Velmonte, Lorenz Deniel L.

October 29, 2019

BSME-5 ME 517M

Introduction to Steel

Steel is the world's most important engineering and construction material. Because of its high tensile
strength and low cost, it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles,
machnines, appliances and weapons. With that, steel is the world’s most important enginering and
construction material.

The development of steel can be traced back 4000 years to the beginning of the Iron Age. Proving to
be harder and stronger than bronze, which had previously been the most widely used metal, iron began to
displace bronze in weaponry and tools. Iron is the 4th most common metal on earth. Iron being a strong
material has drawbacks such as rust. Rust is an iron oxide, a usually red oxide formed by the redox reaction
of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Given sufficient time, oxygen, and water, any
iron mass will eventually convert entirely to rust and disintegrate.

Cast iron was commonly used due to its strength but with its high carbon content of more than 2%, it
had limits on shaping the material and is very brittle. Cast iron is produced using blast furnace. Iron ore
mixed with coke, which is a refined coal, is to be heated in the blast furnace. The heat from the furnace
burns the coke which produces carbon monoxide which reacts with the oxygen in the iron ore to remove it.
A liquid slag is formed which is less dense than the molten drains at the higher outlet while the molten
drains at the lower outlet. At higher temperatures, iron absorbs too much carbon which makes it cast iron.
An extra step is needed in order to form wrought iron or steel which is the refinery. Iron is heated back up
to oxidise the carbon and then beaten with a hammer to knock the oxidised carbon. Wrought iron is usually
achieved since obtaining steel would require much skill.

Fig. 1 Blast furnace

 Wrought iron replaced cast iron since it is more ductile and bends under loads without breaking. This
is due to its low carbon content which is less than 0.08%. But with its very low carbon content, it was too
soft and bends too much. Steel then came to be which had carbon content between 0.08% and 2% which
gives an ideal balance between hardness and ductility. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less
than 2% carbon and 1% manganese and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen.

Steel was first mass produced using the puddling furnace. Cast iron was heated using the radiative heat
from the combustion of fuel and air from a separate chamber. As the iron would become molten, a worker
would stir it to encourage oxidation of the impurities. This process is fuel and labor intensive which makes
steel expensive.

Fig. 2 Puddling furnace

The advent of commercial steel production came in the late 19th century and was a result of Sir Henry
Bessemer's creation of an efficient way to lower the carbon content in cast iron. A converter is a chemical
reactor which turns raw iron into steel. Hot molten pig iron from blast furnace was poured in the converter,
and then air was pumped in at the bottom with high pressure. After a couple of minutes, pig iron turns into
steel.

Fig. 3 Bessemer Converter

 Cabriles, Lyle David
Steelmaking
Ironmaking is the first step in making steel. It involves the raw inputs of iron ore, coke, and lime being
melted in a blast furnace. The resulting molten iron also referred to as hot metal, still contains 4-4.5% of
carbon and other impurities which make it brittle.
To remove the carbon content and other impurities and at the same time produce steel, there are 2 modern
methods: Basic Oxygen Steelmaking and Electric Arc Steelmaking
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
More than half of the world’s steel is produced through the basic oxygen process.
- Uses pure oxygen to convert a charge of liquid blast-furnace iron and scrap into steel.
- The basic oxygen furnace is a tiltable converter wherein a water-cooled lance is inserted to
blow oxygen through nozzles at supersonic speeds onto the charge.
- Carbon content will be reduced by 0-1.5%.

The use of pure oxygen at high flow rates results in such fast oxidation of the elements contained in the
blast-furnace iron that it only takes about 20 minutes to refine one charge. As the carbon content and other
impurities are being oxidized, they tend to float on top of the hot metal. This is because their density is
lighter than that of the hot metal’s. With the separation of oxidized impurities, liquid steel is what is left
below the layer of impurities.

Oxygen lance –provides oxygen for the oxidation of the steel elements present in the hot metal.
Furnace lining – is made of a special type of cement that has the ability to reflect heat.
Slag - is the waste material from the process of creating steel. Consists of impurities.
Electric Arc Steelmaking
About one quarter of the world’s steel is produced by the electric arc steelmaking method.
- Uses high-current electric arcs to melt steel scrap and convert it into liquid steel at a specified
temperature.
- Permits better thermal control compared to Basic Oxygen Steelmaking
- Electric arc steelmaking is not as oxidizing as basic oxygen steelmaking, therefore, electric arc
steels have carbon contents higher than 0.05%
- Also, they have higher nitrogen content with 40 to 120 parts per million compared to 30 to 50
parts per million of Basic Oxygen Steelmaking

Secondary Steelmaking
A major component in secondary steelmaking is the ladle. A ladle is an open topped cylindrical container
made of heavy steel plates and lined with refractory material. This is where all secondary metallurgical
work takes place.
The simplest form of form of steel treatment present in the ladle when the mixing effect of the tapping
stream is used to add deoxidizers and small amounts of alloying agents
Slag Removal
Slag can be removed at slag-skimming stations, where the ladle is tilted forward and a rake scrapes the slag
into a slag pot parked beneath the ladle.
After slag removal, an insulating layer is added to minimize heat loss and reoxidation.
Stirring
In most casting operations, it is necessary to maintain minimal fluctuations in steel temperature, this is
achieved through a ladle stirring station to establish a uniform temperature throughout the ladle.
Desulfurizing
Powdered metal which is fluidized by argon is injected into the ladle. These metals, specifically, metallic
calcium, desulfurizes by forming the very stable compound calcium sulfide.
Vacuum Treatment
Exposing steel to vacuum has a profound effect on all metallurgical reactions involving gases.
- It lowers the level of gas dissolved in liquid steel.
Casting of Steel
- Is the process in which a liquid metal is poured into a mold for hardening and also for
molding.

An open cavity oxidizes steel, therefore, making the produced steel, unreliable. So, to prevent cavities from
forming, the cavity can be made shallower by keeping the top of the ingot hot and liquid longer. This is
done by inserting insulating refractory heads and by adding exothermic powders; more liquid steel can also
be added after a good-sized shell has formed.
Forming of Steel
Forming processes convert solidified steel into products useful for the fabricating and construction
industries. The objectives are to obtain a desired shape, to improve cast steel’s physical properties (which
are not suitable for most applications), and to produce a surface suitable for a specific use.
There are a number of steel-forming processes, these are forging, pressing, piercing, drawing, extruding,
and rolling. Rolling is the most important process by far.

Rolling - the steel workpiece is pulled by friction into the roll gap, which is smaller than the cross section
of the workpiece.
Slab

Billet

Bloom

Bar

Plate
Rod
 Treating of Steel
Heat-treating
Heat-treating already takes place when steel is hot-rolled at a particular temperature and cooled afterwards
at a certain rate.
The simplest heat-treating process is normalizing. This is when steel is held for a short time at a
temperature between 20 to 40 degrees Celsius and then cooled afterward in still air.
Another process is holding the steel in the gamma zone, this transforms the as-rolled or as-cast
microstructure into austenite, which dissolves carbides. Then, during cooling, a very uniform grain is
formed consisting of either pearlite and ferrite or perlite and cementite, depending on the carbon content.
In all heat-treatment operations, the temperatures, holding times, and heating and cooling rates are varied
according to the chemical composition, size, and shape of the steel.
Annealing
This is when the desired steel product is ductile for subsequent forming operations.
In annealing, the steel is usually held for several hours at a certain temperature and then slowly cooled.
This process precipitates and coagulates the carbides and results in large ferrite crystals.
Annealing is performed after the steel has undergone the hardening process to prevent it from brittle failure.
Quenching and Tempering
Quenching comprises the heating of steel, which is followed by immediate cooling in water, oil, and forced
air.
Tempering is done to attain greater toughness and ductility by decreasing hardness, after the completion
of the steel quenching process to a required hardened state.
Quenched and tempered steel is the ultimate choice for low weight applications that require high carrying
capacity as it has high yield strength.

Marimon, Rica Engelle

SURFACE TREATING

The surface treatment of steel also begins during hot-rolling, because reheating conditions, in-line scale removal,
rolling temperature, and cooling rate all determine the type and thickness of scale formed on the product, and this
affects atmospheric corrosion, paintability, and subsequent scale-removal operations.

PICKLING

Before cold forming, hot-rolled steel is always descaled, most common operation is the pickling.

Iron oxide crystals are scales made up of thin layers. These crystals can be dissolved by acids (sulfuric acid, and nitric
acid).
 CLEANING

The removal of organic substances and other residues from the surface of the steel.

Hot solutions used in cleaning are:

 caustic soda
 phosphates
 alkaline silicates

SURFACE COATING

One-third of the steel shipped by the industry is coated on its surface by a metallic, inorganic, or organic coating.

Coatings:

 zinc
 zinc alloy
 aluminum

STEEL GRADES AND PROPERTIES

Steel can be broadly categorized into four groups based on their chemical compositions:

1. Carbon Steel
2. Alloy Steels
3. Stainless Steels
4. Tool Steels

Carbon Steel:

Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying elements and account 90% of total steel production. There are
three groups depending on their carbon content:

1. Low Carbon Steel – up to 0.3% carbon

2. Medium Carbon Steel – 0.3-0.6% carbon
3. High Carbon Steel – more than 0.6% carbon

Alloy Steel:

Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g. manganese, silicon, copper, aluminum, and more) in varying
proportions in order to manipulate the steel's properties, such as its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength,
formability, weldability or ductility.

Applications for alloy steels:

  pipelines
 auto parts
 transformers

Stainless Steel:

Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying element and are valued for
high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium, steel is about 200 times more resistant to corrosion than mild
steel.

Tool Steel:

Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying quantities to increase heat resistance
and durability, making them ideal for cutting and drilling equipment.

APPLICATIONS

Steel applications can be divided into five sectors:

1. Construction
2. Transport
3. Energy
4. Packaging
5. Appliances and Industry

Construction

The majority of steel goes to the construction industry. Sustainable steel structures can be built quickly at a low
price. Steel, in its various forms and alloys, can be designed to meet the requirements of unique projects, which allow
it to be incorporated into infrastructure in all environments. Depending on the conditions that the structure is exposed
to, steel can be alloyed or surface treated differently for protection.

Steel can also be found in:

 low and high-rise buildings

 harbors
 tunnels
 coastal and flood defenses
 education and hospital buildings

Transport
 Engineering steels are wrought steels that are designed to have certain specific levels of elasticity, strength,
ductility, and corrosion resistance. They are used in the general engineering and manufacturing sectors, but the bulk
goes to transport vehicles.

Steel is found in transport material such as:

 transmissions
 ships
 anchor or chains
 rails
 jet engines components

Energy

All segments of the energy sector, including nuclear, wind power, electric and natural gas, demand steel for
infrastructure. Steel is also used for resource extraction, such as in offshore platforms, earth-moving and quarrying
equipment, cranes, and forklifts.

Projects that rely on large amount of steel:

 pipelines
 wind turbines
 transmission towers
 electromagnets
 transformer cores

Packaging

Steel packaging protects goods from water, air, and light exposure, and is fully recyclable. This method of
storage has been around for over 200 years. Packaging steels are often made from low carbon cold-rolled steel strip
and are surface finished. The steel is tin plated to prevent corrosion and then coated with a polymer, lacquered, and
printed. The majority of steel packaging goes towards food and beverage container.

Appliances and Industry

About 75% of the weight of typical household appliances comes from steel. Steel is found in appliances like
fridges, washing machines, ovens, microwaves, sinks, cutlery, etc. Steel also accounts for many industrial goods like
farm vehicles and machinery, storage tanks, tools, structures, walkways, and protective equipment.