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Concepts of Leadership
I used to think that running an organization was equivalent to conducting a
symphony orchestra. But I don't think that's quite it; it's more like jazz. There is
more improvisation. — Warren Bennis

Good leaders are made, not born. If you have the desire and willpower,
you can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a
never ending process of self-study,
education, training, and experience (Jago,
1982). This guide will help you through the
journey.

To inspire your workers into higher levels

of teamwork, there are certain things you
must be, know, and, do. These do not
often come naturally, but are acquired
through continual work and study. Good
leaders are continually working and studying to improve their
leadership skills; they are NOT resting on their past laurels.

Definitions of Leadership
“The meaning of a message is the change which it produces in the image.” —
Kenneth Boulding in The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society

Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to

accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that
makes it more cohesive and coherent.

Some other popular definitions of Leadership are:

A process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a

common goal (Northouse, 2007, p3).
The U.S. military has studied leadership in depth. One of their definitions is a
process by which a person influences others to accomplish a mission (U.S.
Army, 1983).

Leadership is inspiring others to pursue your vision within the par ameters you
set, to the extent that it becomes a shared effort, a shared vision, and a shared
success (Zeitchik, 2012).

Leadership is a process of social influence, which maximizes the efforts of

others, towards the achievement of a goal (Kruse, 2013).

Note that all the definitions have a couple of processes in common:

o A person influences others through social influence, not power, to get

something accomplished (bosses use power to get things done).
o Leadership requires others, who are not necessarily direct-reports, to get
something accomplished.
o There is a need to accomplish something.

Leaders carry out this process by applying their

leadership knowledge and skills. This is called Process Leadership (Jago,
1982). However, we know that we have traits that can influence our
actions. This is called Trait Leadership (Jago, 1982), in that it was once
common to believe that leaders were born rather than made. These two
leadership types are shown in the chart below (Northouse, 2007, p5):
While leadership is learned, a leader's skills and knowledge can be
influenced by his or hers attributes or traits, such
as beliefs, values, ethics, and character. Knowledge and skills
contribute directly to the process of leadership, while the other attributes
give the leader certain characteristics that make him or her unique.

For example, a leader might have learned the skills in counseling

others, but her traits will often play a great role in determining how she
counsels. A person who has empathy will make a better counselor than
a person who thinks the employees are simply there do accomplish her
biddings.

Skills, knowledge, and attributes make the Leader , which is one of

the Factors of Leadership .

Factors of Leadership
There are four primary factors of leadership (U.S. Army, 1983):
Leader

You must have an honest understanding of who you are, what you
know, and what you can do. Also, note that it is the followers, not the
leader or someone else who determines if the leader is successful. If
they do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, then they will be
uninspired. To be successful you have to convince your followers, not
yourself or your superiors, that you are worthy of being followed.

Followers

Different people require different styles of leadership. For example, a

new hire requires more supervision than an experienced employee
does. A person who lacks motivation requires a different approach than
one with a high degree of motivation. You must know your people! The
fundamental starting point is having a good understanding of human
nature, such as needs, emotions, and motivation. You must come to
know your employees' be, know, and do attributes.

Communication

You lead through two-way communication. Much of it is nonverbal. For

instance, when you “set the example,” that communicates to your
people that you would not ask them to perform anything that you would
not be willing to do. What and how you communicate either builds or
harms the relationship between you and your followers.

Situation

All situations are different. What you do in one situation will not always
work in another. You must use your judgment to decide the best course
of action and the leadership style needed for each situation. For
example, you may need to confront an employee for inappropriate
behavior, but if the confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or
too weak, then the results may prove ineffective.

Also note that the situation normally has a greater effect on a leader's
action than his or her traits. This is because while traits may have an
impressive stability over a period of time, they have little consistency
across situations (Mischel, 1968). This is why a number of leadership
scholars think the Process Theory of Leadership is a more accurate than
the Trait Theory of Leadership .

Various forces will affect these four factors. Examples of forces are:

o your relationship with your seniors

o the skills of your followers
o the informal leaders within your organization
o how your organization is organized

Bass' Theory of Leadership

Bass' theory of leadership states that there are three basic ways to
explain how people become leaders (Stogdill, 1989; Bass, 1990). The
first two explain the leadership development for a small number of
people, while the third one is the dominant theory today. These theories
are:

o Some personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles. This is
the Trait Theory.
o A crisis or important event may cause a person to rise to the occasion, which
brings out extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person. This is the
Great Events Theory.
o People can choose to become leaders. People can learn leadership skills. This
is the Transformational or Process Leadership Theory. It is the most widely
accepted theory today and the premise on which this leadership guide is
based.

Management verses Leadership

While management and leadership have a great deal in common, such
as working with people and accomplishing the goals of the
organization, they do differ in their primary functions (Kotter, 1990):

Management's main function is to produce order and consistency

through processes, such as planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing,
and problem solving.

While leadership's main function is to produce movement and

constructive or adaptive change through processes, such as
establishing direction through visioning, aligning people, motivating,
and inspiring.

For more information on the differences between management and

leadership see the next chapter: The Four Pillars: Leadership,
Management, Command, and Control

Boss or Leader?
Although your position as a manager, supervisor, lead, etc. gives you
the authority to accomplish certain tasks and objectives in the
organization (called Assigned Leadership ), this power does not make you
a leader, it simply makes you a boss. Leadership differs in that it makes
the followers want to achieve high goals (called Emergent Leadership ),
rather than simply ordering people around (Rowe, 2007). Thus, you
get Assigned Leadership by your position and you display Emergent
Leadership by influencing people to do great things.

Total Leadership
What makes a person want to follow a leader? People want to be
guided by leaders they respect and who have a clear sense of
direction. To gain respect, they must be ethical. A sense of direction is
achieved by conveying a strong vision of the future.

When people are deciding if they respect you as a leader, they do not
think about your attributes, rather, they observe what you do so that
they can determine who you really are. They use this observation to tell
if you are an honorable and trusted leader or a self-serving person who
misuses authority to look good and get promoted.

Self-serving leaders are not as effective because their employees only

obey them, not follow them. They succeed in many areas because they
present a good image to their seniors... but at the expense of their
workers.

Good leadership is honorable character and selfless service to your

organization. In your employees' eyes, your leadership is everything
you do that effects the organization's objectives and their well-being.

The Two Most Important Keys to Effective

Leadership
According to a study by the Hay Group, a global management
consultancy, there are 75 key components of employee satisfaction
(Lamb, McKee, 2004). They found that:

o Trust and confidence in top leadership was the single most reliable predictor
of employee satisfaction in an organization.
o Effective communication by leadership in three critical areas was the key to
winning organizational trust and confidence:
o Helping employees understand the company's overall business strategy.
o Helping employees understand how they contribute to achieving key
business objectives.
o Sharing information with employees on both how the company is doing
and how an employee's own division is doing.

So in a nutshell — you must be trustworthy and you need to be able

to communicate a vision of where the organization needs to go. The
next section, Principles of Leadership , ties in closely with this key
concept.

Principles of Leadership
To help you be, know, and do, follow these eleven principles of
leadership (U.S. Army, 1983). The rest of the chapters in
this Leadership guide expand on these principles and provide tools for
implementing them:

1. Know yourself and seek self-improvement - In order to know yourself, you

have to understand your be, know, and do, attributes. Seeking self-
improvement means continually strengthening your attributes. This can be
accomplished through self-study, formal classes, reflection, and interacting
with others.
2. Be technically proficient - As a leader, you must know your job and have a
solid familiarity with your employees' tasks.
3. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions - Search for ways
to guide your organization to new heights. And when things go wrong, as they
often tend to do sooner or later — do not blame others. Analyze the situation,
take corrective action, and move on to the next challenge.
4. Make sound and timely decisions - Use good problem solving, decision
making, and planning tools.
5. Set the example - Be a good role model for your employees. They must not
only hear what they are expected to do, but also see. “We must become the
change we want to see.” - Mahatma Gandhi
6. Know your people and look out for their well-being - Know human nature
and the importance of sincerely caring for your workers.
7. Keep your workers informed - Know how to communicate with not only
them, but also seniors and other key people.
8. Develop a sense of responsibility in your workers - Help to develop good
character traits that will help them carry out their professional responsibilities.
9. Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished -
Communication is the key to this responsibility.
10. Train as a team - Although many so called leaders call their organization,
department, section, etc. a team; they are not really teams... they are just a
group of people doing their jobs.
11. Use the full capabilities of your organization - By developing a team spirit,
you will be able to employ your organization, department, section, etc. to its
fullest capabilities.
 Attributes of Leadership: BE, KNOW, and DO
Respected leaders concentrate on Be, Know, and Do (U.S. Army,
1983):

o who they are [be] (such as beliefs and character)

o what they know (such as job, tasks, and human nature)
o what they do (such as implementing, motivating, and providing direction)

BE a professional. Examples: Be loyal to the organization, perform

selfless service, take personal responsibility.

BE a professional who possess good character traits. Examples:

honesty, competence, candor, commitment, integrity, courage,
straightforwardness, imagination.

KNOW the four factors of leadership — follower, leader,

communication, situation.

KNOW yourself. Examples: strengths and weakness of your character,

knowledge, and skills.

KNOW human nature. Examples: human needs, emotions, and how

people respond to stress.

KNOW your job. Examples: be proficient and be able to train others in

their tasks.

KNOW your organization. Examples: where to go for help, its climate

and culture, who the unofficial leaders are.

DO provide direction. Examples: goal setting, problem solving, decision

making, planning.

DO implement. Examples: communicating, coordinating, supervising,

evaluating.

DO motivate. Examples: develop morale and esprit de corps in the

organization, train, coach, counsel.
 Environment
Every organization has a particular work environment, which dictates to
a considerable degree how its leaders respond to problems and
opportunities. This is brought about by its heritage of past leaders and
its present leaders.

Goals, Values, and Concepts

Leaders exert influence on the environment via three types of actions:

1. The goals and performance standards they establish.

2. The values they establish for the organization.
3. The business and people concepts they establish.

Successful organizations have leaders who set high standards

and goals across the entire spectrum, such as strategies, market
leadership, plans, meetings and presentations, productivity, quality, and
reliability.

Values reflect the concern the organization has for its employees,
customers, investors, vendors, and surrounding community. These
values define the manner in how business will be conducted.

Concepts define what products or services the organization will offer

and the methods and processes for conducting business.

These goals, values, and concepts make up the

organization's personality or how the organization is observed by both
outsiders and insiders. This personality defines the roles, relationships,
rewards, and rites that take place.

Roles and Relationships

Roles are the positions that are defined by a set of expectations about
behavior of any job incumbent. Each role has a set of tasks and
responsibilities that may or may not be spelled out. Roles have a
powerful effect on behavior for several reasons, to include money being
paid for the performance of the role, there is prestige attached to a role,
and a sense of accomplishment or challenge.

Relationships are determined by a role's tasks. While some tasks are

performed alone, most are carried out in relationship with others. The
tasks will determine who the role-holder is required to interact with, how
often, and towards what end. Normally the greater the interaction, the
greater the liking. This in turn leads to more frequent interactions. In
human behavior — its hard to like someone whom we have no contact
with, and we tend to seek out those we like. People tend to do what
they are rewarded for, and friendship is a powerful reward. Many tasks
and behaviors that are associated with a role are brought about by
these relationships. That is, new tasks and behaviors are expected of
the present role-holder because a strong relationship was developed in
the past, by either that role-holder or by a prior role-holder.

Culture and Climate

Culture and climate are two distinct forces that dictate how to act within
an organization: .

Each organization has its own distinctive culture. It is a combination of

the founders, past leadership, current leadership, crises, events,
history, and size (Newstrom, Davis, 1993). This results in rites: the
routines, rituals, and the “way we do things.” These rites impact
individual behavior on what it takes to be in good standing (the norm)
and directs the appropriate behavior for each circumstance.

The climate is the feel of the organization, the individual and shared
perceptions and attitudes of the organization's members (Ivancevich,
Konopaske, Matteson, 2007). On the other hand, culture is the deeply
rooted nature of the organization that is a result of long-held formal and
informal systems, rules, traditions, and customs. This differs from
climate, which is a short-term phenomenon created by the current
leadership. Climate represents the beliefs about the “feel of the
organization” by its members. This individual perception of the “feel of
the organization” comes from what the people believe about the
activities that occur in the organization. These activities influence both
individual and team motivation and satisfaction, such as:
 o How well does the leader clarify the priorities and goals of the organization?
What is expected of us?
o What is the system of recognition, rewards, and punishments in the
organization?
o How competent are the leaders?
o Are leaders free to make decisions?
o What will happen if I make a mistake?

Organizational climate is directly related to the leadership and

management style of the leader, based on the values, attributes, skills,
and actions, as well as the priorities of the leader. Compare this to
“ethical climate” — the feel of the organization about the activities that
have ethical content or those aspects of the work environment that
constitute ethical behavior. The ethical climate is the feel about whether
we do things right; or the feel of whether we behave the way we ought
to behave. The behavior (character) of the leader is the most important
factor that influences the climate.

On the other hand, culture is a long-term, complex phenomenon.

Culture represents the shared expectations and self-image of the
organization. The mature values that create tradition or the “way we do
things here.” Things are done differently in every organization. The
collective vision and common folklore that define the institution are a
reflection of culture. Individual leaders cannot easily create or change
culture because culture is a part of the organization. Culture influences
the characteristics of the climate by its effect on the actions and
thought processes of the leader. But, everything you do as a leader will
affect the climate of the organization.

For information on culture, see Long-Term Short-Term Orientation

The Process of Great Leadership

The road to great leadership that is common to successful leaders
include (Kouzes, Posner, 1987):

o Challenge the process - First, find a process that you believe needs to be
improved the most.
 o Inspire a shared vision - Share your vision in words that can be understood by
your followers.
o Enable others to act - Give them the tools and methods to solve the problem.
o Model the way - When the process gets tough, get your hands dirty. A boss
tells others what to do; a leader shows that it can be done.
o Encourage the heart - Share the glory with your followers' hearts, while
keeping the pains within your own.

Leading

Bossing people around is what jerks do; leading people by setting goals, inspiring, supervising, coaching,
training, and using
power smartly and
with empathy is
what leaders do.

Your thinking skills

can be considered
directional skills
because they set
the direction for
your organization.
They
provide vision,
purpose, and goal
definition. These
are your eyes and
ears to the future,
allowing you to
recognize the need
for change, when to make it, how to implement it, and how to manage it. You find a vision by reaching
for any available reason to change, grow, and improve. Just as you perform preventive maintenance on
your car, you must perform preventive maintenance on your organization. Do NOT believe in the old
adage, “If it ain't broke, don't fix it,” for the people who do, go broke! Treat every project as a change
effort. Treat every job as a new learning experience.

Goals
 Good organizations convey a strong vision of where they will be in
the future. As a leader, you have to get your followers to trust you
and be sold on your vision. Using the leadership tools described in
this guide and being honest and fair in all you do will provide you
with the influence you need in order to gain their trust. To sell
them on your vision, you need to possess energy and display a
positive attitude that is contagious. People want a strong vision of
where they are going. No one wants to be stuck in a dead-end
company going nowhere... or a company headed in the wrong
direction. They want to be involved with a winner! And your
followers are the ones who will get you to that goal. You cannot
do it alone!

When setting goals, keep these points in mind:

o They should be realistic and attainable.

o They should improve the organization (morale, monetary,

etc.).

o As many people as possible should be involved in the goal-

setting process (they will feel a sense of ownership that
will drive them to achieve it).

o A process should be developed to achieve each goal.

There are four characteristics of goal setting (U.S. Army Handbook, 1973):

o Goal Difficulty: Increasing your employees' goal difficulty increases their challenges and
enhances the amount of effort expended to achieve them. The more difficult goals lead to
increased performance if they seem feasible. If they seem too high, employees will give up when
they fail to achieve them.

o Goal Specificity: When given specific goals, employees tend to perform higher. Telling them to
do their best or giving no guidance increases ambiguity about what is expected. Employees need
a set goal or model in order to display the correct behavior. Knowing the person will guide you
in the amount of specificity that is required (this does NOT mean to micro-manage).

o Feedback: Providing feedback enhances the effects of goal setting. Performance feedback keeps
their behavior directed on the right target and encourages them to work smarter to achieve the
goal.

o Participation in Goal Setting: Employees who participate in the process, generally set higher
goals than if the goals were set for them. It also affects their belief that the goals are obtainable
and increases their motivation to achieve them.
The Six Steps of Goal Setting

Although finding a vision can be quite a creative challenge, the process of getting that vision
implemented can be fairly easy if you follow the six steps of:

Vision —> Goals —> Objectives —> Tasks —> Timelines —> Follow-up

Step 1 - Vision

The first step in setting goals and priorities is to personally develop what the organization should look
like at some point in the future — this is a vision. A junior leader, such as a supervisor or line manager,
will mainly be concerned with a department, section, or small group of people, while senior leaders set
the vision for the entire organization. However, both types of visions need to support each other and
the organization's goals.

The mission of the organization is crucial in determining your vision. Your vision needs to coincide with
the big picture. The term “vision” suggests a mental picture of what the future organization will look
like. The concept also implies a later time horizon. This time horizon tends to be mid to long-term in
nature, focusing normally on 1/2 to 5 years in the future for visions affecting the entire organization.
However, leaders such as supervisors or line managers tend to have shorter time horizon visions,
normally lasting a few weeks to a year.

The concept of a vision has become a popular term within academic, government, defense, and
corporate circles. This has spawned many different definitions of vision. But, the vision you want should
be a picture of where you want your department or organization to be at a future date. For example, try
to picture what your department would look like if it was perfect, what the most efficient way to
produce your product would look like, or perhaps if your budget was reduced by 10 percent, how could
you still achieve the same quality product.

Pareto Principle (80-20 Rule)

Vilfredo Pareto, a 19th century economist, theorized that most effects come from relatively few causes;
that is, 80 percent of the effects come from 20 percent of the possible causes (Juran, 1988). For
example, 20 percent of the inventory items in the supply chain of an organization accounts for 80
percent of the inventory value. This is known as the Pareto principle or the 80-20 rule.

Some leaders fall into the time wasting trap of going after the 80 percent of items that only have a value
of 20 percent of the total net worth. Your visions need to picture the 20 percent that will have the
greatest impact on your organization. Although it is nice to have small victories every now and then by
going after that easy 80 percent, spend the majority of your time focusing on the few things that will
have the greatest impact. That is what a good leader does.
Once you have your vision, it needs to be framed in general, unmeasurable terms and communicated to
your team. Your team then develops the ends (objectives), ways (concepts), and means (resources) to
achieve the vision.

Step 2 - Goals

The second step involves establishing goals, with the active participation of the team. Goals are also
stated in unmeasurable terms, but they are more focused. For example, "The organization must reduce
transportation costs." This establishes the framework of your vision.

Step 3 - Objectives

Definable objectives provide a way of measuring the movement towards vision achievement. This is the
real strategy of turning visions into reality. It is the crossover mechanism between your forecast of the
future and the envisioned, desired future. Objectives are stated in measurable terms such as, “By the
end of the next quarter, the shipping department will use one parcel service for shipping items at or
under 100 pounds and one motor carrier for shipping items over a 100 pounds.” In addition, strive for
ownership by the entire team.

Step 4 - Tasks

The fourth step is to determine the tasks. Tasks are the means for accomplishing objectives. Tasks are
concrete, measurable events that must occur. An example might be, "The transportation coordinator
will obtain detailed shipping rates from at least 10 motor carriers."

Step 5 - Timelines

This step establishes a priority for the tasks. Since time is precious and some tasks must be
accomplished before another can begin, establishing priorities helps your team to determine the order
in which the tasks must be accomplished and by what date. For example, "The shipping rates will be
obtained by May 9."

Step 6 - Follow-up

The final step is to follow-up, measure, and check to see if the team is doing what is required. This kind
of leader involvement validates that the stated priorities are worthy of action. For the leader it
demonstrates her commitment to see the matter through to a successful conclusion. Also, note that
validating does not mean micro-managing. Micro-management places no trust in others, whereas
following-up determines if the things that need to get done are in fact getting done.

Supervision for Leaders

Supervision is keeping a grasp on the situation and

ensuring that plans and policies are implemented properly
(U.S. Army Handbook, 1973). It includes giving instructions and inspecting the accomplishment of a task.

There is a narrow band of proper supervision. On one side of the band is over-supervision (micro-
management); and on the other side is under-supervision. Over-supervision stifles initiative, breeds
resentment, and lowers morale and motivation. Under-supervision leads to miscommunication, lack of
coordination, and the perception by subordinates that the leader does not care. However, all employees
can benefit from appropriate supervision by seniors with more knowledge and experience who normally
tend to see the situation more objectively.

Evaluating is part of supervising. It is defined as judging the worth, quality, or significance of people,
ideas, or things (U.S. Army Handbook, 1973, p304). It includes looking at the ways people are
accomplishing a task. It means getting feedback on how well something is being done and interpreting
that feedback. People need feedback so that they can judge their performance. Without it, they will
keep performing tasks wrong, or stop performing the steps that makes their work great.
Use checklists to list tasks that need to be accomplished. Almost all of us have poor memories when it
comes to remembering a list of details. List tasks by priorities, for example, "A" priorities must be done
today, "B" priorities must be done by tomorrow, and "C" priorities need to be followed up within a
week.

Double check the important things by following through on them. Strange things can happen if you are
not aware of them. Paperwork gets lost, plans get changed, and people forget. If you have a system of
checks and double checks, you will discover mistakes, have time to correct them, and minimize any
disruptions. Following through may seem to be a waste of your time and energy, but in the long run, it
pays off. You will spend less time and energy correcting mistakes and omissions made long ago.

Inspiring Your Employees

Getting people to accomplish something is much easier if they have the inspiration to do so. Inspire
means “to breathe life into.” And in order to perform that, we have to have some life ourselves. Three
main actions will aid you in accomplishing this:

1. Be passionate: In organizations where there is a leader with great enthusiasm about a project, a
trickle-down effect will occur. You must be committed to the work you are doing. If you do not
communicate excitement, how can you expect your people to get worked up about it?

2. Get your employees involved in the decision making process: People who are involved in the
decision making process participate much more enthusiastically than those who just carry out a boss'
order. Help them contribute and tell them you value their opinions. Listen to them and incorporate their
ideas when it makes sense to so.

3. Know what your organization is about!: The fundamental truth, as General Creighton W. Abrams
used to say in the mid-1970s, is that “the Army is not made up of people. The Army is people. Every
decision we make is a people issue.” Your organization is the same. It may make a product or sell a
service, but it is still people! A leader's primary responsibility is to develop people and enable them to
reach their full potential. Your people may come from diverse backgrounds, but they all have goals they
want to accomplish. Create a "people environment" where they truly can be all they can be.

Training and Coaching

As a leader you must view coaching from two different viewpoints: 1) coaching to lead others and 2)
being coached to achieve self-improvement.

Training and coaching are two different things, although some people use them interchangeably.
Training is a structured lesson designed to provide the employee with the knowledge and skills to
perform a task. Coaching, on the other hand, is a process designed to help the employee gain greater
competence and to overcome barriers so as to improve job performance.

You might picture it as when you were in school. During physical education, the gym teacher (trainer)
taught you how to play basketball. Next you went out for the school team. You had a basic
understanding of the game and its rules, but the coach personally taught you by coaching the finer
points of the game.

Training and coaching go hand-in-hand. First you train people with lots of technical support, and then
you coach them with motivational pointers.

Both training and coaching help to create the conditions that cause someone to learn and develop.
People learn by the examples of others, by forming a picture in their minds of what they are trying to
learn, by gaining and understanding necessary information, by applying it to their job, and/or practice.

Both coaching and training have a few points in common:

o Evaluate to determine knowledge, skill, and confidence levels.

o Define objectives that can be measured periodically. It helps to break them down into step-by-
step actions (action steps).

o Clarify direction, goals, and accountability. To foster accountability, involve the person or team
in the decision making.

o Encourage peer coaching by reminding them that everyone has a stake in each other's success.

o Coaching is more than telling people how to do something, it involves giving advice, skill-
building, creating challenges, removing performance barriers, building better processes, learning
through discovery (the aha! method), etc.

o Deal with emotional obstacles by helping them through change, reviewing and pointing out
ways that they hold themselves back, comforting them when they become confused, etc.

o Give feedback by pointing and hinting towards solutions, rather than directly critiquing errors.

o Lead by example! Demonstrate the desired behaviors.

Another powerful tool for helping people to learn is mentoring.

Learning

The first condition of learning is that the person must be motivated to learn. You cannot teach
knowledge or skills to people who are not motivated to learn. They must feel the need to learn what you
are teaching. Most employees are motivated to do a good job. They want to be able to perform their
tasks correctly. Their motivation is being able to perform their job to standards in return for a paycheck,
benefits, challenges, job satisfaction, etc.

The next condition of learning is to involve them in the process. Keep their attention by actively
involving their minds and emotions in the learning process. Have them participate through active
practice of the skill or through discussion. You cannot keep their attention with a long lecture. Normally,
people pay attention for a short time — less than 30 minutes. They need to use what is being taught or
their minds will wander. If you lecture for an hour, very little will be remembered. Instead, give a brief
lecture (15 minutes or less), demonstrate, and then have them practice. Provide feedback throughout
the practice session until they can do it on their own. If it is a large complicated task, break it down into
short learning steps.

The Six Points of Leadership Power

Al Capone once said that “You can get much farther with a kind word and a gun than you can with a kind
word alone.” However, while almost anyone can use power, it takes skill to use leadership. Leadership
power is much more than the use of force. Leadership is influencing others to truly WANT to achieve a
goal, while power forces others to achieve a goal.

Power refers to a capacity that a person has to influence the behavior of another so that he or she acts
in accordance with the his or her' wishes. This power is a capacity or potential as it implies a potential
that need not be actualized to be effective. That is, a power may exist, but does not have to be used to
be effective. For example, an officer in the Army has certain powers over enlisted personal, but that
power does not have to used to be effective. The mere knowledge of an officer's power by an enlisted
person has some influence over him or her.

A person has the potential for influencing six points of power over another (French, Raven, 1959; Raven,
1965):
o Coercive Power — Power that is based on fear. A person with coercive power can make things
difficult for people. These are the people that you want to avoid getting angry. Employees
working under a coercive manager are unlikely to be committed, and more likely to resist the
manager.

o Reward Power — Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others
view as valuable. Able to give special benefits or rewards to people. You might find it
advantageous to trade favors with him or her.

o Legitimate Power — The power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal
hierarchy of an organization. The person has the right, considering his or her position and your
job responsibilities, to expect you to comply with legitimate requests.

o Expert Power — Influence based on special skills or knowledge. This person earns respect by
experience and knowledge. Expert power is the most strongly and consistently related to
effective employee performance.
 o Referent Power — Influence based on possession by an individual or desirable resources or
personal traits. This is often thought of as charisma, charm, or admiration. You like the person
and enjoy doing things for him or her.

o Informational Power — Raven (1965) later came up with a sixth power, Informational: Providing
information to others that result in them thinking or taking acting in a new way.

The points of power allow you to determine the influence you and others have available in order to
achieve full negotiation skills.

Leadership and Direction

Directional skills, such as making goals and plans and then solving problems as they arise are imperative
as they allow you to guide your organization toward the future. These skills become even more
important with the passage of time as our global environment is becoming more volatile, uncertain,
complex, and ambiguous (VUCA).

Before you can guide your organization to greatness, you have to have a vision and then be able to
execute it. The following tools and processes will aid you in your journey.

Plan, Do, Check, and Act

The PDCA cycle (Plan, Do, Check, Act) was developed by Dr. Walter Shewhart as a plan of action for
creating processes and products. It is a four-step method that uses direction and control to execute,
while also providing an iterative process for continuous improvement:
It is often called the Shewhart Cycle or Deming wheel. While the four steps of the cycle look easy, it
actually takes a lot of work by all team members to complete
the cycle correctly.

One of Shewhart's students, W. Edwards Deming later used it

extensively, thus the PDCA cycle is often known as the Deming
Wheel (Smith, Hawkins, 2004). Deming used a modified version
— PDSA (Plan, Do, Study, Act) as he believed study (analysis)
provided a better description than check.

A dream is just a dream. A goal is a dream with a plan and a

deadline. And that goal will remain a dream unless you create
and execute a plan of action to accomplish it. Every goal that
gets accomplished has a good plan behind of it. — Harvey Mackay

Plan

Good plans start with a brainstorming session that includes all the people involved with the project. This
allows everyone to be part of the solution, in addition to gathering the best ideas.

Two key questions must be asked when planning (Army Handbook, 1973):

o What are all the ingredients necessary for its successful execution?

o What are all the possible forces or events that could hinder or destroy it?
As much as possible, get all the answers to these questions. Listen carefully to the judgment of your
team. Then plan the positive forces and events, and then take action to prevent any obstructions that
might hinder the project.

A detailed plan normally includes the who, what, when, where, how, and why:

o Who does it involve and who will do what?

o What are we going to do? What will happen if we do not do it?

o When does it start and end?

o Where will it take place?

o How will it take place?

o Why must we do it?

Also, the plan must be organized. Organizing is the process of creating and maintaining the conditions
for effectively executing plans. It involves systematically defining and arranging each task with respect to
the achievement of the objective. It includes three major steps:

o Determine all tasks

o Set up a structure to accomplish all tasks

o Allocate resources

All essential information must be brought out. It is also important to consider timing—when each task
must be started and completed. A helpful approach is to use “backward planning.” Look at each goal
and decide what must be done to reach it. In this way you plan from the moment of the project ending
point and then work your way back to the present in order to determine what must be accomplished for
each condition.

I have an example of a backwards planning model for increasing the performance of your workers.
While it is about Instructional System Design, the example is fairly straight-forward in that most readers
should easily understand.

Backward planning simply means looking at the big picture first, and then planning all tasks, conditions,
and details in a logical sequence to make the big picture happen. Include all the details of support, time
schedule, equipment, coordination, and required checks. Your team must try to think of every possible
situation that will help or hinder the project. Once the process of mentally building the project has
begun, the activities will come easily to mind.

Now, organize all these details into categories, such as needs, supplies, support, equipment,
coordination, major tasks, etc. List all the details under the categories. Create a to-do list for each
category. This list will become the checklist to ensure everything is progressing as planned.
Do

Your team cannot do everything at once; some tasks are more important than others while others have
to be accomplished before another task can begin. Set priorities for each checkpoint and assign
someone to perform each task on the list. Develop a system for checking each other and ensuring that
each task is accomplished on time.

Plan for obtaining all the required resources and allocate them out. Not having the required resources
can stop a project dead in its tracks. For this reason, you must closely track and monitor costly or hard to
get resources.

Trial the plan through a prototype (experimental scale). This allows you to actually check the plan on a
small scale.

Check or Study

Throughout the project's execution there are three things that you must be involved in: standards,
performance, and adjustments.

The standard means, “is this project being completed or accomplished as planned? Are all the check
marks being completed as stated in the planning process? The standard, which is set, must mean the
same to you and your people.

Performance is measured by completing the tasks and objectives correctly. While the standard relates
to the project, performance relates to the people working on the project.

If performance does not meet standards, then adjustments can be made in two ways—improve the
performance or lower the standards. Most of the time, improving the performance is the appropriate
choice. However, a leader may face a situation where the standard is unrealistic or costly, which means
it may be lowered. This is usually caused by poor estimates or the inability to obtain the proper
resources.

Act

Now you are ready to execute the plan. If your plans are solid, things will go smoothly. If your plans are
faulty, then you might have a very long and hard project ahead of you!

OODA

Another similar process that can be used for planning is the OODA Cycle: Observation, Orientation,
Decision, and Action.

Problem Solving

There are seven basics steps to problem solving (Butler, Gillian, Hope, 1996):
 1. Identify the problem: You cannot solve something if you do not know what the problem is.
Ensure you have identified the real problem, not an effect of another problem. One method is
the "five why's." You ask why five times. By the time you get to the fifth why, you should have
found the ultimate cause of the problem.

2. Gather information: Investigate the problem and uncover any other hidden effects that the
problem may have caused.

3. Develop courses of action: Notice that courses is plural. For every problem there are usually
several possible courses of action. Identify as many as you can. There are always at least two: fix
it or don't fix it. Brainstorming with your team will normally generate the most and best courses
of action.

4. Analyze and compare courses of action: Rank the courses of action as to their effectiveness.
Some actions may fix other problems, while others may cause new problems.

5. Make a decision: Select the best course of action to take.

6. Make a plan: Use the planning tool covered in the first part of the section.

7. Implement the plan: Take the steps to put the plan into action.

The Problem with Problem Solving Techniques

Problem solving is simply a method of fighting fires; it normally does not move the organization forward
and it does not create iPads, Google, paper drinking cups made of recycled paper, or Halo 2s. Of course
during the actual building of these great products, problem solving is indeed required.

Yet, how many problems really require that you follow any of these methods? Some problems you
simply see and then solve — they do not require elaborate methodologies. I have even see some
problems solve themselves: you forget about it, go back to it, and it is gone. On the other hand, these
problem solving methodologies are sometimes too simple for complicated problems. The ability to solve
problems is normally based on a person's skill-set, rather than on a heuristic procedure.

That is, the real key to solving novel problems is often a deeper conceptual understanding of the target
domain. For example, neither of the above two problem solving techniques will help non-engineers
solve an engineering problem when it comes to building a bridge as they do not have the basic concepts.
And in turn, many problem solving techniques will not help an expert engineer when it comes to solving
a bridge building problem as the models are too simplistic in nature to be of much help.

In addition, these problem solving techniques can often be misleading to novices. Novices think that by
following the heuristic, they will arrive at the correct solution; however, difficult problems often require
a trial and error method. Novices will often stubbornly stick to a failing solution, whereas experts with
deep conceptual understandings will quickly see that a solution is not working and respond with a new
procedure. Their problem solving has everything to do with adaptability and deep knowledge structures
and nothing to do with the simple problem solving methods described above.

Thus, when using any problem solving technique, realize that they all have limitations and the two most
useful tools are brainstorming and learning all you can about the problem at hand in order to gain a
deeper conceptual understanding.

Leadership Models

Leadership models may be defined as guides that suggest specific leadership behaviors to use in a
specific environment or situation. In addition, they often use a graphic representation to show the
required leadership behavior.

Three models are discussed:

o Managerial Grid - focuses on a leader's concern for

task and concern for people to predict leadership
outcomes

o Four Framework Approach - uses four common

concepts to guide leadership behavior in specific
situations

o Situational Leadership - guides a leader on the type of

coaching required to develop a worker in a specific
situation

Leadership or Managerial Grid

Two large studies found that two types of leader behaviors

were important concepts in leadership skills. While the two
separate studies used different terms, they can be thought of
as concern for people and concern for tasks. The study at Ohio
State University identified these two behaviors as (Fleishman, 1953, Stogdill, 1974):

o Consideration - relationship behaviors, such as respect and trust (concern for people)

o Initiating Structure - task behaviors, such as organizing, scheduling, and seeing that work is
completed (concern for tasks)

The study at the University of Michigan identified these two behaviors as (Katz,, Maccoby, Morse, 1950;
Northouse, 2007):
 o Employee Orientation - approaching employees with a strong human relations orientation
(concern for people)

o Production Orientation - stressing the technical and production aspect of the job (concern for
tasks)

The researchers from Michigan State thought of these two behaviors as being on opposite ends of a
single continuum. Thus, a leader could be strong with one of these two behaviors, but would be weaker
in the opposite one.

The Ohio State studies viewed these two behaviors as distinct and independent. Thus, a leader could be
high or low in one or both behaviors. For example, in the U.S. Army, one of the most important rules is
to take care of your soldiers and complete the mission (task) — a leader should be good with both. Bad
leaders can do neither or do one, but not the other.

The notion that just two dimensions can describe leadership behavior has the attraction of simplicity.
However, humans are far from being two dimensional in their behaviors, hence, you have to learn more
than the model, but the model is a great place to start.

Two researchers, Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, (1985) created a short questionnaire that asked
leaders how they approached tasks and people. They also created a grid similar to the one shown below.
Depending on how a leader scored, would place him or her in one of four quadrants:
The four quadrants represent the level of strength of the two behaviors:

o Authoritarian — strong on tasks, weak on people skills

o Country Club — strong on people skills, weak on tasks

o Impoverished — weak on tasks, weak on people skills

o Team Leader — strong on tasks, strong on people skills

The goal to good leadership is to score at least a 6 on both task and people, which places the leader in
the Team Leader grid.

The four leadership behaviors are discussed in more detail below.

Team Leader (high task, high relationship) - These leaders lead by positive example and endeavor to
foster a team environment so that all team members can reach their highest potential, both as
individual team members and as a group of people who use cooperation and collaboration. They
encourage the team to reach goals as effectively as possible, while also working tirelessly to strengthen
the bonds among the various members. They normally lead some of the most productive teams.

Authoritarian Leader (high task, low relationship) - Leaders who get this rating are very much task
oriented and are hard on their workers (autocratic). There is little or no allowance for cooperation or
collaboration. Authoritarian leaders mostly display these characteristics: they are very strong on
schedules; they expect people to do what they are told without question or debate; when something
goes wrong they tend to focus on who is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what went wrong
and how to prevent it; they are intolerant of what they see as dissent (it may just be someone's
creativity), thus it is difficult for their subordinates to contribute or develop.

Country Club Leader (low task, high relationship) - These leaders predominantly use reward power to
maintain discipline and to encourage the team to accomplish its goals. Conversely, they are almost
incapable of employing the more punitive coercive and legitimate powers. This inability results from fear
that using such powers could jeopardize relationships with the other team members.

Impoverished Leader (low task, low relationship) - These leaders use a “delegate and disappear”
management style. Since they are not committed to either task accomplishment or maintenance, they
essentially allow their team to do whatever they wish and prefer to detach themselves from the team
process by allowing the team to suffer from a series of power struggles within the group.

The Sweet Spot on the Grid

Lead Primarily as Team Leader, but be Situational for the Other Three — The most desirable place for a
leader to be along the two axes at most times would be a 9 on task and a 9 on people — the Team
Leader. However, do not entirely dismiss the other three. Certain situations might call for one of the
other three to be used at times. For example, by playing the Impoverished Leader, you allow your team
to gain self-reliance. Be an Authoritarian Leader to instill a sense of discipline in an unmotivated worker.
Be an Impoverished Leader to allow others to teach others to lead. By carefully studying the situation
and the forces affecting it, you will know at what points along the axes you need to be in order to
achieve the desired result.

Four Framework Approach

In the Four Framework Approach, Bolman and Deal (1991) suggest that leaders display leadership
behaviors in one of four types of frameworks: Structural, Human Resource, Political, or Symbolic:
This model suggests that leaders operate in one of these four categories and there are times when one
approach is more appropriate and times when it would not be. That is, any style can be effective or
ineffective, depending upon the situation. Relying on only one of these approaches would be
inadequate, thus we should strive to be conscious of all four approaches, and not just rely on one or
two.

For example, during a major organization change, a Structural leadership style may be more effective
than a Symbolic leadership style; during a period when strong growth is needed, the Symbolic approach
may be more appropriate. We also need to understand ourselves as each of us tends to have a preferred
approach. We need to be conscious of these at all times and be aware of the limitations of just favoring
one approach.

The four leadership behaviors are:

Structural Framework - Structural Leaders focus on structure, strategy, environment, implementation,

experimentation, and adaptation.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a social architect whose leadership style is analysis and
design. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a petty tyrant whose leadership style is
petty details.

Human Resource Framework - Human Resource Leaders believe in people and communicate that belief;
they are visible and accessible; they empower, increase participation, support, share information, and
move decision making down into the organization.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a catalyst and servant whose leadership style is
support, advocating, and empowerment. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a
pushover, whose leadership style is abdication and fraud.
Political Framework - Political leaders clarify what they want and what they can get; assess the
distribution of power and interests, build linkages to other stakeholders, use persuasion first, but will
use negotiation and coercion if necessary.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is an advocate, whose leadership style is coalition and
team building. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a hustler, whose leadership style
is manipulation.

Symbolic Framework - Symbolic leaders view organizations as a stage or theater to play certain roles
and give impressions, use symbols to capture attention, frame experience by providing plausible
interpretations of experiences, and discover and communicate a vision.

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a prophet, whose leadership style is inspiration. While
in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a fanatic or fool, whose leadership style is smoke and
mirrors.

Situational Leadership

The situational leadership theory, developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard (1977), is based upon
two continuums — the required level of supervision and arousal required to coach workers in specific
situations so that they develop into great performers:

o Supervision (directing) - The employee's skill and knowledge level determines the level of
supervision (what the authors call Directing). On one end of the continuum is over-supervision,
while the other end is under-supervision. The goal is to hit the sweet-spot. Under-supervision
leads to miscommunication, lack of coordination, and the perception by subordinates that the
leader does not care. Over-supervision stifles initiative, breeds resentment, and lowers morale.
The goal is to provide the correct amount of supervision that is determined by the employee's
skill and knowledge level.

o Arousal (supporting) - The employee's skill and knowledge level determines the amount of
arousal or emotional support required (what the authors call Supporting). This emotional
support raises or lowers the task holder's arousal level (the inner-drive within our self-system). A
certain level of arousal motivates us toward change (learning). However, too much or too little
will over or under stimulate our behavior. In highly cognitive tasks a low arousal is required as
over-simulation may occur (and vice-versa). For more information, see arousal.

Ken Blanchard (1985) later refined the model and changed the term Situational Leadership Theory to
simply Situational Leadership. In his model, leadership is the act of providing the correct amount of
supervision (Directing Behavior) and arousal (Supportive Behavior), which in turn, produces the best
learning and developmental environment as shown in the model below:
Situational Leadership is basically is a four-step model, however, depending upon the situation, you can
jump into any step as required (depending on how well an employee can perform and is motivated to
perform) :

o Directing - Provide a lot of direction (learner does not know how to perform) and a small
amount of support (you do not want to overload learner - see arousal).

o Coaching - Decrease direction (so that learner can learn by trial and error) and increase support
(needs emotional support due to some failure).

o Supporting - Decrease direction even more (so that learner can become self-supporting) and
decrease support.

o Delegating - Provide direction and support on an as-needed basis.