engine Division, Manufacture of AL-31FP engines
Koraput
HELICOPTER COMPLEX
18 Helicopter Division, Manufacture: ALH, LCH, Cheetah, Chetak and Cheetal
Bangalore ROH: Cheetah, Chetak and Cheetal
19 Helicopter MRO ROH: ALH
Division, Bangalore
20 Barrackpore Division, ROH: Cheetah, Chetak
Barrackpore

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21 Composite Division, Composite components for ALH, LCH, LCA etc.
Bangalore

RESEARCH AND DESIGN CENTRES

1. Aircraft R&D center, Bangalore
2. Rotary Wing R&D center, Bangalore
3. Mission and combat system R&D center, Bangalore
4. Aero engine R&D center, Bangalore
5. Strategic Electronics R&D Center, Hyderabad
6. Aerospace system and equipment R&D Center, Lucknow
7. Aerospace system and equipment R&D Center,Korwa
8. Transport Aircraft R&D Center, Kanpur
9. Aircraft upgrade R&D Center, Nasik
10. Gas turbine R&D Center, Koraput

3. PLAN OF TRAINING PROGRAM

Introduction to Lucknow Division

HAL Accessories Division, Lucknow was established in year 1970 with a prime objective of manufacturing
aircraft systems and accessories for Aircrafts, Helicopters and Engines. HAL Lucknow facilities are spread
over 116,000 sqm of built area set in sylvan surroundings. At present, over 1400 different types of
accessories are being manufactured and / or maintained by Accessories Division, Lucknow.

Currently, the division is manufacturing various Accessories of following aircraft systems under one roof:
 Hydraulics
 Engine Fuel
 Air-conditioning and Pressurization
 Flight Control
 Wheel and Brake
 Gyro & Barometric Instruments
 Electrical Power Generation & Control System
 Undercarriages
 Oxygen and Electronic System
 Fuel Content Gauges etc.
The Division undertakes manufacturing and servicing of accessories under Transfer of Technology (ToT)
from more than 40 Licensors from different countries. In addition, a lot of emphasis has also been given on
developing in-house capability for indigenous Design and Development of various systems and accessories.
This capability has resulted in indigenous design and development of over 400 types of accessories installed
on Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) (Air force and Navy version), Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH - all
versions i.e. Army, Air force, Navy & Civil), Light Combat Helicopter(LCH), Light Utility Helicopter
(LUH), Hindustan Turbo Trainer (HTT-40) and IJT (Intermediate Jet Trainer).

 The Division has over 45 years of experience in manufacturing aeronautical accessories making it an
ideal partner for the International Aero Engineering Industry.
 The Division has comprehensive manufacturing and design capabilities for various Hi-tech components,
Equipment and Systems to customer’s specifications with high quality, reliability and cost effectiveness.
 The Division is networked with sister Divisions, liaison offices and R & D Centers by LAN/WAN for
ensuring smooth flow of information/ data within the organization.
 Lean Manufacturing Concepts are practiced and encouraged in the working domain to ensure Cost,
Time and Quality effectiveness.
 ERP has been implemented in order to create an efficient and productive working ecosystem with
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 optimum utilization of the resources.
 Division has Online availability of design standards, journals, status of BOFs & M-parts etc through in
house developed web based information portal.
 Division has in-house developed web based review and monitoring portal for project monitoring.
 Officers / workmen of Divisions are committed to ethical ways of doing their work. Officers/ workmen
are encouraged to specifically ensure ethical approach while dealing with customers/ vendors external to
the organization.

Start and End Dates of Training

Training Start date: 01.06.2019

Training End date: 29.06.2019

Details of various department familiarized

 Indigenization Dept. : Seeks to Design Dept.: To design and test various types of actuators, hydraulics
and pneumatic systems along with various electrical and electronics systems.
 Outsourcing Dept.: Tasks include may relief airlines from huge labour costs associated with airlines
maintenance, reduce the airline’s costs on training and purchase of equipment tools, especially for the
smaller ‘new entrants’ which is impossible to establish an efficient maintenance department with full
equipment and full staff and benefit airlines from fuel cost saving. Worldwide outsourcing maintenance
available enable airlines to conduct maintenance where and when it is needed.
 indigenize accessories and reduce the reliance on foreign vendors, thus boosting profits due to effective
transportation and easy availaibility.
 Human Resource Dept:Roles include preparing or updating employment records related to hiring,
transferring, promoting, and terminating. Explaining human resources policies, procedures, laws, and
standards to new and existing employees. Ensuring new hire paperwork is completed and processed.
 Maintainence Dept.: performs tasks required to ensure the continuing airworthiness of
an aircraft or aircraft part, including overhaul, inspection, replacement, defect rectification, and the
embodiment of modifications, compliance with airworthiness directives and repair.
 Training Dept: Roles include acquainting and familiarization of various systems, roles, practices and
organization structure and needs to new recruits/trainees.
 Quality Dept.: "The function of the quality manager is to monitor compliance with, and the adequacy of,
procedures required to ensure safe operational practices and airworthy aeroplanes. The quality manager
should be responsible for ensuring that the Quality Assurance Programme is properly established,
implemented and maintained.
 Finance Dept.: To regulate and monitor the profitability of the organization and take care of its financial
needs.
 Marketing Dept: To market the product manufactured and publicize it to identify potential investors and
buyers, which will boost profits.
Learnings of each topic

Basics of aircraft
An airplane or aeroplane (informally plane) is a powered, fixed-wing aircraft that is propelled forward
by thrust from a jet engine, propeller or rocket engine. Airplanes come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and wing
configurations.

Airplane Parts:

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The engines, tail, and wings are the parts of a plane that make it actually fly--they're the functional
parts. The tail is the very back of the plane. You might have noticed that planes tend to have a particular
shape right at the back, and it's there for a reason. Most of the tail is stationary, but it also contains movable
parts called flaps. There is usually a vertical flap called a rudder, which points the plane left or right. There
are also two horizontal flaps called elevators, which point the plane up or down. Together, these are what the
pilot uses to control the plane.
The wings of the plane are what make it able to fly in the first place--they produce an upward force
called lift. The wings are the parts that
stretch out from the side of the plane.
Wings can stretch out perfectly straight or
be angled up slightly, because an upward
angle reduces the chance of the plane
rolling unexpectedly. Wings also contain
the main flaps that allow pilots to take off
and land at lower speeds and outer flaps
called ailerons that allow the plane to bank
left or right.
The fuselage is the middle of the plane,
where humans and cargo are found. The
fuselage is a part that doesn't really aid in
the flight--its purpose is to hold the
passengers and cargo. Within the fuselage,
you also find the cockpit, where the pilot
and copilot sit to control the plane. A
modern cockpit is a confusing array of
screens, lights, dials, and buttons doing all
kinds of things. Let's take a quick look at
the main parts of a cockpit.
The most important parts of a cockpit are the control column and rudder pedals, because these are the main
ways to control the plane. The control column is basically a steering wheel or joystick that causes the plane
to point up or down and roll left or right. The rudder pedals are pedals for the pilot's feet that actually point
the plane left or right. These controls move the various flaps we've already talked about.

The Four Forces in Flight:

Thrust

It is the forward force produced by the propeller and it acts opposite to and overcomes the drag. In flight, it
can also be sideward or rearward, depending on how the pilot needs to fly it. Together with lift, it determines
the movement of the helicopter. Thrust is generated by the rotor system.

Drag

Drag resists the movement of the helicopter through the air and it acts parallel to the relative wind (relative
wind is the wind relative to the Airfoil; movement of the Airfoil through the air creates relative wind). The
total drag is contributed by three types of drags:
Profile drag is the frictional resistance of the blades as they move through the air. It increases with increased
airspeed. It depends on the size, shape and surface roughness of the blades.

1. Induced drag is created due to the pressure difference between the suction and pressure surfaces of the
blades which causes a spiral or a vortex of air trailing behind the blades. These vortices deflect the
airstream downwards and increase the downwash, opposing the lift generated.

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2. Parasite drag is due to the non-lifting components of the helicopter – such as the cabin, the rotor mast,
the tail boom, the landing gear, etc.

Lift

Lift is generated when any object changes the direction of flow of the fluid that this object is in. When there
is relative motion between the object and the fluid, and the object deflect the fluid in a particular direction,
the force required to do this creates an equal and opposite force which is called lift. It depends on the speed
of the airflow relative to the object (here, the helicopter), the density of the air, the total area of the Airfoil
and the angle of attack (AoA) between the air and the Airfoil. Lift here is generated by the pressure
difference between the upper and the lower surfaces of the Airfoil. It also depends on the angle of attack, as
mentioned earlier. The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line (straight line joining the leading
and the trailing edges of the Airfoil) of the Airfoil and the relative wind.

Weight

The rotor blades must support the weight and lift and direct the movement of the helicopter.

Weight of the helicopter is the downward force opposing the lift force and it includes the weight of the
helicopter, the passengers, the payload, the fuel tanks, etc. The weight of the helicopter is influenced by the
aerodynamic loads as well. The Load Factor or the G Load – ratio of the actual load on the rotor blades to
the normal load or the gross weight of the helicopter – for instance, increases when the helicopter is banking.
When it moves along a curved flight path, the tighter it banks the greater is the load factor and hence, the
rotor blades must support a load greater than the actual helicopter weight. To overcome this additional load,
the rotor blades must produce more lift. The pilots must balance the engine power to produce more lift, or
decrease the altitude or decelerate in order to compensate for it.

Principles of Flight

Helicopter flies by relying on three principles and laws of Physics:

 Newton’s First Law states that a body in a particular state of motion will continue in that state of
motion unless an external force is applied on it, in which case it will change its state of motion.

 Newton’s Second Law of Motion, for translational motion, states that the force applied on a body
results in a time rate of change of momentum of that body. For rotational motion, the torque applied will
equate the time rate of change of angular momentum.

 Newton’s Third Law of Motion states that for a force applied on a body, an equal and opposite
reaction force is applied by the body.

Lift is achieved by the Coanda Effect – it is the tendency of a fluid jet to adhere to or stay attached to a
convex surface. Henri Coanda described the phenomenon as “the tendency of a jet fluid emerging from an
orifice to follow an adjacent flat or curved surface and to entrain fluid from the surroundings so that a region
15
of low pressure develops.” When the jet flow impinges at a curved surface, theoretically, it should deflect
and flow sideways to the surface – but it doesn’t. When the jet flows over this surface, the existing air
molecules near the surface experience a drag force due to this flow, and get pulled by this flow. When these
molecules get pulled by the flow, it leaves behind a region of suction – a low pressure region. Meanwhile,
the external pressure on the other side of the jet flow is still atmospheric and hence, larger than this internal
pressure. This creates a net pressure force downwards, which easily overcomes the centrifugal force acting
on the jet flow particles as they flow around the curved surface. This causes the air flow to adhere to the
surface.

Another principle valid in helicopter is Bernoulli’s Principle. It is based on the Law of Conservation of
Energy – energy cannot be created or destroyed; energy of one form can convert to another form, but the net
energy of a system remains constant, or the net energy entering a system must equate the net energy exiting
the system.

Bernoulli’s Principle, by extending this Energy Conservation Law, states that the mass flow rate of any
liquid through a pipe – regardless of whether its cross-section is uniform or non-uniform at all points –
remains constant. Hence, as a fluid flows through a pipe, when the fluid pressure increases, the fluid velocity
decreases, and when the pressure decreases the fluid velocity increases. This is also referred to as a Venturi
Effect – when the pipe cross-section decreases, the pressure decreases and the velocity increases.

The upper surface of the Airfoil is the Suction surface and the bottom one is called the Pressure Surface.
The air flow hits the Airfoil at its Leading Edge, flows around it according to the Coanda Effect, and leaves
the surface at the airfoil’s Trailing Edge. The external pressure is atmospheric, but the internal pressure is
different at the different surfaces of the Airfoil.

Primary flight controls of fixed wing aircraft:

Hydraulic Systems:

Hydraulic Systems are used in industrial applications such as stamping presses, steel mills, and general
manufacturing, agricultural machines, mining industry, aviation, space technology, deep-sea exploration,
transportation, marine technology, and offshore gas and petroleum exploration. In short, very few people get
through a day of their lives without somehow benefiting from the technology of hydraulics. The impressive
16
and ongoing growth of this versatile and exciting technology continues to create numerous job opportunities
for properly trained and accredited people in all areas of Fluid Power: engineers, technicians.

Principle of hydraulic systems

Pascal’s law: It states that- “pressure applies on a contained fluid is transmitted undiminished in all
directions and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles to them.” A closed container as shown
has got two pistons of different diameters placed in two cylinders as shown above. A small force of F1 is
applied on the small piston of area A1 can be transmitted to get a higher force F2 on a bigger area A2. The
distance of travel of small piston will be greater than that of the big piston, distance of travel is inversely
proportional to their areas. Where l is the distance moved by small piston and L by the big piston.

Hydraulic power pack and accessories

Hydraulic power or fluid power is generated from a hydraulic power unit. The unit comprises a lot of
accessories which helps and maintains the operations of the unit. They are:

Reservoir: The fluid which is used for the transmission of power is stored in the reservoir or tank. The
pump sucks the fluid from the reservoir for the operation through a filter/strainer. Once the operation is done,
the low pressure fluid comes back to the reservoir.

Pump: pumps the fluid through a set of valves and regulators to the actuator.

Pressure gauge: Measures the working pressure of the Hydraulic package. It is generally isolated by a
gauge isolator (isolates the PG from the fluid line and when required passes the fluid to the PG), so that
measuring is taken only when required.

Valves:
Pressure control valves- Regulates pressure

Direction control valves – controls the direction of fluid flow

Flow control valves – regulates the mass flow of fluid

Hydraulic actuators: A hydraulic cylinder is used for linear actuation, where as a hydraulic motor is used
for rotary actuation.

Hydraulic fluids

Hydraulic fluid generally used in hydraulics is mineral oil that is petroleum- based oil. Water cannot be used
for hydraulics generally is because it corrodes, facilitates bacterial growth, cannot handle high temperatures
and no lubrication property. Hydraulic fluid has four primary functions:

Transmission of power- As the Pascal’s law states the contained fluid transmits pressure in all directions
equally. With areas of cross section changing (on which the pressure acts) we can change the force / power
enormously. The force multiplication is purely depending up on the fluid or the fluid property.

Sealing- the hydraulic fluid itself acts as a seal between the moving element and the machined cavity. Even
here the sealing capacity or quality depends up on the type of fluid used. The fluid properties such as
viscosity, density, surface tension etc. are the deciding factors for the fluid to be used in sealing applications.

Lubrication – hydraulic fluid used should have high lubrication capacity, as usage of another fluid for
lubrication in the same system is meaningless. The hydraulic circuit will have one or more actuators, valves,
17
pumps and other moving devices which are to be lubricated to reduce wear and tear.

Cooling- due to the moving parts of the hydraulic system, lot of heat will be generated which will cause
inefficient function of the entire system. The hydraulic fluid used should have good heat transfer capacity in
order to absorb the heat from the parts and at the same time it should be able to lose it in a sink.

Servo valves: Servo valves are based on an electrical torque motor which produces a small deflection
proportional to the electrical current through its coil. They commonly use feedback between the main and
pilot spools to give precise control.

Solenoid Valve: This is a single stage solenoid valve spring biased with normally open position whenever
there is no power supply for the valve.

Landing gear:

Landing gear is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or landing.
For aircraft it is generally both. ... For aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying,
allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage.

Pneumatic Systems:

Some aircraft manufacturers have equipped their aircraft with a high pressure pneumatic system (3,000 psi)
in the past. The last aircraft to utilize this type of system was the Fokker F27.Such systems operate a great
deal like hydraulic systems, except they employ air instead of a liquid for transmitting power. Pneumatic
systems are sometimes used for:
 Brakes
 Opening and closing doors
 Driving hydraulic pumps, alternators, starters, water injection pumps, etc.
 Operating emergency devices

Both pneumatic and hydraulic systems are similar units and use confined fluids. The word confined means
trapped or completely enclosed. The word fluid implies such liquids as water, oil, or anything that flows.
Since both liquids and gases flow, they are considered as fluids; however, there is a great deal of difference
in the characteristics of the two. Liquids are practically incompressible; a quart of water still occupies about
a quart of space regardless of how hard it is compressed. But gases are highly compressible; a quart of air
can be compressed into a thimbleful of space. In spite of this difference, gases and liquids are both fluids and
can be confined and made to transmit power. The type of unit used to provide pressurized air for pneumatic
systems is determined by the system’s air pressure requirements.

1. High Pressure Pneumatic Systems

For high-pressure systems, air is usually stored in metal bottles at pressures ranging from 1, 000 t o 3, 000
psi , depending on the particular system.This type of air bottle has two valves, one of which is a charging
valve. A ground-operated compressor can be connected to this valve to add air to the bottle. The other valve
is a control valve. It acts as a shutoff valve, keeping air trapped inside the bottle until the system is operated.

2. Medium Pressure Pneumatic Systems

A medium-pressure pneumatic system (50–150 psi) usually does not include an air bottle. Instead, it
generally draws air from the compressor section of a turbine engine. This process is often called bleed air
and is used to provide pneumatic power for engine starts, engine deicing, wing deicing, and in some cases, it
provides hydraulic power to the aircraft systems (if the hydraulic system is equipped with an air-driven
hydraulic pump). Engine bleed air is also used to pressurize the reservoirs of the hydraulic system. Bleed air
systems are discussed in more detail in the powerplant section.
18
3. Low Pressure Pneumatic Systems
Many aircraft equipped with reciprocating engines obtain a supply of low-pressure air from vane-type
pumps. These pumps are driven by electric motors or by the aircraft engine.

Pneumatic System Components:

Pneumatic systems are often compared to hydraulic systems, but such comparisons can only hold true in
general terms. Pneumatic systems do not utilize reservoirs, hand pumps, accumulators, regulators, or
engine-driven or electrically driven power pumps for building normal pressure. But similarities do exist in
some components.

 Air Compressors
On some aircraft, permanently installed air compressors have been added to recharge air bottles whenever
pressure is used for operating a unit. Several types of compressors are used for this purpose. Some have two
stages of compression, while others have three, depending on the maximum desired operating pressure.

 Relief Valves
Relief valves are used in pneumatic systems to prevent damage. They act as pressure limiting units and
prevent excessive pressures from bursting lines and blowing out seals.

 Control Valves
Control valves are also a necessary part of a typical pneumatic system. Figure 3 illustrates how a valve is
used to control emergency air brakes. The control valve consists of a three-port housing, two poppet valves,
and a control lever with two lobes.

 Check Valves
Check valves are used in both hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Figure 4 illustrates a flap-type pneumatic
check valve. Air enters the left port of the check valve, compresses a light spring, forcing the check valve
open and allowing air to flow out the right port. But if air enters from the right, air pressure closes the valve,
preventing a flow of air out the left port. Thus, a pneumatic check valve is a one-direction flow control
valve.

 Restrictors
Restrictors are a type of control valve used in pneumatic systems. Figure 5 illustrates an orifice-type
restrictor with a large inlet port and a small outlet port. The small outlet port reduces the rate of airflow and
the speed of operation of an actuating unit.

 Variable Restrictor
Another type of speed-regulating unit is the variable restrictor. [Figure 6] It contains an adjustable needle
valve, which has threads around the top and a point on the lower end. Depending on the direction turned, the
needle valve moves the sharp point either into or out of a small opening to decrease or increase the size of
the opening. Since air entering the inlet port must pass through this opening before reaching the outlet port,
this adjustment also determines the rate of airflow through the restrictor.

 Filters
Pneumatic systems are protected against dirt by means of various types of filters. A micronic filter consists
of a housing with two ports, a replaceable cartridge, and a relief valve. Normally, air enters the inlet,
circulates around the cellulose cartridge, and flows to the center of the cartridge and out the outlet port. If
the cartridge becomes clogged with dirt, pressure forces the relief valve open and allows unfiltered air to
flow out the outlet port.

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 Desiccant/Moisture Separator
The moisture separator in a pneumatic system is always located downstream of the compressor. Its purpose
is to remove any moisture caused by the compressor. A complete moisture separator consists of a reservoir, a
pressure switch, a dump valve, and a check valve. It may also include a regulator and a relief valve.
purges the separator reservoir and lines up to the compressor. The check valve protects the system against
pressure loss during the dumping cycle and prevents reverse flow through the separator.

 Chemical Drier
Chemical driers are incorporated at various locations in a pneumatic system. Their purpose is to absorb any
moisture that may collect in the lines and other parts of the system. Each drier contains a cartridge that
should be blue in color. If otherwise noted, the cartridge is to be considered contaminated with moisture and
should be replaced.

 Emergency Backup Systems

Many aircraft use a high-pressure pneumatic back-up source of power to extend the landing gear or actuate
the brakes, if the main hydraulic braking system fails. The nitrogen is not directly used to actuate the landing
gear actuators or brake units but, instead, it applies the pressurized nitrogen to move hydraulic fluid to the
actuator. This process is called pneudraulics.

 Nitrogen Bottles
Nitrogen used for emergency landing gear extension is stored in two bottles, one bottle located on each side
of the nose wheel well. Nitrogen from the bottles is released by actuation of an outlet valve. Once depleted,
the bottles must be recharged by maintenance personnel. Fully serviced pressure is approximately 3,100 psi
at 70 °F/21 °C, enough for only one extension of the landing gear.

 Gear Emergency Extension Cable and Handle

The outlet valve is connected to a cable and handle assembly. The handle is located on the side of the
copilot’s console and is labeled EMER LDG GEAR. Pulling the handle fully upward opens the outlet valve,
releasing compressed nitrogen into the landing gear extension system. Pushing the handle fully downward
closes the outlet valve and allows any nitrogen present in the emergency landing gear extension system to be
vented overboard. The venting process takes approximately 30 seconds.

 Dump Valve
As compressed nitrogen is released to the landing gear selector/dump valve during emergency extension, the
pneudraulic pressure actuates the dump valve portion of the landing gear selector/dump valve to isolate the
landing gear system from the remainder of hydraulic system. When activated, a blue DUMP legend is
illuminated on the LDG GR DUMP V switch, located on the cockpit overhead panel. A dump valve reset
switch is used to reset the dump valve after the system has been used and serviced.

Aircraft propulsion:

An aircraft propulsion system generally consists of an aircraft engine and some means to generate thrust,
such as a propeller or a propulsive nozzle.
An aircraft propulsion system must achieve two things. First, the thrust from the propulsion system must
balance the drag of the airplane when the airplane is cruising. And second, the thrust from the propulsion
system must exceed the drag of the airplane for the airplane to accelerate. The greater the difference between
the thrust and the drag, called the excess thrust, the faster the airplane will accelerate.
1) Turbojet Engine
Turbojet engines were the first type of gas turbine engine invented. And even though they look completely
different than the reciprocating engine in your car or plane, they operate using the same theory: intake,
compression, power, exhaust.
Turbojet takeaway:
Pros:
20
 Relatively simple design
 Capable of very high speeds
 Takes up little space
Cons:
 High fuel consumption
 Loud
 Poor performance at slow speeds

2) Turboprop Engine
The turboprop is a turbojet engine, connected to a propeller through a gearing system.
Turboprop takeaway:
Pros:
 Very fuel efficient.
 Most efficient at mid-range speed between 250-400 knots.
 Most efficient at mid-range altitudes of 18,000-30,000 feet.
Cons:
 Limited forward airspeed.
 Gearing systems are heavy and can break down.
3) Turbofan Engine
Turbofans combine the best of both worlds between turbojets and turboprops.Inlet air is divided into two
separate streams. One stream flows around the engine (bypass air), while the other passes through the engine
core.Bypass air passes around the engine and is accelerated by a duct fan, producing additional thrust. Air
flows through the turbojet engine, continuing the production of thrust.
Turbofan takeaway:
Pros:
 Fuel efficient
 Quieter than turbojets
Cons:
 Heavier than turbojets
 Larger frontal area than turbojets
 Inefficient at very high altitudes

Avionics

Avionics are the electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Avionic systems
include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of
systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. The cockpit of an aircraft is a typical
location for avionic equipment, including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and
anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their avionics using 14- or 28- volt DC electrical
systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft)
have AC systems operating at 400 Hz, 115 volts AC.
Categories of Avionics are:
1. Communications
2. Navigation
3. Monitoring
4. Aircraft flight-control system
5. Fuel Systems
6. Collision-avoidance systems
7. Flight recorders
8. Weather systems
9. Aircraft management systems

Mission or tactical avionics:

21
Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears of other weapon
systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used for whatever tactical means required. As
with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E- 3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4,
Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission-management computers. Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated
tactical sensors.
Categories of Tactical Avionics are:
1. Military communications
2. Radar
3. Sonar
4. Electro-Optics
5. ESM/DAS
6. Aircraft networks

Quality control
Quality is an important factor when it comes to any product or service. With the high market
competition,quality has become the market differentiator for almost all products and services. Quality
control is essential to building a successful business that delivers products that meet or exceed customers'
expectations. It also forms the basis of an efficient business that minimizes waste and operates at high levels
of productivity. A quality control system based on a recognized standard, such as ISO 9001 published by the
International Organization for Standardization, provides a strong foundation for achieving a wide range of
marketing and operational benefits.
Therefore, all manufacturers and service providers out there constantly look for enhancing their product or
the service quality. In order to maintain or enhance the quality of the offerings, manufacturers use two
techniques, quality control and quality assurance. These two practices make sure that the end product or the
service meets the quality requirements and standards defined for the product or the service.
There are many methods followed by organizations to achieve and maintain required level of quality. Some
organizations believe in the concepts of Total Quality Management (TQM) and some others believe in
internal and external standards. The standards usually define the processes and procedure for organizational
activities and assist to maintain the quality in every aspect of organizational functioning.
Every organization that practices QC needs to have a Quality Manual. The quality manual outlines the
quality focus and the objectives in the organization. The quality manual gives the quality guidance to
different departments and functions. Therefore, everyone in the organization needs to be aware of his or her
responsibilities mentioned in the quality manual.
Quality Assurance is a broad practice used for assuring the quality of products or services. There are many
differences between quality control and quality assurance. In quality assurance, a constant effort is made to
enhance the quality practices in the organization. Therefore, continuous improvements are expected in
quality functions in the company.

Lean manufacturing
Lean manufacturing or lean production is a systematic method originating in the Japanese manufacturing
industry for the minimization of waste ( 無 駄 muda) within a manufacturing system without
sacrificing productivity, which can cause problems. Lean also takes into account waste created through
overburden (無理 muri) and unevenness in work loads (斑 mura). Working from the perspective of the client
who consumes a product or service, "value" is any action or process that a customer would be willing to pay
for.[citation needed]
Lean manufacturing attempts to make obvious what adds value, through reducing everything else (because it
is not adding value). This management philosophy is derived mostly from the Toyota Production
System (TPS) and identified as "lean" only in the 1990s.TPS is renowned for its focus on reduction of the
original Toyota seven wastes to improve overall customer value, but there are varying perspectives on how
this is best achieved. The steady growth of Toyota, from a small company to the world's largest
automaker, has focused attention on how it has achieved this success.
For many, lean is the set of "tools" that assist in the identification and steady elimination of waste. As waste

22
is eliminated quality improves while production time and cost are reduced. A non exhaustive list of such
tools would include: SMED, value stream mapping, Five S, Kanban (pull
systems), poka-yoke (error-proofing), total productive maintenance, elimination of time batching, mixed
model processing, rank order clustering, single point scheduling, redesigning working cells, multi-process
handling and control charts (for checking mura).
There is a second approach to lean manufacturing, which is promoted by Toyota, called The Toyota Way, in
which the focus is upon improving the "flow" or smoothness of work, thereby steadily
eliminating mura ("unevenness") through the system and not upon 'waste reduction' per se. Techniques to
improve flow include production leveling, "pull" production (by means of kanban) and the Heijunka box.
This is a fundamentally different approach from most improvement methodologies, and requires
considerably more persistence than basic application of the tools, which may partially account for its lack of
popularity.
The difference between these two approaches is not the goal itself, but rather the prime approach to
achieving it. The implementation of smooth flow exposes quality problems that already existed, and thus
waste reduction naturally happens as a consequence. The advantage claimed for this approach is that it
naturally takes a system-wide perspective, whereas a waste focus sometimes wrongly assumes this
perspective.

Outsourcing
Outsourcing is an agreement in which one company hires another company to be responsible for a planned
or existing activity that is or could be done internally,and sometimes involves transferring employees and
assets from one firm to another.
The term outsourcing, which came from the phrase outside resourcing, originated no later than 1981. The
concept, which The Economist says "made its presence felt since the time of the Second World War," often
involves the contracting of a business process (e.g., payroll processing, claims processing), operational,
and/or non-core functions, such as manufacturing, facility management, call center/call centre support).
Outsourcing is also the practice of handing over control of public services to private enterprises.
Outsourcing includes both foreign and domestic contracting,and sometimes includes offshoring (relocating a
business function to a distant country) or nearshoring (transferring a business process to a nearby country).
Offshoring and outsourcing are not mutually inclusive: there can be one without the other. They can be
intertwined (Offshore outsourcing), and can be individually or jointly, partially or completely
reversed, involving terms such as reshoring, inshoring, and insourcing.
Outsourcing can help businesses reduce labor costs significantly. When a company uses outsourcing, it
enlists the help of outside organizations not affiliated with the company to complete certain tasks. The
outside organizations typically set up different compensation structures with their employees than the
outsourcing company, enabling them to complete the work for less money. This ultimately enables the
outsourcing money to lower its labor costs.

Indigenization
Indigenization is the act of making something more native; transformation of some service, idea, etc. to suit
a local culture, especially through the use of more indigenous people in administration, employment, etc.
The term is primarily used by anthropologists to describe what happens when locals take something from the
outside and make it their own (e.g. Africanization, Americanization).
It denotes to substituting an imported item with one that is manufactured within the country. This does not
indicate that the item manufactured within the country is a replica of the imported item. It could be
functionally the same, but could have more modern, energy efficient, compact and reliable parts and
sub-assemblies, that could themselves be either imported or indigenous. For example, in India, very few
electronic components are manufactured and therefore, all the ICs and other electronic components are
imported from foreign country. There is a need for development of products, especially for internal security
issues. Presently, several equipment that cater to the needs of various security agencies are either not
available simply in the country, or very costly to deploy.

23
Maintenance Management: Importance, Objectives and Functions

Types of maintenance:

Traditionally, 5 types of maintenance have been distinguished, which are differentiated by the nature of the
tasks that they include:
 Corrective maintenance: The set of tasks is destined to correct the defects to be found in the different
equipment and that are communicated to the maintenance department by users of the same equipment.
 Preventive Maintenance: Its mission is to maintain a level of certain service on equipment,
programming the interventions of their vulnerabilities in the most opportune time. It is used to be a
systematic character, that is, the equipment is inspected even if it has not given any symptoms of having
a problem.
 Predictive Maintenance: It pursues constantly know and report the status and operational capacity of
the installations by knowing the values of certain variables, which represent such state and operational
ability. To apply this maintenance, it is necessary to identify physical variables (temperature, vibration,
power consumption, etc.). Which variation is indicative of problems that may be appearing on the
equipment. This maintenance it is the most technical, since it requires advanced technical resources, and
at times of strong mathematical, physical and / or technical knowledge.
 Zero Hours Maintenance (Overhaul): The set of tasks whose goal is to review the equipment at
scheduled intervals before appearing any failure, either when the reliability of the equipment has
decreased considerably so it is risky to make forecasts of production capacity . This review is based on
leaving the equipment to zero hours of operation, that is, as if the equipment were new. These reviews
will replace or repair all items subject to wear. The aim is to ensure, with high probability, a good
working time fixed in advance.
 Periodic maintenance (Time Based Maintenance TBM): the basic maintenance of equipment made
by the users of it. It consists of a series of elementary tasks (data collections, visual inspections,
cleaning, lubrication, retightening screws) for which no extensive training is necessary, but perhaps only
a brief training. This type of maintenance is the based on TPM (Total Productive Maintenance).

24
Maintenance models:

A. CORRECTIVE MODEL
This is the most basic model, and includes, in addition to visual inspections and lubrication mentioned
previously, the arising breakdowns repair. It is applied, as we will see, to equipments with the lowest level of
criticality, whose faults are not a problem, economically or technically. In this type of equipment is not
profitable to devote more resources and efforts.
B. CONDITIONAL MODEL
It includes the activities of the previous model, and also this model carries out a series of tests that will
determine a subsequent action. If after testing we discovered an anomaly, we will schedule an intervention;
on the contrary, if everything is correct, we will not act on the equipment.
This maintenance model is valid in equipment not to very used, or for equipment that despite being
important in the production system the probability of failure is low.
C. SYSTEMATIC MODEL
This model includes a set of tasks we will perform no matter what is the condition of the equipment , also
we will perform some measurements and tests to decide whether to carry out other tasks of greater
magnitude, and finally, we will repair faults that arise. It is a model widely used in equipment of medium
availability, of some importance in the production system whose failures cause some disruption. It is
important to note that equipment subjected to a systematic maintenance model does not have to have all its
tasks with a fixed schedule. Just a equipment with this model of maintenance can have systematic tasks that
are carried out regardless of the time it have been operated or state of the elements on which it works. It is
the main difference with the previous two models in which to perform a maintenance task should be some
sign of failure.
An example of equipment subjected to this maintenance model is a discontinuous reactor, in which the tasks
that must react are introduced at once, the reaction takes place, and then the reaction product is extracted
before making a new load. Regardless of this reactor is doubled or not, when operating should be reliable, so
it is warranted a series of tasks regardless of whether any signs of failure have been arose.
D. HIGH AVAILABILITY MAINTENANCE MODEL
It is the most demanding and exhaustive model of them. It is applied to that equipment that under no
circumstances may suffer a breakdown or malfunction. These are equipments to whom are also required
very high levels of availability, above 90%. The reason for such high level of availability is generally high
cost in production due to a fault. With a demand so high, there is no time to stop the equipment if the
maintenance requires it (corrective, preventive, systematic).

Basic Aircraft Instruments

Flight instruments are the

instruments in the cockpit of an
aircraft that provide the pilot
with information about the
flight situation of that aircraft,
such as altitude, airspeed and
direction. They improve safety
by allowing the pilot to fly the
aircraft in level flight, and
make turns, without a reference
outside the aircraft such as the
horizon. Visual flight
rules (VFR) require an airspeed
indicator, an altimeter, and a
compass or other suitable
magnetic direction
indicator. Instrument flight rules (IFR) additionally require a gyroscopic pitch-bank (artificial horizon),
25
direction (directional gyro) and rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid indicator, adjustable altimeter, and a
clock. Flight into Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) require radio navigation instruments for
precise takeoffs and landings.

Static/Pitot-Static Instruments

Airspeed Indicator
 The airspeed indicator tells the pilot the indicated airspeed in knots (or in some cases, a Mach number).
Airspeed is sometimes also depicted in true airspeed, which is valuable information for flight planning.
(True airspeed is the actual speed of the airplane in relation to the air and is corrected for temperature
and density effects. It's usually just a few knots different than indicated airspeed in small aircraft.) In a
nutshell, the airspeed indicator works by comparing ram air pressure from the pitot tube to static air
pressure from one or more static ports.
 The diaphragm inside the instrument casing measures the pressure differential and depicts it on the
instrument pointer.
 Airspeed indicators are color coded so the pilot can easily identify ranges such as the normal operating
range, flap operating range, and caution range. Minimum and maximum speeds, as well as other
important speeds (known as V-speeds), are marked as well.
Altimeter
 The altimeter reflects the aircraft's vertical height above MSL (mean sea level) corrected for outside air
pressure. The pilot sets the appropriate pressure setting (a local setting for those flying below 18,000
feet), and the altimeter will depict the corresponding altitude above MSL.
 The altimeter works similar to a basic barometer, by comparing the static pressure inside of a sealed
aneroid capsule to the expanding or contracting pressure surrounding it. When the airplane ascends or
descends, the air pressure will decrease or increase, respectively. This outside air pressure is constantly
being compared to the pressure inside the aneroid capsule, and with the help of linkage and a pointer,
the altitude is displayed on the cockpit instrument.
Vertical Speed Indicator
 Vertical speed is the rate of the aircraft's climb or descent, usually depicted in feet per minute (fpm) on
a vertical speed indicator (VSI). In level flight, the VSI needle points to 0 feet. The VSI works by
measuring and comparing the static pressure inside of an expandable capsule to the metered static
pressure outside of the capsule.
 The pressure inside the capsule changes very quickly as the plane climbs or descends, while the pressure
outside of the capsule changes very slowly due to the metered leak. During climbs and descents, the
capsule compresses or expands, respectively. The pressure difference is measured and linked to the
pointer, where it's depicted on the instrument face.
 The VSI is valuable in determining if the airplane is climbing or descending and the rate of the climb or
descend. There can be a slight lag in information depicted on the VSI if the aircraft is maneuvered
abruptly. In turbulence, the indications can be slightly erratic.

Gyroscopic Instruments

Attitude Indicator
 The attitude indicator is possibly the most important instrument for pilots. In one glance, a pilot can tell
if the aircraft is climbing, descending, turning or straight and level. It gives a direct indication of
changes to pitch attitude and bank.
 The attitude indicator consists of an artificial horizon that is a background for a miniature airplane.
The instrument is meant to depict the sky (usually blue in color) and the ground (typically brown), with
a miniature airplane positioned on the artificial horizon (a white line) in level flight.
 In most cases, the miniature airplane is attached to the instrument viewing case, and it moves with
the airplane. The artificial horizon senses movement from the gyroscope and remains suspended in
relation to a self-erecting gyroscope, which "holds" its position in reference to the actual horizon. The
gyroscope itself can be vacuum-driven or electric.
26
Heading Indicator
 A basic tool for navigation, the heading indicator provides directional information to the pilot similar to
the way a magnetic compass does. The heading indicator itself is not north-seeking but can depict an
accurate heading when aligned to a magnetic compass.
 The heading indicator is a gyroscopic instrument and can be vacuum-driven or electrically powered. As
the aircraft turns left or right, the heading indicator will change to depict a new heading between zero
and 359 degrees on a compass card.
 A miniature aircraft is located in the center of the indicator and turns with the airplane while the
gyroscope (and coinciding linkage) turn the compass card on the instrument. In a left turn, the miniature
airplane appears to turn left while the compass card turns right.
Turn Coordinator
 The turn coordinator is another gyroscopic instrument that can be either electric or vacuum-driven. It's
one of the simplest instruments, with a miniature airplane that dips its wings one way or another to show
the rate of turn or rate or roll.
 When a pilot rolls the airplane into a turn, the miniature airplane quickly shows a corresponding roll.
There are tick marks on the instrument that are calibrated to depict a standard rate turn for an airplane (a
360-degree standard-rate turn takes two minutes).
 The turn coordinator also includes an inclinometer, which is a ball suspended in a fluid that reacts like a
pendulum during turning flight. The ball acts in response to gravity and turning forces and will depict a
coordinated or uncoordinated turn. The pilot can then counteract an uncoordinated turn with the use of
rudder movement, avoiding a slipping or skidding turn.

Environmental control system

The environmental control system (ECS) of an aircraft provides air supply, thermal control and cabin
pressurizationfor the crew and passengers. Avionics cooling, smoke detection, and fire suppression are also
27
commonly considered part of an aircraft's environmental control system.

 In jetliners, air is supplied to the ECS by being bled from a compressor stage of each gas turbine engine,
upstream of the combustor. The temperature and pressure of this bleed air varies according to which
compressor stage is used, and the power setting of the engine.
 A manifold pressure regulating shut-off valve (MPRSOV) restricts the flow as necessary to maintain the
desired pressure for downstream systems.
 At the heart of the "cold air unit" (CAU) is the "Air Cycle Machine" (ACM) cooling device.
Downstream of the FCV is the cold air unit (CAU), also referred to as the refrigeration unit. There are
many various types of CAUs; however, they all use typical fundamentals.
 The "ram air inlet" is a small scoop, generally located on the "wing to body fairing." Nearly all jetliners
use a modulating door on the ram air inlet to control the amount of cooling airflow through the primary
and secondary ram air heat exchangers.
 The A/C pack exhaust air is ducted into the pressurized fuselage, where it is mixed with filtered air from
the recirculation fans, and fed into the "mix manifold". On nearly all modern jetliners, the airflow is
approximately 50% "outside air" and 50% "filtered air."
 Modern jetliners use "high efficiency particulate arresting" HEPA filters. Airflow into the fuselage is
approximately constant, and pressure is maintained by varying the opening of the "out-flow valve"
(OFV).
 Most modern jetliners have a single OFV located near the bottom aft end of the fuselage, although
some larger aircraft like the 747 and 777 have two.
 In the event the OFV should fail closed, at least two positive pressure relief valves (PPRV) and at least
one negative pressure relief valve (NPRV) are provided to protect the fuselage from over- and under-
pressurization.

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4. STUDY REPORT

 Aerodynamic fundamentals

SERIAL TOPICS
NO.
1 INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

3 PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS

4 FLUID KINEMATICS

5 BERNOULLI EQUATIONS

6 FLOW IN PIPES

7 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

8 BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW

9 FLOW OVER BODIES: DRAG AND LIFT

10 VORTICES

29
1 INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

 Mechanics is the oldest physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies under the
influence of forces. The branch of mechanics that deals with bodies at rest is called statics, while the
branch that deals with bodies in motion is called dynamics. The subcategory fluid mechanics is defined
as the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries. Fluid
mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by considering fluids at rest as a special case of motion
with zero velocity.

 A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as a fluid. Distinction between a solid and a
fluid is made on the basis of the substance’s ability to resist an applied shear (or tangential) stress that
tends to change its shape. A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming, whereas a fluid
deforms continuously under the influence of shear stress, no matter how small. In solids stress is
proportional to strain, but in fluids stress is proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear force is
applied, a solid eventually stops deforming, at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops
deforming and approaches a certain rate of strain.

 Stress is defined as force per unit area and is determined by dividing the force by the area upon which it
acts. The normal component of the force acting on a surface per unit area is called the normal stress, and
the tangential component of a force acting on a surface per unit area is called shear stress. In a fluid at
rest, the normal stress is called pressure. The supporting walls of a fluid eliminate shear stress, and
thus a fluid at rest is at a state of zero shear stress. When the walls are removed or a liquid container is
tilted, a shear develops and the liquid splashes or moves to attain a horizontal free surface.
For fluids at rest, shear stress is zero and pressure is only normal stress.

FIG: The normal stress and shear stress at the surface of a fluid element.

CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS

 Viscous versus In-viscid Regions of Flow

When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops between them and the slower
layer tries to slow down the faster layer. This internal resistance to flow is quantified by the fluid property
viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness of the fluid. Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by molecular collisions in gases. There is no fluid with zero viscosity,
and thus all fluid flows involve viscous effects to some degree. Flows in which the frictional effects are
significant are called viscous flows. However, in many flows of practical interest, there are regions
30
(typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous forces are negligibly small compared to inertial
or pressure forces. Neglecting the viscous terms in such inviscid flow regions greatly simplifies the analysis
without much loss in accuracy.

FIG: The normal stress and shear stress at the surface of a fluid element.

 Internal versus External Flow

A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow in a
confined channel or over a surface.

FIG: External flow over a tennis ball, and the turbulent wake region behind.

 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

A flow is classified as being compressible or incompressible, depending on the level of variation of density
during flow. Incompressibility is an approximation, and a flow is said to be incompressible if the density
remains nearly constant throughout. the flow speed is often expressed in terms of the dimensionless quantity
called Mach number, which is defined as Ma = v/c, where c is the speed of sound whose value is 346 m/s
in air at room temperature at sea level. A flow is called sonic when Ma = 1, subsonic when Ma < 1,
supersonic when Ma > 1, and hypersonic when Ma >> 1.

 Uniform versus Non-uniform Flow

A flow where velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space, that is, the length of the
direction of flow is called Uniform flow. Mathematically, for an uniform flow, we have :

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 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called laminar. The word laminar
comes from the movement of adjacent fluid particles together in “laminates.” The flow of high-viscosity
fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically laminar. The highly disordered fluid motion that typically
occurs at high velocities and is characterized by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent flow. A flow that
alternates between being laminar and turbulent is called transitional. The experiments conducted by Osborn
Reynolds in the 1880s resulted in the establishment of the dimensionless Reynolds number, Re, as the key
parameter for the determination of the flow regime in pipes.

FIG: Laminar, transitional, and turbulent flows.

 Steady versus Unsteady Flow

The term steady implies no change at a point with time. The opposite of steady is unsteady. The term
uniform implies no change with location over a specified region. The terms unsteady and transient are often
used interchangeably, but these terms are not synonyms. In fluid mechanics, unsteady is the most general
term that applies to any flow that is not steady, but transient is typically used for developing flows. When a
rocket engine is fired up, for example, there are transient effects (the pressure builds up inside the rocket
engine, the flow accelerates, etc.) until the engine settles down and operates steadily. The term periodic
refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which the flow oscillates about a steady mean.
During steady flow, the fluid properties can change from point to point within a device, but at any fixed
point they remain constant. Therefore, the volume, the mass, and the total energy content of a steady-flow
device or flow section remain constant in steady operation. For steady flow, we have:
32
One of the most important jobs of an engineer is to determine whether it is sufficient to study only the
time-averaged “steady” flow features of a problem, or whether a more detailed study of the unsteady
features is required. If the engineer were interested only in the overall properties of the flow field, (such
as the time-averaged drag coefficient, the mean velocity, and pressure fields) a time-averaged description,
time-averaged experimental measurements, or an analytical or numerical calculation of the
time-averaged flow field would be sufficient. However, if the engineer were interested in details about the
unsteady-flow field, such as flow-induced vibrations, unsteady pressure fluctuations, or the sound waves
emitted from the turbulent eddies or the shock waves, a time-averaged description of the flow field would
be insufficient.

FIG: airfoil at Mach number 0.6. Photo (a) is an instantaneous image, while photo (b) is a long-exposure
(time-averaged) image.

33
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows:

A flow field is best characterized by the velocity distribution, and thus a flow is said to be one-, two-, or
three-dimensional if the flow velocity varies in one, two, or three primary dimensions, respectively. A
typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry, and the velocity may vary in all three dimensions,
rendering the flow three-dimensional [vector V (x, y, z) in rectangular or vector V(r, u, z) in cylindrical
coordinates]. However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small relative to the variation in
other directions and can be ignored with negligible error. In such cases, the flow can be modeled
conveniently as being one- or two-dimensional, which is easier to analyze.

FIG: Velocity profile development.

2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Examples of Intensive properties : Temperature, Pressure and Density

Examples of Extensive properties: Mass, Volume and Momentum

Extensive properties are denoted by uppercase letters whereas Intensive properties are
denoted by lowercase letters. Extensive properties per unit mass = SPECIFIC
PROPERTIES.
Example of specific properties: Specific Volume, Specific density.

The state of a system is described by its properties. But we know from experience that we do
not need to specify all the properties in order to fix a state. Once the values of a sufficient
number of properties are specified, the rest of the properties assume certain values. That is,
specifying a certain number of properties is sufficient to fix a state. The number of properties
required to fix the state of a system is given by the state postulate: The state of a simple
compressible system is completely specified by two independent intensive properties.

34
 SYSTEM

PROPERTIES

INTENSIVE EXTENSIVE
Mass independent Mass dependent

Some fluid properties are:

Density and Specific Gravity: mass per unit volume.

The reciprocal of density is specific volume, which is nothing but volume per unit mass.
The density of substance depends on Temperature and Pressure. The density of most gases is directly
proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature. In liquids, which are incompressible
substances, the effect of pressure is negligble. The density of a substance can be given with respect to a
density of well known structure. Then it is called Specific Gravity or Relative Density.

Vapour Pressure: of a pure substance is the pressure exerted by its vapour in phase equilibrium with its
liquid at a given local temperature. It is identical to saturation pressure.
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called the saturation
temperature. Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase is
called the saturation pressure. For phase-change processes between the liquid and vapor phases of a pure
substance, the saturation pressure and the vapor pressure are equivalent since the vapor is pure. Vapor
pressure increases with temperature. Thus, a substance at higher temperatures boils at higher pressures. For
example, water boils at 134°C in a pressure cooker operating at 3 atm absolute pressure, but it boils at
93°C in an ordinary pan at a 2000-m elevation, where the atmospheric pressure is 0.8 atm. Partial pressure is
defined as pressure of a gas or vapour in a mixture with other gases.

Energy and Specific heats: Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electrical, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a
unit mass basis) of a system. The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a
system. The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the internal energy of a system.

Coefficient of Volume Expansion: The density of a fluid, in general, depends more strongly on temperature
than it does on pressure, and the variation of density with temperature is responsible for numerous natural
phenomena such as winds, currents in oceans, rise of plumes in chimneys, the operation of hot-air balloons,
heat transfer by natural convection, and even the rise of hot air and thus the phrase “heat rises” To quantify
these effects, we need a property that represents the variation of the density of a fluid with temperature at
constant pressure. The property that provides that information is the coefficient of volume expansion (or
volume expansivity).

35
Coefficient of Compressibility: Fluids usually expand as they are heated or depressurized and contract as
they are cooled or pressurized. But the amount of volume change is different for different fluids, and we
need to define properties that relate volume changes to the changes in pressure and temperature. Two such
properties are the bulk modulus of elasticity k and the coefficient of volume expansion b. It is a common
observation that a fluid contracts when more pressure is applied on it and expands when the pressure acting
on it is reduced. That is, fluids act like elastic solids with respect to pressure. Therefore, in an analogous
manner to Young’s modulus of elasticity for solids, it is appropriate to define a coefficient of compressibility
k (also called the bulk modulus of compressibility or bulk modulus of elasticity) for fluids. Also, the
coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure corresponding to a fractional change in
volume or density of the fluid while the temperature remains constant. Then it follows that the coefficient of
compressibility of a truly incompressible substance (v = constant) is infinity.

Viscosity: When two solid bodies in contact move relative to each other, a friction force develops at the
contact surface in the direction opposite to motion. The situation is similar when a fluid moves relative to a
solid or when two fluids move relative to each other. We move with relative ease in air, but not so in water. It
appears that there is a property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the “fluidity,”
and that property is the viscosity. The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is called
the drag force.
 the rate of deformation of a fluid element is equivalent to the velocity gradient du/dy. Further, it can be
verified experimentally that for most fluids the rate of deformation (and thus the velocity gradient) is
directly proportional to the shear stress t.
 Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the shear stress are called Newtonian fluids.
 In one-dimensional shear flow of Newtonian fluids, shear stress can be expressed by the linear
relationship
Shear stress: t = nu * (du/dy)
where the constant of proportionality m is called the coefficient of viscosity or the dynamic (or absolute)
viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is kg/m · s.
 In fluid mechanics and heat transfer, the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density appears frequently. For
convenience, this ratio is given the name kinematic viscosity n and is expressed as n = nu/rho. Two
common units of kinematic viscosity are m^2/s and stoke.

3 PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS

Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only when we
deal with a gas or a liquid. The counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress. Since pressure is defined as
force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per square meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa).
1 bar = 10^5 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa

The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute
vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure). Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called vacuum pressures and
are measured by vacuum gauges that indicate the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the
absolute pressure. Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities.

36
 PASCAL’S LAW : Pressure at a Point: Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the
impression of being a vector. However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions. That
is, it has magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it is a scalar quantity. A consequence of the
pressure in a fluid remaining constant in the horizontal direction is that the pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount. This is called Pascal’s law.

 Fluid statics deals with problems associated with fluids at rest. The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
Fluid statics is generally referred to as hydrostatics when the fluid is a liquid and as aerostatics when the
fluid is a gas. In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid layers, and thus there are
no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid trying to deform it. The only stress we deal with in fluid statics
is the normal stress, which is the pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only to the weight of the
fluid. Fluid statics is used to determine the forces acting on floating or submerged bodies and the forces
developed by devices like hydraulic presses and car jacks.

4 FLUID KINEMATICS

37
Kinematics concerns the study of motion.There are two distinct ways to describe a motion of fluid.

1. Lagrangian Approach:

to follow the path of individual objects. For example, we have all seen physics experiments in which a ball
on a pool table or a puck on an air hockey table collides with another ball or puck or with the wall (Fig 4-1).
Newton’s laws are used to describe the motion of such objects, and we can accurately predict where they go
and how momentum and kinetic energy are exchanged from one object to another. The kinematics of such
experiments involves keeping track of the position vector of each object, and the velocity vector of each
object, as functions of time (Fig. 4-2). When this method is applied to a flowing fluid, we call it the
Lagrangian description of fluid motion.

Shortcomings of Lagrangian Approach:

As you can imagine, this method of describing motion is much more

difficult for fluids than for billiard balls! First of all we cannot easily
define and identify particles of fluid as they move around. Secondly, a
fluid is a continuum (from a macroscopic point of view), so interactions
between particles of fluid are not as easy to describe as are
interactions between distinct objects like billiard balls or air hockey
pucks. Furthermore, the fluid particles continually deform as they move
in the flow. From a microscopic point of view, a fluid is composed of
billions of molecules that are continuously banging into one another,
somewhat like billiard balls; but the task of following even a subset of
these molecules is quite difficult, even for our fastest and largest
computers.

Applications:

The tracking of passive scalars in a flow, rarefied gas dynamics

calculations concerning reentry of a spaceship into the earth’s atmosphere,
and the development of flow measurement systems based on particle
imaging.

2. Eulerian Approach:

It is a more common method of describing fluid flow. In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite
volume called a flow domain or control volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out. We do not
need to keep track of the position and velocity of a mass of fluid particles of fixed identity. Instead, we
define field variables, functions of space and time, within the control volume. For example, the pressure
field is a scalar field variable; for general unsteady three-dimensional fluid flow in Cartesian coordinates,

Collectively, these (and other) field variables define the flow field. The Velocity Field equation can be

38
conversely written after expanding in cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) and (I^,j^,k^) as :
A similar expansion can be performed for the acceleration field of Eq. 4–3. In the Eulerian description, all
such field variables are defined at any location (x, y, z) in the control volume and at any instant in time t (Fig.
4–3). In the Eulerian description we don’t really care what happens to individual fluid particles; rather we
are concerned with the pressure, velocity, acceleration, etc., of whichever fluid particle happens to be at the
location of interest at the time of interest.t.

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO APPROACHES:

The difference between these two descriptions is made clearer by

imagining a person standing beside a river, measuring its properties. In the
Lagrangian approach, he throws in a probe that moves downstream with
the water. In the Eulerian approach, he anchors the probe at a fixed
location in the water.

Applications:

While there are many occasions in which the Lagrangian description is

useful, the Eulerian description is often more convenient for fluid
mechanics applications. Furthermore, experimental measurements are
generally more suited to the Eulerian description. In a wind tunnel, for
example, velocity or
pressure probes are usually placed at a fixed location in the flow,
measuring V= (x, y, z, t) or P(x, y, z, t). However, whereas the equations of motion in the Lagrangian
description following individual fluid particles are well known (e.g., Newton’s second law), the
equations of motion of fluid flow are not so readily apparent in the Eulerian description and must be
carefully derived.

ACCELERATION FIELD:

 the fundamental conservation laws (such as conservation of mass and the first law of thermodynamics)
are expressed for a system of fixed identity (also called a closed system). In cases where analysis of a
control volume (also called an open system) is more convenient than system analysis, it is necessary to
rewrite these fundamental laws into forms applicable to the control volume.

 The same principle applies here. In fact, there is a direct analogy between systems versus control
volumes in thermodynamics and Lagrangian versus Eulerian descriptions in fluid dynamics.

 The equations of motion for fluid flow (such as Newton’s second law) are written for an object of fixed
identity, taken here as a small fluid parcel, which we call a fluid particle or material particle. If we were
to follow a particular fluid particle as it moves around in the flow, we would be employing the
Lagrangian description, and the equations of motion would be directly applicable. For example, we
would define the particle’s location in space in terms of a material position vector (xparticle(t),
yparticle(t), zparticle(t)). However, some mathematical manipulation is then necessary to convert the
equations of motion into forms applicable to the Eulerian description.

 Let V is the resultant velocity at any point in a fluid flow. Let u,v and w are its component in x,y and z
directions. The velocity components are functions of space co-ordinates and time. Mathematically, the
velocity components are given as u = f1(x,y,z,t), v = f2(x,y,z,t), w = f3(x,y,z,t)
and resultant velocity V = ui + vj + wk = sqrt(u^2+v^2+w^2)
Let ax, ay, az are the total acceleration in x,y and z directions respectively. Then by the chain rule of
differentiation, we have:

39
 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY:

The equation based on the principle of conservation of mass is

called continuity equation. Thus for a fluid flowing through the
pipe at all cross-section, the quantity of fluid per second is
constant.

Let V1 = Avg. Velocity at 1-1

Rho1 = Density at 1-1
A1 = Area of pipe 1-1, similarly V2, Rho2, A2 for 2-2
Rate of flow at 1-1 = Rate of flow at 2-2 according to law of conservation of mass
Rho1*V1*A1 = Rho2*V2*A2
If the fluid is incompressible, Rho1 = Rho2.

 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY IN THREE-DIMENSIONS

Consider a fluid element of lengths dx, dy and dz in the direction of x,y and z directions respectively. Mass
of fluid entering the face ABCD per second =
40
Since the mass is neither created nor destroyed in the fluid element, the net increase of mass per unit time in
the fluid element must be equal to the rate of increase of mass of fluid in the element. But mass of fluid in
the element is density* volume(dx*dy*dz) and its rate of increase with time is the partial differentiation of
mass with respect to time.

41
5 BERNOULLI EQUATION

 CONSERVATION OF MASS

In fluid mechanics, the conservation of mass written for a differential control volume is called
continuity equation.

 BERNOULLI EQUATION

The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and elevation,
and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional forces are negligible.
The key approximation in the derivation of the Bernoulli equation is that viscous effects are
negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects. Since all fluids have
viscosity (there is no such thing as an “inviscid fluid”), this approximation cannot be valid for
an entire flow field of practical interest. In other words, we cannot apply the Bernoulli equation
everywhere in a flow.
However, it turns out that the approximation is reasonable in certain regions of many practical
flows. We refer to such regions as inviscid regions of flow, and we stress that they are not
regions where the fluid itself is inviscid or frictionless, but rather they are regions where net
viscous or frictional forces are negligibly small compared to other forces acting on fluid
particles.

The motion of a particle and the path it follows are described by the velocity vector as a
function of time and space coordinates and the initial position of the particle. When the flow is
steady (no change with time at a specified location), all particles that pass through the same
point follow the same path (which is the streamline), and the velocity vectors remain tangent to
the path at every point.

42
 EULER’S EQUATION OF MOTION

This is equation of motion in which forces due to gravity and pressure are taken into consideration. This is
derived by considering the motion of a fluid element along a stream-line as:
Consider a streamline in which flow is taking place in s-direction as shown in the figure. Consider a
cylindrical element of cross-section dA and length dS. The forces acting on the cylindrical element are:

Let theta is the angle between the direction of flow and the line of action of the weight of the element. The
resultant force on the field element in the direction of s must be equal to the mass of fluid element *
acceleration in the direction s.

43
 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION FROM EULER’S EQUATION

Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation of motion as:

 ASSUMPTIONS

The following are the assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation :
1. The fluid is ideal, that is, the viscosity is zero.
2. The flow is steady.
3. The flow is incompressible.
4. The flow is irrotational.

For compressible flow,

The Bernoulli equation is obtained from the conservation of momentum for a fluid particle moving along a
streamline. It can also be obtained from the first law of thermodynamics applied to a steady-flow system.
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow energies of a fluid particle is constant along a streamline
during steady flow when the compressibility and frictional effects are negligible.
Each term in this equation has pressure units, and thus each term represents some kind of pressure:

44
• P is the static pressure (it does not incorporate any dynamic effects); it represents the actual
thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property
tables.
• Rho*V2/2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the pressure rise when the fluid in motion is brought to a
stop isentropically.
• Rho*g*z is the hydrostatic pressure, which is not pressure in a real sense since its value depends on the
reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation effects, i.e., of fluid weight on pressure.
The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called the total pressure. Therefore, the
Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure along a streamline is constant. The sum of the static
and dynamic pressures is called the stagnation pressure.

FIG: Frictional effects and components that disturb the streamlined structure of flow in a flow section make the Bernoulli
equation invalid.

 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

1. VENTURIMETER: A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a
pipe. It consists of three parts: A short converging part, a throat and a diverging part.

Consider a Venturimeter fitted in a horizontal pipe through which a fluid is flowing (say water),

Let d1 = diameter at the inlet or at section 1

P1 = pressure at section 1
V1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
A = area at section = (pi/4)d1^2

And d2, p2, v2 and a2 are corresponding values at section 2

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and section 2 , we get:

45
This equation gives the discharge under ideal conditions and is called, theoretical discharge. Actual
discharge will be less than theoretical discharge.

2. ORIFICEMETER: It is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe. It is a
cheaper device as compared to venturimeter. It also works on the same principle as that of venturimeter. It
consists of a flat circular plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with
the pipe. The orifice diameter is kept generally 0.5 times the diameter of the pipe. A differential manometer
is connected at section 1, which is at a distance of about half the diameter of the orifice on the downstream
side from the orifice plate.

46
Let P1 = pressure at section 1
V1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
A = area at section = (pi/4)d1^2

And p2, v2 and a2 are corresponding values at section 2

Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and section 2 , we get:

47
 Where Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter.
The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for venturimeter.

3. PITOT TUBE: It is a device used for measuring the velocity of flow at any point in a pipe or a channel.
It is based on the principle that if the velocity of flow at a point becomes zero, the pressure there is increased
due to the conversion of the kinetic energy into pressure energy. In the simplest form, the pitot-tube consists
of a glass tube, bent at right angles. The lower end which is bent through 90 degrees is directed in the
upstream direction. The liquid rises up in the tube due to the conversion of kinetic energy into pressure
energy. The velocity is determined by measuring the rise of liquid in the tube.
Consider two points 1 and 2 at the same level in such a way that point 2 is just as the inlet if the pitot
tube and point 1 is far away from the tube.
Let P1 = pressure at section 1, V1 = velocity of fluid at section 1
H = depth of tube in the liquid, h = rise of liquid in the tube above the free surface.
And p2, v2 are corresponding values at section 2
Applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and section 2 , we get:

48
6 FLOW IN PIPES

Liquid or gas flow through pipes or ducts is commonly used in heating and cooling applications and
fluid distribution networks. The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through
a flow section. We pay particular attention to friction, which is directly related to the pressure
drop and head loss during flow through pipes and ducts. The pressure drop is then used to determine the
pumping power requirement. A typical piping system involves pipes of different diameters connected to
each other by various fittings or elbows to route the fluid, valves to control the flow rate, and pumps to
pressurize the fluid.

 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

 REYNOLDS NUMBER

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface roughness, flow velocity,
surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other things. After exhaustive experiments in the 1880s,
Osborne Reynolds discovered that the flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces in the fluid. This ratio is called the Reynolds number and is expressed for internal flow in a circular
pipe as:

Where Vavg = sverage flow velocity (m/s), D = characteristic length of the geometry (diameter in m), and v
= nu/rho = kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m^2/s). Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity. The
Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the critical Reynolds number, Recr. The
49
value of the critical Reynolds number is different for different geometries and flow conditions. For internal
flow in a circular pipe, the generally accepted value of the critical Reynolds number is Recr = 2300. For flow
through noncircular pipes, the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic diameter Dh defined as

It certainly is desirable to have precise values of Reynolds numbers for laminar, transitional, and turbulent
flows, but this is not the case in practice. It turns out that the transition from laminar to turbulent flow also
depends on the degree of disturbance of the flow by surface roughness, pipe vibrations, and fluctuations in
the flow.

7 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

(a) The control volume technique is useful when we are interested in the overall features of a flow,
such as mass flow rate into and out of the control volume or net forces applied to bodies. A rectangular
control volume is taken around the vicinity of the satellite dish, as sketched. If we know the air velocity
along the entire control surface, we can calculate the net reaction force on the satellite dish without ever
knowing any details about its geometry. The interior of the control volume is in fact treated like a “black
box” in control volume analysis—we cannot obtain detailed knowledge about flow properties such as
velocity or pressure at points inside the control volume.

(b) Differential analysis, on the other hand, involves application of differential equations of fluid
motion to any and every point in the flow field over a region called the flow domain. You can think of the
differential technique as the analysis of millions of tiny control volumes stacked end to end and on top of
each other all throughout the flow field. In the limit as the number of tiny control volumes goes to infinity,
and the size of each control volume shrinks to a point, the conservation equations simplify to a set of partial
differential equations that are valid at any point in the flow. When solved, these differential equations yield
details about the velocity, density, pressure, etc., at every point throughout the entire flow domain.

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 NEWTONIAN VERSUS NON-NEWTONIAN FLUIDS

The study of the deformation of flowing fluids is called rheology. In this text, we concentrate on
Newtonian fluids, defined as fluids for which the shear stress is linearly proportional to the shear strain
rate. Newtonian fluids (stress proportional to strain rate) are analogous to elastic solids (Hooke’s law:
stress proportional to strain). Many common fluids, such as air and other gases, water, kerosene,
gasoline, and other oil-based liquids, are Newtonian fluids. Fluids for which the shear stress is not
linearly related to the shear strain rate are called non-Newtonian fluids. Examples include slurries and
colloidal suspensions, polymer solutions, blood, paste, and cake batter. Some non-Newtonian fluids
exhibit a “memory”—the shear stress depends not only on the local strain rate, but also on its history. A
fluid that returns (either fully or partially) to its original shape after the applied stress is released is
called viscoelastic.

 NAVIER STOKES EQUATION FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE, ISOTHERMAL FLOW

Assumption: kinematic viscosity, dynamic viscosity, density are all constant, local changes in temperature is
zero. In Cartesian coordinates, the three components of Cauchy’s equation are:

Cauchy’s equation is not very useful to us as is, because the stress tensor sij contains nine components,
six of which are independent (because of symmetry). Thus, in addition to density and the three velocity
components, there are six additional unknowns, for a total of 10 unknowns. Meanwhile, we have
discussed only four equations so far—continuity (one equation) and Cauchy’s equation (three
equations). Of course, to be mathematically solvable, the number of equations must equal the number of
unknowns, and thus we need six more equations. These equations are called constitutive equations, and they
enable us to write the components of the stress tensor in terms of the velocity field and pressure field.

The first thing we do is separate the pressure stresses and the viscous stresses. When a fluid is at rest,
the only stress acting at any surface of any fluid element is the local hydrostatic pressure P, which always
acts inward and normal to the surface. Thus, regardless of the orientation of the coordinate axes, for a fluid
at rest the stress tensor reduces to:

51
When a fluid is moving, pressure still acts inwardly normal, but viscous stresses may also exist. We
generalize Eq for moving fluids as:

where we have introduced a new tensor, tij, called the viscous stress tensor or the deviatoric stress tensor.

Mathematically, we have not helped the situation because we have replaced the six unknown
components of sij with six unknown components of tij, and have added another unknown, pressure P.

Fortunately, however, there are constitutive equations that express tij in terms of the velocity field and
measurable fluid properties such as viscosity. The actual form of the constitutive relations depends on the
type of fluid, as discussed shortly. The viscous stress tensor reduces to:

where eij is the strain rate tensor. In Cartesian coordinates, the nine components of the viscous stress tensor
are listed, six of which are independent due to symmetry:

Now we substitute into the three Cartesian components of Cauchy’s equation. Let’s consider the
x-component first. Notice that since pressure consists of a normal stress only, it contributes only one term.
However, since the viscous stress tensor consists of both normal and shear stresses, it contributes three
terms.

We note that as long as the velocity components are smooth functions of x, y, and z, the order of

differentiation is irrelevant. For example, the first part of the last term in equation can be rewritten as:

After some clever rearrangement of the viscous terms:

52
The term in parentheses is zero because of the continuity equation for incompressible flow. We also
recognize the last three terms as the Laplacian of velocity component u in Cartesian coordinates. Thus, we
write the x-component of the momentum equation as:
Finally, we combine the three components into one vector equation, the result is the Naiver-Stokes

equation for incompressible flow with constant viscosity.

The Naiver–Stokes equation is the cornerstone of fluid mechanics. It may look harmless enough, but it is an
unsteady, nonlinear, second order, partial differential equation.

53
 EXACT SOLUTIONS OF THE CONTINUITY AND NAIVER-STOKES EQUATIONS

Step 2 is especially critical, since the boundary conditions determine the uniqueness of the solution. Step 4 is
not possible analytically except for simple problems. In step 5, enough boundary conditions must be
available to solve for all the constants of integration produced in step 4. Step 6 involves verifying that all the
differential equations and boundary conditions are satisfied.

 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Since boundary conditions are so critical to a proper solution, there is a need to discuss the types of
boundary conditions that are commonly encountered in fluid flow analyses. The most-used boundary
condition is the no-slip condition, which states that for a fluid in contact with a solid wall, the velocity of the
fluid must equal that of the wall.

54
8 BOUNDARY LAYER FLOW

When a real fluid past a solid body or a solid wall, the fluid particles adhere to the boundary and condition
of no slip occurs. This means that the velocity of the fluid close to the boundary will be same as that of the
boundary. If the boundary is stationary, the velocity of the fluid at the boundary will be zero. The velocity of
the fluid gradually increases from zero velocity to free stream velocity in the direction normal to the
boundary. This variation takes place in a narrow region called Boundary Layer.

In this region, velocity gradient du/dy exists and hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall in the
direction of motion. The value of shear stress is given by

The remaining fluid, which is outside the boundary layer has a constant velocity that of the free stream.

LAMINAR 1. A velocity gradient is set up in the fluid near the surface of the plate. The
BOUNDARY velocity gradient develops shear resistance, which retards the fluid. Thus the
LAYER fluid with an uniform free stream velocity is retarded and the boundary layer region
begins at the sharp leading edge. Further downstream, the layer increases as there is
further retardation of retarded fluid. This is also referred as growth of the
boundary layer.
2. Near the leading edge of the surface where the thickness is small, the flow in
boundary layer is laminar though the main flow is turbulent. The length of the plate
from the leading edge, up to which laminar layer exists, is called laminar zone
(AB).
3. The distance of B from leading edge is obtained from Reynold number =
55
 5*10^5 for a plate. Up to this number, the flow is laminar.
(Re)x = (U*x)/v,
Where,
x = Distance from leading edge,
U = Free stream velocity of fluid,
v = Kinematic viscosity of fluid.

TURBULENT If the length of the plate is more than the distance x, the thickness of boundary layer
BOUNDARY will go on increasing in the downstream direction. Then the laminar boundary layer
LAYER becomes unstable and motion of the fluid within it, is disturbed and irregular.
Transition occurs from laminar to turbulent in transition zone.
Further downstream, the boundary layer continues to grow in thickness.

LAMINAR This is the region in the turbulent boundary layer zone, adjacent to the solid surface
SUB-LAYER of the plate. In this zone, the velocity variation is influenced only by viscous effects.
Though the velocity distribution would be a parabolic curve in the laminar sub-layer
zone, but due to small thickness we can assume it to be linear and velocity gradient
as constant. Therefore the shear stress in sub layer is also constant and equal to the
boundary shear stress.
BOUNDARY It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid
LAYER body, where the velocity of the fluid is approximately equal to 0.99 times the free
THICKNESS stream velocity (U) of the fluid.

DISPLACEMENT, It is defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary of the solid
MOMENTUM body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for the reduction in
AND ENERGY flow rate/ momentum/ energy on account of boundary layer formation.
THICKNESS

56
 Displacement Thickness
streamlines within and outside a boundary layer must bend slightly outward away from the wall in order to
satisfy conservation of mass as the boundary layer thickness grows downstream. This is because the
y-component of velocity, v, is small but finite and
positive.
Outside of the boundary layer, the outer flow is
affected by this deflection of the streamlines. We
define displacement thickness d* as the distance that
a streamline just outside of the boundary layer is
deflected. For a laminar flat plate boundary layer, the
displacement thickness is roughly one-third of the 99
percent boundary layer thickness.

 Boundary Layers with Pressure Gradients

Just as with the zero pressure gradient flat plate boundary layer discussed earlier, boundary layers with
nonzero pressure gradients may be laminar or turbulent. When the flow in the inviscid and/or irrotational
outer flow region (outside of the boundary layer) accelerates, U(x) increases and P(x) decreases. We refer to
this as a favorable pressure gradient. It is favorable or desirable because the boundary layer in such an
accelerating flow is usually thin, hugs closely to the wall, and therefore is not likely to separate from the
wall.
When the outer flow decelerates, U(x) decreases, P(x) increases, and we have an unfavorable or adverse
pressure gradient. As its name implies, this condition is not desirable because the boundary layer is usually
thicker, does not hug closely to the wall, and is much more likely to separate from the wall.
In a typical external flow, such as flow over an airplane wing the
boundary layer in the front portion of the body is subjected to a
favorable pressure gradient, while that in the rear portion is
subjected to an adverse pressure gradient. If the adverse pressure
gradient is strong enough (dP/dx = -U dU/dx is large), the boundary
layer is likely to separate off the wall.

The boundary layer remains attached over the entire lower surface of
the airfoil, but it separates somewhere near the rear of the upper
surface as sketched. The closed streamline indicates a region of
recirculating flow called a separation bubble. As pointed out
previously, the boundary layer equations are parabolic, meaning that
no information can be passed from the downstream boundary.
However, separation leads to reverse flow near the wall, destroying
the parabolic nature of the flow field, and rendering the boundary
layer equations inapplicable. The boundary layer equations are not valid downstream of a separation point
because of reverse flow in the separation bubble. In such cases, the full Navier–Stokes equations must be
used in place of the boundary layer approximation.

57
CFD calculations of flow over a
bump:
(a) solution of the Euler equation
with outer flow streamlines plotted
(no flow separation),
(b) laminar flow solution showing
flow separation on the downstream
side of the bump,
(c) close-up view of streamlines near
the separation point, and
(d) close-up view of velocity vectors,
same view as (c).

The boundary layer

approximation is only as good
as the outer flow solution; if
the outer flow is significantly
altered by flow separation, the
boundary layer approximation
will be erroneous.

Turbulent boundary layers are

more resistant to flow
separation than are laminar
boundary layers exposed to the
same adverse pressure
gradient.

(a) The laminar

boundary layer separates at the
corner,
but (b) the turbulent one does
not.
58
 EXPLANATION OF SEPERATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER

In the boundary layer, the fluid layer adjacent to the solid surface has to do work against surface friction at
the expense of its kinetic energy. This loss of kinetic energy is recovered from the immediate fluid layer in
contact with the layer adjacent to the solid surface through momentum exchange process. Thus the velocity
of the layer goes on decreasing.
Along the length of the solid body, at a certain point a stage may come when the boundary layer may not be
able to keep sticking to the solid body if it cannot provide kinetic energy to overcome the resistance offered
by the solid body. Then the boundary layer will eventually get separated.

1. EFFECT OF PRESSURE GRADIENT

ABC : area of flow decreases

hence velocity increases. Thus,
the flow gets acelerated in this
region. Due to increase in
velocity the pressure decreases
in the direction of flow hence
the pressure gradient is negative.
As long as the pressure
gradient is negative, the entire
boundary layer moves forward.

CSD: The pressure is minimum

at point C. Along the region of
CSD of the curved surface, the
area of flow increases and
hence velocity of flow along the
direction of fluid decreases.
Due to increase in pressure, the
pressure gradient becomes positive. Velocity decreases as the kinetic energy of the layer is used to
overcome the frictional resistance of the surface. Thus the combined effect of positive gradient and surface
resistance reduce the momentum of the fluid. A stage comes, when the momentum of the fluid is unable to
overcome the surface resistance and the boundary layer starts separating from the surface at the point S.
Downstream the point S, the flow is taking place in reverse direction and the velocity gradient becomes
negative.

2. LOCATION OF SEPARATION POINT

The separation point S is determined from the condition,

For a given velocity profile, point of separation can be determined by,

59
3. METHODS OF PREVENTING THE SEPARATION OF BOUNDARY LAYER.

Due to separation of boundary layer, a certain portion adjacent to the surface has a back flow and eddies are
continuously formed in this region and hence continuous loss of energy takes place. The separation of
boundary layer is undesirable and must be prevented.
Methods:
1. Suction of slow moving fluid by suction slot.
2. Supplying additional energy from blower.
3. Providing a bypass in the slotted wing.
4. Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
5. Providing small divergence in a diffuser.
6. Providing guide-blades in a bend.
7. Providing a trip wire ring in the laminar region for the flow over a sphere.

9 FLOW OVER BODIES: DRAG AND LIFT

The velocity of the fluid approaching a body is called the free-stream velocity and is denoted by V. The
shape of a body has a profound influence on the flow over the body and the velocity field. The flow over a
body is said to be two-dimensional when the body is very long and of constant cross section and the flow is
normal to the body. The wind blowing over a long pipe perpendicular to its axis is an example of
two-dimensional flow. Note that the velocity component in the axial
direction is zero in this case, and thus the velocity is two-dimensional.
The two-dimensional idealization is appropriate when the body is
sufficiently long so that the end effects are negligible and the approach
flow is uniform. Another simplification occurs when the body possesses
rotational symmetry about an axis in the flow direction.
The flow in this case is also two-dimensional and is said to be
axisymmetric. A bullet piercing through air is an example of axisymmetric
flow. The velocity in this case varies with the axial distance x and the
radial distance r. Flow over a body that cannot be modeled as
two-dimensional or axisymmetric, such as flow over a car, is
three-dimensional.
Flow over bodies can also be classified as incompressible flows (e.g.,
flows over automobiles, submarines, and buildings) and compressible
flows (e.g., flows over high-speed aircraft, rockets, and missiles).
Compressibility effects are negligible at low velocities (flows with Ma <=
0.3), and such flows can be treated as incompressible.
Bodies subjected to fluid flow are classified as being streamlined or blunt, depending on their overall
shape. A body is said to be streamlined if a conscious effort is made to align its shape with the anticipated
streamlines in the flow. Streamlined bodies such as race cars and airplanes appear to be contoured and sleek.
Otherwise, a body (such as a building) tends to block the flow and is said to be bluff or blunt. Usually it is
much easier to force a streamlined body through a fluid, and thus streamlining has been of great importance
in the design of vehicles and airplanes.

 DRAG

A fluid may exert forces and moments on a body in and about various directions. The force a flowing fluid
exerts on a body in the flow direction is called drag.Drag is usually an undesirable effect, like friction, and
we do our best to minimize it. Reduction of drag is closely associated with the reduction of fuel

60
consumption in automobiles, submarines, and aircraft; improved safety and durability of structures subjected
to high winds; and reduction of noise and vibration. But in some cases drag produces a very beneficial effect
and we try to maximize it. Friction, for example, is a “life saver” in the brakes of automobiles.

A stationary fluid exerts only normal pressure forces on the

surface of a body immersed in it. A moving fluid, however, also
exerts tangential shear forces on the surface because of the no-slip
condition caused by viscous effects. Both of these forces, in
general, have components in the direction of flow, and thus the
drag force is due to the combined effects of pressure and wall
shear forces in the flow direction.

The components of the pressure and wall shear forces in

the direction normal to the flow tend to move the body in that
direction, and their sum is called lift.

For two-dimensional flows, the resultant of the pressure and

shear forces can be split into two components: one in the
direction of flow, which is the drag force, and another in the
direction normal to flow, which is the lift.. For
three-dimensional flows, there is also a side force component
in the direction normal to the page that tends to move the
body in that direction.

The fluid forces also may generate moments and cause the
body to rotate. The moment about the flow direction is called the rolling moment, the moment about the
lift direction is called the yawing moment, and the moment about the side force direction is called the
pitching moment. For bodies that possess symmetry about the lift–drag plane such as cars, airplanes, and
ships, the side force, the yawing moment, and the rolling moment are zero when the wind and wave forces
are aligned with the body. What remain for such bodies are the drag and lift forces and the pitching moment.
For asymmetrical bodies aligned with the flow, such as a bullet, the only force exerted by the fluid on the
body is the drag force.

The wings of airplanes are shaped and positioned specifically to generate

lift with minimal drag. This is done by maintaining an angle of attack
during cruising. Both lift and drag are strong functions of the angle of
attack. The pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces of the
wing generates an upward force that tends to lift the wing and thus the
airplane to which it is connected. For slender bodies such as wings, the
shear force acts nearly parallel to the flow direction, and thus its
contribution to the lift is small. The drag force for such slender bodies is
mostly due to shear forces (the skin friction).

The drag and lift forces depend on the density r of the fluid, the upstream
velocity V, and the size, shape, and orientation of the body, among other
things, and it is not practical to list these forces for a variety of situations.
Instead, it is found convenient to work with appropriate dimensionless
numbers that represent the drag and lift characteristics of the body. These
numbers are the drag coefficient CD, and the lift coefficient CL, and they
are defined as:

61
where A is ordinarily the frontal area (the area projected on a plane normal to the direction of flow) of the
body. Dynamic pressure is involved in both the coefficients.

 FRICTION DRAG

The part of drag that is due directly to wall shear stress tw is called
the skin friction drag (or just friction drag FD, friction) since it is
caused by frictional effects, and the part that is due directly to
pressure P is called the pressure drag (also called the form drag
because of its strong dependence on the form or shape of the body).

The friction drag is the component of the wall shear force in the
direction of flow, and thus it depends on the orientation of the body
as well as the magnitude of the wall shear stress tw. The friction drag
is zero for a flat surface normal to flow, and maximum for a flat
surface parallel to flow since the friction drag in this case equals the
total shear force on the surface. Therefore, for parallel flow over a
flat surface, the drag coefficient is equal to the friction drag
coefficient, or simply the friction coefficient. Friction drag is a
strong function of viscosity, and increases with increasing
viscosity.
The Reynolds number is inversely proportional to the viscosity
of the fluid. Therefore, the contribution of friction drag to total drag
for blunt bodies is less at higher Reynolds numbers and may be
negligible at very high Reynolds numbers. The drag in such cases is
mostly due to pressure drag. At low Reynolds numbers, most
drag is due to friction drag. This is especially the case for highly
streamlined bodies such as airfoils.

 PRESSURE DRAG

The pressure drag is proportional to the frontal area and to the

difference between the pressures acting on the front and back of
the immersed body. Therefore, the pressure drag is usually
dominant for blunt bodies, small for streamlined bodies such as
airfoils, and zero for thin flat plates parallel to the flow. The
pressure drag becomes most significant when the velocity of the
fluid is too high for the fluid to be able to follow the curvature of
the body, and thus the fluid separates from the body at some point
and creates a very low pressure region in the back. The pressure
drag in this case is due to the large pressure difference between the
front and back sides of the body.

 REDUCING DRAG BY STREAMLINING

Streamlining has opposite effects on pressure and friction drags. It

decreases pressure drag by delaying boundary layer separation and
thus reducing the pressure difference between the front and back of
the body and increases the friction drag by increasing the surface
area. The end result depends on which effect dominates. Therefore,
any optimization study to reduce the drag of a body must consider
both effects and must attempt to minimize the sum of the two.
62
 FLOW SEPARATION

A fluid climbs the uphill portion of the curved surface with no

problem, but it has difficulty remaining attached to the surface on the
downhill side. At sufficiently high velocities, the fluid stream
detaches itself from the surface of the body. This is called flow
separation. The location of the separation point depends on
several factors such as the Reynolds number, the surface
roughness, and the level of fluctuations in the free stream, and it
is usually difficult to predict exactly where separation will occur
unless there are sharp corners or abrupt changes in the shape of the
solid surface.

When a fluid separates from a body, it forms a separated region

between the body and the fluid stream. This low-pressure region
behind the body where recirculating and backflows occur is called the
separated region. The larger the separated region, the larger the
pressure drag. The effects of flow separation are felt far downstream
in the form of reduced velocity (relative to the upstream velocity).
The region of flow trailing the body where the effects of the body on
velocity are felt is called the wake.

Complete separation over the entire back surface may also occur on a
streamlined body such as an airplane wing at a sufficiently large
angle of attack (larger than about 15° for most airfoils), which is the
angle the incoming fluid stream makes with the chord (the line that
connects the nose and the end) of the wing. Flow separation on the
top surface of a wing reduces lift drastically and may cause the
airplane to stall.

63
Note that drag and lift are strongly dependent on the shape of the body, and any effect that causes the shape
to change has a profound effect on the drag and lift. An important consequence of flow separation is the
formation and shedding of circulating fluid chunks, called vortices, in the wake region.

LIFT

The distance between the two ends of a wing or airfoil

is called the wingspan or just the span. For an aircraft,
the wingspan is taken to be the total distance between
the tips of the two wings, which includes the width of
the fuselage between the wings. The average lift per
unit planform area FL/A is called the wing loading,
which is simply the ratio of the weight of the aircraft to
the platform area of the wings (since lift equals the
weight during flying at constant altitude).

For devices that are intended to generate lift such as

airfoils, the contribution of viscous effects to lift is usually
negligible since the bodies are streamlined, and wall shear is
parallel to the surfaces of such devices and thus nearly normal to
the direction of lift. Therefore, lift in practice can be taken to be
due entirely to the pressure distribution on the surfaces of the
body, and thus the shape of the body has the primary
influence on lift. Then the primary consideration in the design
of airfoils is minimizing the average pressure at the upper
surface while maximizing it at the lower surface. The
Bernoulli equation can be used as a guide in identifying the
high- and low-pressure regions: Pressure is low at locations
where the flow velocity is high, and pressure is high at
locations where the flow velocity is low. Also, lift is practically
independent of the surface roughness since roughness affects the
wall shear, not the pressure. The contribution of shear to lift is
usually only significant for very small (lightweight) bodies
that can fly at low velocities (and thus very low Reynolds
numbers)

 At zero angle of attack, the lift produced by the symmetrical airfoil is zero.
 For the non symmetrical airfoil, the rear stagnation point has moved up to the upper surface close to the
64
 trailing edge, the lift produced is calculated again to be zero. The
source of inconsistency is the rear stagnation point being at the
upper surface instead of the trailing edge.
 This requires the lower side fluid to make a nearly U-turn and
flow around the trailing edge toward the stagnation point while
remaining attached to the surface, which is a physical
impossibility since the observed phenomenon is the separation of
flow at sharp turns.
 Therefore, the lower side fluid separates smoothly off the trailing
edge, and the upper side fluid responds by pushing the rear
stagnation point downstream. In fact, the stagnation point at the
upper surface moves all the way to the trailing edge. This way the
two flow streams from the top and the bottom sides of the airfoil
meet at the trailing edge, yielding a smooth flow downstream
parallel to the trailing edge.
 Lift is generated because the flow velocity at the top surface is
higher, and thus the pressure on that surface is lower due to the
Bernoulli effect.
 It is desirable for airfoils to generate the most lift while
producing the least drag. Therefore, a measure of
performance for airfoils is the lift-to-drag ratio, which is
equivalent to the ratio of the lift-to-drag coefficients CL/CD.
 One obvious way to change the lift and drag characteristics of an
airfoil is to change the angle of attack. On an airplane, for
example, the entire plane is pitched up to increase lift, since the
wings are fixed relative to the fuselage.
 Another approach is to change the shape of the airfoil by the
use of movable leading edge and trailing edge flaps, as is
commonly done in modern large aircraft. The flaps are used to
alter the shape of the wings during takeoff and landing to
maximize lift and to enable the aircraft to land or take off at low
speeds.
 For a given weight, the landing or takeoff speed can be
minimized by maximizing the product of the lift coefficient and
the wing area, CL, maxA.

 One way of doing that is to use flaps, as already discussed. Another approach is to change the shape of
the airfoil by the use of movable leading edge and trailing edge flaps, as is commonly done in modern
large aircraft.

65
66
10 VORTICES

WING TIP VORTICES

The spirals of air that trail off the tips of an airplane’s wings also contribute to drag. These wing tip
vortices steal energy from the motion of the airplane, creating vortex drag. The pressure imbalance that
produces lift creates a problem at the wing tips. The higher-pressure air below a wing spills up over the
wing tip into the area of lower-pressure air above. The wing’s forward motion spins this upward spill of
air into a long spiral, like a small tornado, that trails off the wing tip. These wing tip vortices create a form of
pressure drag called vortex drag.

An airplane flying into a tip vortex also has a large tendency to roll over.When the two airflows, from the
top and bottom surfaces, meet at the trailing edge they are flowing at an angle to each other and cause
vortices rotating. All the vortices on one side tend to join up and form one large vortex which is shed from
each wing tip. These are called wing-tip vortices.

UPDRAFT AND DOWNDRAFT

The air moves at some constant velocity called the wind speed. The wind speed is a vector quantity and if
it's direction is positive, we call this motion an updraft . Likewise, if the motion is negative, we call it
a downdraft. The vertical velocity of the aircraft, relative to the ground, will be the vector sum of the vertical
airspeed and the wind speed. If the magnitude of an updraft is greater than the magnitude of the vertical
airspeed, a glider can gain altitude even though it is always falling through the surrounding air.

67
UPWASH AND DOWNWASH

In aeronautics, downwash is the change

in direction of air deflected by the
aerodynamic action of
an airfoil, wing or helicopter rotor
blade in motion, as part of the process of
producing lift.

Lift on airfoil is an example of

application of Newton's third law of
motion - the force required to create
the downwash is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction to the lift
force on the airfoil. Lift on an airfoil is
also an example of the Kutta-Joukowski
theorem – the Kutta condition explains
the existence of downwash at
the trailing edge of the wing.

The wing tip vortices produce

a downwash of air behind the wing
which is very strong near the wing tips
and decreases toward the wing root.
Downwash is a byproduct of lift, not
the cause of lift .

68
 The wingtip vortices create
both upwash and downwash; The
downwash lies within the wingspan and
affects the wing angle of attack while the
upwash region lies outside the
wingspan and can be utilized by another
aircraft (or bird) flying behind and above
the wing.

ANGLE OF ATTACK

Geometric angle of attack: The geometric angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the free
stream direction.

Induced angle of attack: There is another factor which affects the amount of drag produced by a finite
wing. The effect is called induced drag or drag due to lift. The flow around the wing tips of a finite wing
create an "induced" angle of attack on the wing near the tips.
69
 The local lift vector is aligned perpendicular to the local relative wind, and hence is inclined behind the
vertical by the angle αi, as shown in Figure Consequently, there is a component of the local lift vector in
the direction of V∞ that is, there is a drag created by the presence of downwash.
 This drag is defined as induced drag, denoted by Di in above Figure. Hence, we see that the presence
of downwash over a finite wing reduces the angle of attack that each section effectively sees, and
moreover, it creates a component of drag-the induced drag Di.
 A wing of infinite aspect ratio (wingspan/chord length) and constant airfoil section would produce no
induced drag. Induced drag can therefore be said to be inversely proportional to aspect ratio.

Total drag is parasitic drag plus induced drag. Drag curves for an aircraft with a given weight in flight.
The parasitic drag increases with the square of flight velocity; The lift-induced drag decreases with the
square of velocity. As a result, the total drag (the sum of both components) typically has a minimum value.

The combined overall drag curve shows a minimum at some airspeed - the minimum drag speed (VMD).
An aircraft flying at this speed is operating at its optimal aerodynamic efficiency.

KUTTA CONDITION

A body with a sharp trailing edge which is moving through a fluid will create about itself
a circulation of sufficient strength to hold the rear stagnation point at the trailing edge. The Kutta
condition is a principle in steady-flow fluid dynamics, especially aerodynamics, that is applicable to solid
bodies with sharp corners, such as the trailing edges of airfoils. The value of circulation of the flow around
the airfoil must be that value which would cause the Kutta condition to exist.
Kutta condition can be understood with the help of:

70
MAGNUS EFFECT

It relates side force to rotation.

Circulation of a fluid around an object by itself will produce no lift. The classic example of this is the
spinning cylinder with no other airflow. Viscosity will cause the fluid near a cylinder rotating clockwise to
circulate in a clockwise direction around the cylinder. If a left to right horizontal flow is introduced there
will be a vector sum of the two flows. This results in the stagnation points near 8 o'clock and 4 o'clock (as
opposed to the cylinder with no rotation in the left to right flow having the stagnation points at 9 and 3
o'clock.) The net result of this is the Magnus effect where lift is generated in the 12 o'clock direction.

KUTTA-JOUKOWSKI THEOREM

It relates lift to circulation. However, the circulation here is not induced by rotation of the airfoil. The fluid
flow in the presence of the airfoil can be considered to be the superposition of a translational flow and a
rotating flow. This rotating flow is induced by the effects of camber, angle of attack and a sharp trailing edge
of the airfoil.
The Kutta–Joukowski theorem is a fundamental theorem in aerodynamics used for the calculation of lift of
an airfoil and any two-dimensional bodies including circular cylinders translating in a uniform fluid at a
constant speed large enough so that the flow seen in the body-fixed frame is steady and unseparated.
The theorem is used to calculate the lift created by an airfoil with a sharp trailing edge.

GENERATION OF STARTING VORTEX TO OBTAIN KUTTA CONDITION

71
  The high airspeed around the trailing edge
causes strong viscous forces to act on the air
adjacent to the trailing edge of the airfoil and
the result is that a strong vortex accumulates
on the topside of the airfoil, near the trailing
edge.
 As the airfoil begins to move it carries this
vortex, known as the starting vortex, along
with it. The vorticity in the starting vortex is
matched by the vorticity in the bound
vortex in the airfoil, in accordance with Kelvin's circulation theorem.
 As the vorticity in the starting vortex progressively increases the vorticity in the bound vortex also
progressively increases and causes the flow over the topside of the airfoil to increase in speed. The
starting vortex is soon cast off the airfoil and is left behind, spinning in the air where the airfoil left it.
The stagnation point on the topside of the airfoil then moves until it reaches the trailing edge.
 The starting vortex eventually dissipates due to viscous forces. As the airfoil continues on its way,
there is a stagnation point at the trailing edge. The flow over the topside conforms to the upper surface
of the airfoil. The flow over both the topside and the underside join up at the trailing edge and leave the
airfoil travelling parallel to one another. This
is known as the Kutta condition.
 When an airfoil is moving with an angle of
attack, the starting vortex has been cast off and
the Kutta condition has become established,
there is a finite circulation of the air around
the airfoil. The airfoil is generating lift, and
the magnitude of the lift is given by
the Kutta–Joukowski theorem.
 One of the consequences of the Kutta
condition is that the airflow over the topside
of the airfoil travels much faster than the
airflow under the underside. A parcel of air
which approaches the airfoil along the
stagnation streamline is cleaved in two at the
stagnation point, one half traveling over the
topside and the other half traveling along the
underside.
 The flow over the topside is so much faster
than the flow along the underside that these
two halves never meet again. They do not
even re-join in the wake long after the airfoil
has passed. This is sometimes known as
"cleavage".
 There is a popular fallacy called the equal
transit-time fallacy that claims the two
halves rejoin at the trailing edge of the airfoil.
This fallacy is in conflict with the
phenomenon of cleavage that has been
understood since Martin Kutta's discovery.

72
Whenever the speed or angle of attack of an airfoil changes there is a weak starting vortex which begins to
form, either above or below the trailing edge. This weak starting vortex causes the Kutta condition to be
re-established for the new speed or angle of attack. As a result, the circulation around the airfoil changes
and so too does the lift in response to the changed speed or angle of attack. The Kutta condition gives
some insight into why airfoils usually have sharp trailing edges, even though this is undesirable from
structural and manufacturing viewpoints.

73
74
 Applied Aerodynamics

SERIAL TOPICS
NO.
1 TYPES OF AIRFOILS

2 NACA 4-DIGIT AIRFOIL

3 LIFT AND DRAG CHARACTERISTICS OF BASIC AIRFOIL GEOMETRIES

4 TYPES OF PLANFORM

5 MINOR INDEPENDENT SURFACES

6 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

7 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON AERO DEVICES

75
1 TYPES OF AIRFOILS

Some prominent airfoil types are:

 NACA 4-DIGIT AIRFOILS

The calculation of these classical airfoils is

easy because their shape and the associated
camber lines are defined by rather simple
formulas. The maximum thickness is located
at x / c = 30%, whereas the maximum
camber is typically located at x / c = 40%.
The camber lines are composed of two
parabolic arcs, which are joined with equal tangents, but a kink in the curvature. This kink can be seen in the
velocity distributions, especially when the position of the maximum camber is different from the common

40% chord station.

Example:
NACA 2412: 2% camber at 40% chord, 12% thickness

 MODIFIED NACA 4-DIGIT

AIRFOILS

The modification adds the position of the

maximum thickness as well as the nose
radius to the parameter set of the 4-digit
series.

Example:
NACA 1410-35: 1%
camber at 40% chord, 10%
thickness, reduced leading
edge radius, maximum
thickness at 50% x/c

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 NACA 5-DIGIT AIRFOILS
These sections use the same thickness
distributions as the 4-series, but have new
camber lines leading to lower pitching
moments. The camber line is composed of a
cubic curve in the forward part to which a
straight line is attached which extends to the
trailing edge. Instead of the camber f /c , a
design lift coefficient design Cl design is now
used to define the maximum height of the camber line. In practical applications, these airfoils are often used
with a maximum camber at x / c = 0.15 , i.e. relatively far forward.

 JOUKOWSY AIRFOILS

These classical airfoil sections are generated by applying a conformal mapping procedure. They were the
first practical airfoils developed on a theoretical model. Besides producing the airfoil shape, the mapping
procedure was also used to find the flow field around the airfoil as well as the force and the moment acting
on the wing section. The airfoils have very thin cusped trailing edges and are therefore difficult to analyze
with panel methods and difficult to manufacture.
77
 HELMBOLD - KEUNE AIRFOILS

In the 1940s many

attempts were made to
extend the then classical
NACA airfoil section
methodology to more
general airfoil shapes.
Helmbold and Keune
developed elaborate
methods to characterize
and parameterize airfoil
sections. While the
mathematical approach
allowed for representation
of a wide range of shapes,
the methodology was not
really successful in these years of manual calculation. Later in the age of numerical shape optimization
similar methods have been developed, e.g. the Parsec shape functions. The parameters of the symmetrical
airfoil must be carefully chosen to generate a realistic airfoil shape. The center curvature must be large
enough to avoid self-crossing of the outline.

 PARSEC AIRFOILS

The Parsec geometry parameterization was developed by H. Sobietzky in the 1990s. It tries to model airfoil
shapes by superposition of selected polynomial terms. The parameters resemble the Helmbold-Keune
approach and are mainly intended to be used for numerical shape optimization. The parameters of the airfoil
must be carefully chosen to generate realistic airfoil shapes. The center curvature parameters, the nose radius
as well as the trailing edge wedge angle must be carefully adjusted to avoid self-crossing of the outline.

78
2 NACA 4-DIGIT AIRFOIL

National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics airfoils.

During the late 1920s and into the 1930s, the NACA developed a series of thoroughly tested airfoils and
devised a numerical designation for each airfoil — a four digit number that represented the airfoil section's
critical geometric properties. By 1929, Langley had developed this system to the point where the numbering
system was complemented by an airfoil cross-section, and the complete catalog of 78 airfoils appeared in the
NACA's annual report for 1933. Engineers could quickly see the peculiarities of each airfoil shape, and the
numerical designator ("NACA 2415," for instance) specified camber lines, maximum thickness, and special
nose features. These figures and shapes transmitted the sort of information to engineers that allowed them to
select specific airfoils for desired performance characteristics of specific aircraft.

The NACA airfoil section is created from a camber line and a thickness distribution plotted perpendicular to

79
the camber line. The equation for the camber line is split into sections either side of the point of maximum
camber position (P). In order to calculate the position of the final airfoil envelope later the gradient of the
camber line is also required. The equations are:

 The constants a0 to a4
are for a 20% thick
airfoil. The expression
T/0.2 adjusts the
constants to the
required thickness.
 At the trailing edge
(x=1) there is a finite thickness of 0.0021 chord width for a 20% airfoil. If a closed trailing edge is
required the value of a4 can be adjusted. The value of yt is a half thickness and needs to be applied both
sides of the camber line.
 Using the equations above, for a given value of x it is possible to calculate the camber line position Yc,
the gradient of the camber line and the thickness.
 The position of the upper and lower surface can then be calculated perpendicular to the camber line.

The most obvious way to to plot the airfoil is to iterate through equally spaced values of x calculating the
upper and lower surface coordinates. While this works, the points are more widely spaced around the
leading edge where the curvature is greatest and flat sections can be seen on the plots. To group the points at
the ends of the airfoil sections a cosine spacing is used with uniform increments of β.
80
3 LIFT AND DRAG CHARACTERISTICS OF BASIC AIRFOIL GEOMETRIES

 SYMMETRIC AIRFOIL: Zero lift and zero angle of attack due to same pressure at upper and lower
surface.

81
 POSITIVE CAMBER AIRFOIL: The amount of lift generated by an object depends on how much the
flow is turned. Pressure at the lower side is higher due to greater turn of flow, which provides lift. Thus
we get positive lift at zero degree angle of attack.

82
 NEGATIVE CAMBER: Downforce instead of lift.

83
 FLAT BOTTOM: Lesser lift due to lesser curvature.

84
 ELLPISE: No lift.

85
4 TYPES OF PLANFORM

The total force (or resultant force) generated by a wing can be found to depend on several parameters; the
wing’s geometry, density of air, airspeed, and the angle the chord line of the wing’s airfoils make to the flow
of air, the Angle‐of‐Attack (AOA). The wing is a 3D object, but is usually treated as a set of two 2D
geometric features; planform (x‐y plane) and airfoil (x‐z plane).

Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are factors in planform design that are very important to the
overall aerodynamic characteristic of a wing.

 Aspect ratio is the ratio of wing span to wing chord.

Low aspect ratio: short and stubby wing. More efficient structurally and higher instantaneous roll rate.
They tend to be used by fighter aircraft.
Moderate aspect ratio: general-purpose wing, very widely used.
High aspect ratio: long and slender wing. More efficient aerodynamically, having less induced drag. They
tend to be used by high-altitude subsonic aircraft.

 Taper ratio can be either in planform or thickness, or both. In its simplest terms, it is a decrease from
wing root to wingtip in wing chord or wing thickness.
 Sweepback is the rearward slant of a wing, horizontal tail, or other airfoil surface.
 Chord variation along span:

Elliptical chords: leading and trailing edges are curved such that the chord length varies elliptically with
respect to span. Theoretically the most efficient, but difficult to make.

Unconventional Chords:

86
Delta: triangular planform with swept leading edge and straight trailing edge. Offers the advantages of a
swept wing, with good structural efficiency and low frontal area. Disadvantages are the low wing loading
and high wetted area needed to obtain aerodynamic stability.
Tailless delta: a classic high-speed design.
Tailed delta: adds a conventional tailplane, to improve handling. Used on the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21.
Cropped delta: wing tips are cut off. This helps avoid tip drag at high angles of attack.
Compound delta or double delta: inner section has a (usually) steeper leading edge sweep as on the Saab
Draken. This improves the lift at high angles of attack and delays or prevents stalling.
Ogival delta: a smoothly blended "wineglass" double-curve encompassing the leading edges and tip of a
cropped compound delta. Seen in tailless form on the Concorde supersonic transports.

 Wing sweep:
Wings may be swept back, or occasionally forwards, for a variety of reasons. A small degree of sweep is sometimes used to
adjust the centre of lift when the wing cannot be attached in the ideal position for some reason, such as a pilot's visibility
from the cockpit.

 Sweep variation along span

The angle of a swept wing may also be varied, or cranked, along the span:

 Tailplanes and foreplanes

The classic aerofoil section wing is unstable in pitch, and requires some form of horizontal stabilizing surface. Also it
cannot provide any significant pitch control, requiring a separate control surface (elevator) mounted elsewhere.

87
Dihedral and anhedral: Angling the wings up or down spanwise from root to tip can help to resolve various design issues,
such as stability and control in flight.
Dihedral: the tips are higher than the root as on the Santos-Dumont 14-bis, giving a shallow 'V' shape when seen from the
front. Adds lateral stability.
Anhedral: the tips are lower than the root, as on the first Wright Flyer; the opposite of dihedral. Used to reduce stability
where some other feature results in too much stability.

Gull wing: sharp dihedral on the wing root section, little or none on the main section. Sometimes used to improve visibility
forwards and upwards and may be used as the upper wing on a biplane
Inverted gull wing: anhedral on the root section, dihedral on the main section. The opposite of a gull wing. May be used to
reduce the length of wing-mounted undercarriage legs while allowing a raised fuselage.

 Wings vs. Bodies:

Some designs have no clear join between wing and fuselage, or body. This may be because one or other of these is missing,
or because they merge into each other:

 Variable geometry
A variable geometry aircraft is able to change its physical configuration during flight. Some types of variable geometry craft
transition between fixed wing and rotary wing configurations. For more about these hybrids, see powered lift.

 Variable chord
Variable incidence: the wing plane can tilt upwards or downwards relative to the fuselage. The wing on the Vought F-8
Crusaderwas rotated, lifting the leading edge on takeoff to improve performance. If powered prop-rotors are fitted to the
wing to allow vertical takeoff or STOVL performance, merges into the powered lift category.
Variable camber: the leading and/or trailing edge sections of the whole wing pivot to increase the effective camber of the
wing and sometimes also its area. This enhances manoeuvrability.

88
Variable thickness: the upper wing centre section can be raised to increase wing thickness and camber for landing and
take-off, and reduced for high speed.

5 MINOR INDEPENDENT SURFACES

 Winglet: a small fin at the wingtip, usually turned

upwards. Reduces the size of vortices shed by the
wingtip, and hence also tip drag.
 Strake: a small surface, typically longer than it is
wide and mounted on the fuselage. Strakes may
be located at various positions in order to improve
aerodynamic behaviour. Leading edge root
extensions (LERX) are also sometimes referred to
as wing strakes.
 Chine: sharp-edged profile running along the
fuselage. When used aerodynamically it is
extended outwards to form a lifting surface, typically blending into the main wing. As well as improving
low speed (high angle of attack) handling, provides extra lift at high supersonic speeds for minimal
increase in drag.
 Moustache: small high-aspect-ratio canard surface having no movable control surface. Typically is
retractable for high speed flight. Deflects air downward onto the wing root, to delay the stall.

High lift surfaces

High-lift devices maintain lift at low speeds and

delay the stall to allow slower takeoff and landing
speeds.
 Slat and slot: a Leading edge slat is a small
aerofoil extending in front of the main leading
edge. The spanwise gap behind it forms a
leading-edge slot. Air flowing up through the
slot is deflected backwards by the slat to flow
over the wing, allowing the aircraft to fly at
lower air speeds without flow separation or
stalling. A slat may be fixed or retractable.
 Flap: a hinged aerodynamic surface, usually on the trailing edge, which is rotated downwards to
generate extra lift and drag. Types include plain, slotted, and split. Some, such as Fowler Flaps, also
extend rearwards to increase wing area. The Krueger flap is a leading-edge device.
 Cuff: an extension to the leading edge which modifies the aerofoil section, typically to improve
low-speed characteristics.

89
Spanwise flow control: On a swept wing, air tends to flow
sideways as well as backwards and reducing this can
improve the efficiency of the wing:
 Wing fence: a flat plate extending along the wing
chord and for a short distance vertically. Used to
control spanwise airflow over the wing.
 Dogtooth leading edge: creates a sharp discontinuity
in the airflow over the wing, disrupting spanwise flow.
 Notched leading edge: acts like a dogtooth.

Vortex creation

Vortex devices maintain airflow at low speeds and delay

the stall, by creating a vortex which re-energises
the boundary layer close to the wing.
 Vortex generator: small triangular protrusion on the
upper leading wing surface; usually, several are
spaced along the span of the wing. Vortex generators
create additional drag at all speeds.
 Vortilon: a flat plate attached to the underside of the
wing near its outer leading edge, roughly parallel to
normal airflow. At low speeds, tip effects cause a
local spanwise flow which is deflected by the vortilon to form a vortex passing up and over the wing.
 Leading-edge root extension (LERX): generates a strong vortex over the wing at high angles of attack,
but unlike vortex generators it can also increase lift at such high angles, while creating minimal drag in
level flight.

The purpose of these modifications is to create vortices in a controlled and predictable manner.
Vortices are often undesirable because they produce drag, but the vortices these devices create are beneficial
since they delay wing stall. Stall occurs when a wing reaches a high enough angle of attack that the airflow
separates from its surface. This flow separation results in a rapid loss of lift, and the aircraft may become
uncontrollable.
90
Drag reduction

 Anti-shock body: a streamlined pod shape

added to the leading or trailing edge of an
aerodynamic surface, to delay the onset
of shock stall and reduce transonic wave drag.
Sometimes called a Küchemann carrot.
 Fillet: a small curved infill at the junction of two
surfaces, such as a wing and fuselage, blending
them smoothly together to reduce drag.
 Fairings of various kinds, such as blisters,
pylons and wingtip pods, containing equipment
which cannot fit inside the wing, and whose
only aerodynamic purpose is to reduce the drag created by the equipment.

6 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

 Lift curve slope (clα)

The lift curve slope is a measure of how rapidly the wing generates lift with change in AOA. The lift curve
slope of a three-dimensional wing is always less than that of the airfoils it features. Once a certain AOA has
been achieved the wing will display a pronounced reduction in the lift curve slope. This point is
called stall and, although not shown in the figure, occurs both at a positive and negative angle-of-attack. The
lift at stall dictates how much wing area the aircraft must feature for a desired stalling speed.

 Zero-lift angle (cl0)

A cambered aerofoil generates no lift when it is moving parallel to an axis called the zero-lift axis (or
the zero-lift line.) When the angle of attack on an aerofoil is measured relative to the zero-lift axis it is true
to say the lift coefficient is zero when the angle of attack is zero.

 Maximum lift angle (αclmax)

At higher angles a maximum point is reached, after which the lift coefficient reduces. The angle at
which maximum lift coefficient occurs is the stall angle of the airfoil, which is approximately 10 to 15
degrees on a typical airfoil.

 Maximum lift coefficient (αclmax)

At higher angles a maximum point is reached, after which the liftcoefficient reduces. The angle at
which maximum lift coefficient occurs is the stall angle of the airfoil, which is approximately 10 to 15
degrees on a typical airfoil.

 Minimum drag coefficient (cdmin)

The drag coefficient is a number that aerodynamicists use to model all of the complex dependencies of shape,
inclination, and flow conditions on aircraft drag. Lifting line theory shows that the optimum (lowest)
induced drag occurs for an elliptical distribution of lift from tip to tip. ... The total drag coefficient Cd is
equal to the drag coefficient at zero lift Cdo plus the induced drag coefficient Cdi.

 Thin airfoil theory is a simple theory of airfoils that relates angle of attack to lift for incompressible,
inviscid flows. ... The theory idealizes the flow around an airfoil as two-dimensional flow around a thin
airfoil. It can be imagined as addressing an airfoil of zero thickness and infinite wingspan. It states that
the pressure coefficient is proportional to the local deflection of the flow from the upstream direction.

91
 The Prandtl lifting-line theory is a mathematical model that predicts lift distribution over a
three-dimensional wing based on its geometry. On a three-dimensional, finite wing, lift over each wing
segment (local lift per unit span) does not correspond simply to what two-dimensional analysis predicts.
Instead, this local amount of lift is strongly affected by the lift generated at neighboring wing sections. It
is difficult to predict analytically the overall amount of lift that a wing of given geometry will generate.
The lifting-line theory yields the lift distribution along the span-wise direction. based only on the wing
geometry (span-wise distribution of chord, airfoil, and twist) and flow conditions. The lifting-line theory
applies the concept of circulation and the Kutta–Joukowski theorem. For incompressible, inviscid flow,
the wing is modelled as a single bound vortex line located at the 1/4 chord position and an associated
shed vortex sheet.

7 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON AERO DEVICES

ASPECT RATIO: Very high: Increases Lift Coefficient and Decreases Drag Coefficient. Tends to make the
flow around the wing more 2D.

WING TWIST:

Wings often have washout to reduce structural weight and improve stall Characteristics. However, a washout
of more than 5 degrees results in an unacceptable increase in induced drag.

TAPERED WINGS:

•! The taper ratio is defined as λ = Ctip / Croot

•! Taper reduces the amount of lift produced
near the wing-tip.
•! Consequently, the tip vortex is weaker and
the induced drag is decreased.
•! Taper also reduces structural weight
•! As the chord at the root is unchanged the
maximum lift is not severely affected by taper
•! If the taper is not too high, the stalling
characteristics are acceptable, even without
Twist.

92
Effect of wing taper on lift distribution

THICKNES TO CHORD RATIO:

•! High Aspect Ratio is good for transport

aircraft: it decreases the induced drag
coefficient.
•! For such wings to be structurally sound,
they must be very thick near the root.
•! This is usually achieved by increasing the
thickness ratio near the wing
•! Thickness affects also the profile drag.
Too much increase in thickness can cancel
the decrease in induced drag due to high AR.
•! Thickness ratio also affects the maximum
lift.
•! Optimal thickness ratios:
–15-20% near the wing root
–10-15% near the wing tip
•! Higher than 20% is not good

SWEEP ANGLE:

A swept wing is
a wing that angles either backward
or occasionally forward from its root
rather than in a straight sideways
direction. Wing sweep has the effect
of delaying the shock waves and
accompanying aerodynamic dragrise
caused by fluid compressibility near
the speed of sound, improving
performance. The characteristic
"sweep angle" is normally measured
by drawing a line from root to tip,
25% of the way back from the
leading edge, and comparing that to
the perpendicular to the longitudinal
93
axis of the aircraft. Typical sweep angles vary from 0 for a straight-wing aircraft, to 45 degrees or more for
fighters and other high-speed designs. It imposed "self-damping" inherent stability upon the flying wing, and,
as a result, many flying wing gliders and some powered aircraft appeared in the interwar years. Airflow at
supersonic speeds generates lift through the formation of shock waves, as opposed to the patterns of airflow
over and under the wing. These shock waves, as in the transonic case, generate large amounts of drag. One
of these shock waves is created by the leading edge of the wing, but contributes little to the lift. In order to
minimize the strength of this shock it needs to remain "attached" to the front of the wing, which demands a
very sharp leading edge. To better shape the shocks that will contribute to lift, the rest of an ideal supersonic
airfoil is roughly diamond-shaped in cross-section. For low-speed lift these same airfoils are very inefficient,
leading to poor handling and very
high landing speeds.
One way to avoid the need for a
dedicated supersonic wing is to
use a highly swept subsonic
design. Airflow behind the shock
waves of a moving body are
reduced to subsonic speeds. This
effect is used within the intakes of
engines meant to operate in the
supersonic, as jet engines are
generally incapable of ingesting
supersonic air directly. This can
also be used to reduce the speed
of the air as seen by the wing,
using the shocks generated by the
nose of the aircraft. As long as the
wing lies behind the cone-shaped
shock wave, it will "see" subsonic
airflow and work as normal.

WINGTIP DEVICES:

94
 Wingtip devices are intended to improve the
efficiency of fixed-wing aircraft by
reducing drag. Although there are several
types of wing tip device, which function in
different manners, their intended effect is
always to reduce an aircraft's drag by partial
recovery of the tip vortex energy. Wingtip
devices can also improve aircraft handling
characteristics and enhance safety for
following aircraft. Such devices increase the
effective aspect ratio of a wing without
greatly increasing the wingspan. Extending
the span would lower lift-induced drag, but would increase parasitic drag and would require boosting the
strength and weight of the wing. At some point, there is no net benefit from further increased span. Wingtip
devices increase the lift generated at the wingtip (by smoothing the airflow across the upper wing near the
tip) and reduce the lift-induced drag caused by wingtip vortices, improving lift-to-drag ratio.

CANTED VERTICAL TAILS OR STABILIZERS:

The vertical stabilizers are canted away from being 90° straight up and down. The rudders on modern
fighters are canted mostly to reduce their radar cross section. A straight vertical tail would produce a corner
reflector in combination with the fuselage or the wing and would send radar waves straight back to their
source. To reduce the detection radius, such a behavior must be avoided.

95
CANARDS:

A canard is
an aeronautical arrangement
wherein a small forewing or
foreplane is placed forward of
the main wing of a fixed-wing
aircraft. Rather than use the
conventional tailplane
configuration found on most
aircraft, an aircraft designer may
adopt the canard configuration to
reduce the main wing loading, to
better control the main wing
airflow, or to increase the
aircraft’s maneuverability,
especially at high angles of
attack or during a stall. A canard
foreplane may be used for
various reasons such as lift,
(in)stability, trim, flight control,
or to modify airflow over the
main wing. Design analysis has
been divided into two main
classes, for the lifting-canard and
the control-canard. Canard
aircraft can potentially have poor
stealth characteristics because
they present large, angular
surfaces that tend to reflect radar
signals forwards. A canard
foreplane may be used as
a horizontal stabiliser, whether
stability is achieved statistically
or artificially (fly-by-wire). A
canard stabiliser may be added to
an otherwise unstable design to
obtain overall static pitch
stability.

VORTEX GENERATORS:

The purpose of these modifications is to create vortices

in a controlled and predictable manner. Vortices are
often undesirable because they produce drag, but the
vortices these devices create are beneficial since they
delay wing stall. Stall occurs when a wing reaches a
high enough angle of attack that the airflow separates
from its surface. This flow separation results in a rapid
loss of lift, and the aircraft may become uncontrollable.
The advantage of wing devices that create vortices is
that a vortex adds energy to the airflow and increases its
forward momentum. This momentum encourages the
96
 airflow to remain
attached to the surface of
the wing at higher angles
of attack than it would
otherwise. As a result, the
wing is able to continue
generating lift in
conditions where it would
have stalled. This
behavior is particularly
advantageous on
high-performance
military aircraft that need
to be extremely
maneuverable at high
angles of attack in
combat. The advantage
for commercial airliners
is increased safety since
the plane is less likely to
experience a wing stall
during critical stages of flight like takeoff and landing. The method by which these vortex devices work can
be better understood by studying the above diagram of vortex generators on a wing. A vortex generator is
much like a miniature wing perpendicular to the main wing. These generators are mounted at an angle of
attack to the airflow over the wing so that each creates a vortex off the exposed tip, much like a trailing
vortex created by a wing. The above example shows vortex generators aligned in opposite directions so that
the vortices they create rotate opposite to each other. These vortices serve to increase the speed of the
downstream airflow so that it is "entrained" to follow the sharp curvature of the deployed flap and remain

attached to its surface. Otherwise, the airflow would likely separate from the flap causing a loss of lift.

LEADING EDGE EXTENSION FENCES:

These surfaces are basically flat plates mounted on the upper surface of the leading edge extension (LEX)
near the junction with the main wing. Even though a vortex creates drag, it can also provide advantages
that outweigh its negative impact. One such advantage is the ability of a vortex to speed up the flow of air
over a wing and allow a plane to reach a higher angle of attack than it would be able to otherwise. A leading
edge extension is designed for the same purpose--to create a strong vortex that increases the stall angle of a
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wing. The LEX achieves this behavior in the same way trailing vortices are created on a wing,

The high pressure air from the lower surface of the LEX rolls around the edge to the lower pressure region
on the upper surface of the LEX. This motion induces a rotation on the air flow causing it to roll up into a
strong vortex. The strength of the vortex grows as angle of attack increases, and the high-speed vortex helps
keep the air flow attached to the surface of the wing beyond the normal stall angle. The effect can be
calculated and visualized using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software as exemplified in the
following images.

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The benefits of these vortices can be appreciated when one realizes that nearly all current military
aircraft designs incorporate leading edge extensions and/or canards that perform much the same
function. Unfortunately, these vortices can also create problems, particularly on planes with twin
vertical tails like the F-18. Shortly after the F-18 entered service, it was discovered that the vertical
tails were suffering from cracks and fatigue. This structural damage limited the first batch of planes
to a few hundred flight hours, as opposed to the several thousand flight hours the Navy required for
the service life of its aircraft. The cause of the structural cracks was eventually traced back to the
LEX vortices impacting on the vertical tails and creating loads the tails weren't designed to handle.

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CONCLUSION

I can honestly say that my time spent in the Summer Training internship in HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS
LIMITED, ACCESSORIES DIVISION, LUCKNOW, resulted in one of the best summers of my life. Not
only did I gain practical skills but I also had the opportunity to meet many fantastic people. The atmosphere
at the Training Facility was always welcoming. Additionally, I felt like I was able to enhance my knowledge
about aircraft and aviation industry in general. Not only does this additional information about this new
domain has enriched my box of knowledge, but also I feel that this experience has broadened my scope and
has inspired me to broaden my field of expertise further and not be scared to try out different options career
wise. I’ve tried to inculcate the same teachings by choosing the topic of this project as Aerodynamics. The
reason behind my decision being that this would go on to further strengthen my fundamentals on this vast
topic called fluid dynamics and extend my understanding of vehicle aerodynamics to aeronautics.
While I was able to learn a lot from this project and all the theory sessions, my most memorable days at this
summer training internship were the four days of factory visit, which happened to be state-of-the-art and
highly organized. I was not only amazed to see the dedication of each and every worker and engineer out
there but also the level of precision that is required to be maintained over the smallest of component and the
amount of simulations, quality control and testing the component has to go through in order to make aviation
cent percent safe and reliable. It is often the smallest things in aviation that make the largest differences in
the air. The margin of error and the threshold of failure is minimal, as not just huge capital investment and
running costs go in the drain but also there is a possibility of direct loss of human lives. The factories were
an altogether enriching and rejuvenating experience and this was made possible by the various on-site
engineers that were ready to help and answer the most generic as well as silliest of questions with a smile,
even in that high pressure environment. A lot of queries about how the machines are maintained, how the
engineering drawings are read and how the CNC programming is carried out were explained by them in an
easy manner.
Overall, my internship at HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED, ACCESSORIES DIVISION,
LUCKNOW has been a success. I was able to gain practical skills and valuable knowledge that can be
implemented in my domain, work in a fantastic environment, and make connections that will last a
lifetime. I could not be more thankful pf the facilities and the faculty for enabling me this great
opportunity.

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REFRENCES

1. FoilSim by NASA
2. STAR CCM+
3. JAVAfoil
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swept_wing
5. "Wing Planforms for High-Speed Flight." NACA TN-1033. Retrieved: July 24, 2011.
6. Goebel, Greg. "The SAAB 29 Tunnan." Air Vectors. Retrieved: August 1, 2011.
7. Sears, William Rees, Stories form a 20th-Century Life, Parabolic Press, Inc., Stanford California,
1994.
8. Shevell, Richard, "Aerodynamic Design Features", DC-8 design summary, February 22, 1957.
9. Dunn, Orville R., "Flight Characteristics of the DC-8", SAE paper 237A, presented at the SAE
National Aeronautic Meeting, Los Angeles California, October 1960.
10. Cook, William H. The Road to the 707: The Inside Story of Designing the 707. Bellevue, Washington:
TYC Publishing, 1991. ISBN 0-9629605-0-0.
11. "Supersonic Wing Designs." selkirk.bc.ca. Retrieved: August 1, 2011.
12. "Supersonic Wing design: The Mach cone becomes increasingly swept back with increasing Mach
numbers." Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine Centennial of Flight Commission, 2003.
Retrieved: August 1, 2011.
13. "Forward swept wings." Homebuiltairplanes. Retrieved: August 1, 2011.
14. Effect of winglets induced tip vortex structure on the performance of subsonic wings,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1270963816305569
15. Incorrect Lift theory, https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/wrong1.html
16. http://digitalpilotschool.com
17. http://www.aerodynamics4students.com/subsonic-aerofoil-and-wing-theory/2-d-thin-aerofoil-theo
ry.php, 2D THIN AEROFOIL THEORY
18. Wings and Lift, http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/aerodynamics/q0005.shtml
19. RK bansal-A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and hydraulic machines. 9-laxmi
20. Mechanics of Flight, A.C. Kermode
21. Fluid mechanics ÇENGEL

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ANNEXES

SOFTWARES USED
1.FoilSim by NASA
2.STAR CCM+
3. JAVAfoil
4. SolidWorks 2019
5. FLUENT by ANSYS 2019

RESEARCH PAPERS
1. PROadvice user manual.
2. SURFACES user manual
3. Camber racing formula student team aerodynamics and CFD design report
4. Liege University Aircraft Design Lectures
5. AERODYNAMIC PITCH-UP OF CRANKED ARROW WINGS: ESTIMATION, TRIM, AND
CONFIGURATION DESIGN by: Alexander M. Benoliel

BOOKS USED
1. RK bansal-A Textbook of Fluid Mechanics and hydraulic machines. 9-laxmi
2. Mechanics of Flight, A.C. Kermode
3. Fluid mechanics ÇENGEL

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