PDU Assignment 3 4 Marks - Due Date: 20-01-2020

Q. 1. With the help of diagram, explain Current Interrupter Mechanism, Arc Quenching Mechanism and Over
heat protection of Miniature Circuit Breaker.

Principal of Operation of (Miniature) Circuit Breaker:

An MCB functions by interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuit once a fault is detected. In simple
terms MCB is a switch which automatically turns off when the current flowing through it passes the maximum allowable
limit. Generally MCB are designed to protect against over current and over temperature faults (over heating).
There are two contacts one is fixed and the other moveable. When the current exceeds the predefined limit a solenoid
forces the moveable contact to open (i.e., disconnect from the fixed contact) and the MCB turns off thereby stopping the
current to flow in the circuit. In order to restart the flow of current the MCB is manually turned on. This mechanism is
used to protect from the faults arising due to over current or over load.
To protect against fault arising due to over heating or increase in temperature a bi-metallic strip is used. MCBs are
generally designed to trip within 2.5 millisecond when an over current fault arises. In case of temperature rise or over
heating it may take 2 seconds to 2 minutes for the MCB to trip.

Current Interrupter Mechanism:

The heart of this mechanism is the solenoid which works on the principle of electro mechanism. As mentioned earlier one
end of the coil is connected to the moveable contact by means of a thick wire for current to pass through it in the ON state.
The coil of the solenoid is designed in such a way that when current passing through it is within the permissible value, the
magnetic force produced is not enough to pull the plunger. When the current exceeds the permissible value, the magnetic
force also increases and this magnetic force pulls the plunger inside towards the center of the coil.

Plunger Construction:
Arc Quenching:
The fixed contact is extended to the arc chute. This is done so as to transfer the arc to the interior of the breaker. The arc is
broken into smaller arc by the arc chute. These segmented smaller arc have a very small potential and hence get naturally
dissipated.
Over heat protection :
The MCB’s also provide protection against overheating. It uses a bimetallic strip for the same. The arrangement of the
bimetallic strip is shown in the image below. The bimetallic strip is made up of two metals with different temperature
coefficients. When the current flows through the bimetallic strip, it gets heated. The heating results in bending of the
bimetallic strip. The more is the heating, the more is the bending. The bimetallic strip is mechanically connected to the
tripping mechanism by means of a metal strip as shown in the image. When the bimetallic strip bends it forces the metal
strip to pull the plastic flap which in turn triggers the tripping mechanism after certain allowed temperature limit for which
the bimetallic strip is designed.

Q. 2. Explain the advantages of Electric Heating.

As compared to other methods of heating using gas, coal and fire etc., electric heating is far superior for the following
reasons:
1. Cleanliness: Since neither dust nor ashes are produced in electric heating, it is a clean system of heating requiring
minimum cost of cleaning. Moreover, the material to be heated does not get contaminated.
2. No Pollution: No flue gases are produced in electric heating.
3. Economical: Electric heating is economical because electric furnaces are cheaper in their initial cost as well as
maintenance cost since they do not require big space for installation or for storage of coal and wood.
4. Ease of Control: It is easy to control and regulate the temperature of an electric furnace with the help of manual or
automatic devices. Temperature can be controlled within ±5°C which is not possible in any other form of heating.
5. Higher Efficiency: Most of the heat produced is utilized for heating the material itself. Hence, electric heating has
higher efficiency as compared to other types of heating.
6. Better Working Conditions: Since electric heating produces no irritating noises and also the radiation losses are low, it
results in low ambient temperature. Hence, working with electric furnaces is convenient and cool.
7. Heating of Bad Conductors: Bad conductors of heat and electricity like wood, plastic and bakery items can be
uniformly and suitably heated with dielectric heating process.
8. Safety: Electric heating is quite safe because it can be easily and quickly controlled.
9. Lower Attention and Maintenance Cost: Electric heating equipment generally will not require much attention and
supervision and their maintenance cost is almost negligible.
10. Uniform Heating: Difficult to get an object uniformly heated using other sources of heat.

Q. 3. Compare the merits and demerits of underground and overhead systems.

Overhead versus Underground System
The distribution system can be overhead or underground. Below is the comparison between the two.
(i) Public safety. The underground system is safer than overhead system because all distribution wiring is placed
underground and there are little chances of any hazard.
(ii) Initial cost. The underground system is more expensive due to the high cost of trenching, conduits, cables, manholes
and other special equipment. The initial cost of an underground system may be five to ten times than that of an overhead
system.
(iii) Flexibility. The overhead system is much more flexible than the underground system. In the latter case, manholes,
duct lines etc., are permanently placed once installed and the load expansion can only be met by laying new lines.
However, on an overhead system, poles, wires, transformers etc., can be easily shifted to meet the changes in load
conditions.
(iv) Faults. The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as the cables are laid underground and are generally
provided with better insulation.
(v) Appearance. The general appearance of an underground system is better as all the distribution lines are invisible. This
factor is exerting considerable public pressure on electric supply companies to switch over to underground system.
(vi) Fault location and repairs. In general, there are little chances of faults in an underground system. However, if a fault
does occur, it is difficult to locate and repair on this system. On an overhead system, the conductors are visible and easily
accessible so that fault locations and repairs can be easily made.
(vii) Current carrying capacity and voltage drop. An overhead distribution conductor has a considerably higher current
carrying capacity than an underground cable conductor of the same material and cross-section. On the other hand,
underground cable conductor has much lower inductive reactance than that of an overhead conductor because of closer
spacing of conductors.
(viii) Useful life. The useful life of underground system is much longer than that of an overhead system. An overhead
system may have a useful life of 25 years, whereas an underground system may have a useful life of more than 50 years.
(ix) Maintenance cost. The maintenance cost of underground system is very low as compared with that of overhead
system because of less chances of faults and service interruptions from wind, ice, lightning as well as from traffic hazards.
(x) Interference with communication circuits. An overhead system causes electromagnetic interference with the telephone
lines. The power line currents are superimposed on speech currents, resulting in the potential of the communication
channel being raised to an undesirable level. However, there is no such interference with the underground system.

Q. 4. Determine the expression for the insulation resistance of a single-core cable.

Q. 5. Compare the following electricity tariffs:

i. Two-part tariff.
ii. Power factor tariff.
Two-part tariff:
When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand of the consumer and the units consumed,
it is called a two-part tariff.
In two-part tariff, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two components viz., fixed charges and
running charges. The fixed charges depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer while the running charges
depend upon the number of units consumed by the consumer. Thus, the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW
of maximum demand plus a certain amount per kWh of energy consumed i.e.,
Total charges = Rs (b × kW + c × kWh)
where, b = charge per kW of maximum demand, c = charge per kWh of energy consumed.
This type of tariff is mostly applicable to industrial consumers who have appreciable maximum demand.
Advantages:
(i) It is easily understood by the consumers.
(ii) It recovers the fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the consumer but are independent of the
units consumed.
Disadvantages:
(i) The consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he has consumed or not consumed the
electrical energy.
(ii) There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.

Power factor tariff:

The tariff in which power factor of the consumer’s load is taken into consideration is known as power factor tariff. In an
A.C. system, power factor plays an important role. A low power factor increases the rating of station equipment and line
losses. Therefore, a consumer having low power factor must be penalized.
The following are the important types of power factor tariff:
(i) kVA maximum demand tariff: It is a modified form of two-part tariff. In this case, the fixed charges are made on the
basis of maximum demand in kVA and not in kW. As kVA is inversely proportional to power factor, therefore, a
consumer having low power factor has to contribute more towards the fixed charges. This type of tariff has the advantage
that it encourages the consumers to operate their appliances and machinery at improved power factor.
(ii) Sliding scale tariff: This is also known as average power factor tariff. In this case, an average power factor, say 0·8
lagging, is taken as the reference. If the power factor of the consumer falls below this factor, suitable additional charges
are made. On the other hand, if the power factor is above the reference, a discount is allowed to the consumer.
(iii) kW and kVAR tariff: In this type, both active power (kW) and reactive power (kVAR) supplied are charged
separately. A consumer having low power factor will draw more reactive power and hence shall have to pay more
charges.

Q. 6. Explain with the help of diagram, Principal of Operation and Merits of Compact Fluorescent Lamps.
Compact Fluorescent Lamps:
A fluorescent lamp is a low pressure mercury-vapor gas-discharge lamp that uses fluorescence to produce visible light.
Typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent light is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs
with comparable light output, but less than that of a typical LED bulb.

Principle of operation:
Fluorescent lamps work by ionizing mercury vapor in a glass tube. This causes electrons in the gas to emit photons at UV
frequencies. The UV light is converted into standard visible light using a phosphor coating on the inside of the tube.
Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps because they require a ballast to regulate the current
through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost.
Since these contain mercury, many fluorescent lamps are classified as hazardous waste.
Merits:
The compact fluorescent lamps are more popular than incandescent bulbs because of their:
1. Low power consumption
2. Low running cost
3. Longer life
4. Smooth light
5. Low maintenance

Q. 7. Compare required Watts, wasted energy, life span and price of Incandescent lamp, Halogen Incandescent
lamp, Compact Fluorescent lamp and LED Bulb to produce equal Luminous Flux (lumens).

Q. 8. Explain Arc Heating and its types.

If a sufficiently high voltage is applied across an air-gap, the air becomes ionized and starts conducting in the form of a
continuous spark or arc thereby producing intense heat.
When electrodes are made of carbon/graphite, the temperature obtained is in the range of 3000°C-3500C. The high
voltage required for striking the arc can be obtained by using a step-up transformer fed from a variable A.C. supply Arc
Heating is divided into:
a. Direct Arc heating
b. Indirect Arc heating

Direct Arc heating:

Arc is formed between the two electrodes and the charge in such a way that electric current passes through the charge (of
the body to be heated). Commonly Carbon or Graphite electrodes are used. Heat is controlled by adjusting the ARC length
by moving the electrodes manually or automatically.
Example: Making of Alloy steels like stainless and high speed steel

Indirect Arc heating:

The arc is struck by short circuiting the electrodes manually or automatically for a moment and then, withdrawing them
apart. The heat from the arc and the hot refractory lining is transferred to the top layer of the charge by radiation. The heat
from the hot top layer of the charge is further transferred to other parts of the charge by conduction. Furnaces that use this
method of heating have to be rocked continuously in order to distribute heat uniformly by exposing different layers of the
charge to the heat of the arc.

Q. 9. Explain Induction Heating and its three Applications.

For heating an article by eddy-currents, it is placed inside a high frequency A.C. current-carrying coil. The alternating
magnetic field produced by the coil sets up eddy-currents in the article which, consequently, gets heated up. Such a coil is
known as heater coil and the material to be heated is known as charge or load.

Applications of Eddy-Current Heating:

1. Surface Hardening: The part whose surface is to be hardened by heat treatment is placed within the working coil
which is connected to an A.C. supply of high frequency. The depth up to which the surface is to be hardened can be
obtained by the proper selection of frequency of the coil current. After a few seconds, when surface has reached proper
temperature, A.C. supply is cut off and the part is dipped in water.
2. Annealing: Normally, annealing process takes long time resulting in scaling of the metal which is undesirable.
However, in eddy-current heating, time taken is much less so that no scale formation takes place.
3. Soldering: Eddy-current heating is economical for precise high-temperature soldering where silver, copper and their
alloys are used as solders.
Q. 10.
Steel cored aluminium. Due to low tensile strength, aluminium conductors produce greater sag. This prohibits their use
for larger spans and makes them unsuitable for long distance transmission. In order to increase the tensile strength, the
aluminium conductor is reinforced with a core of galvanised steel wires. The *composite conductor thus obtained is
known as steel cored aluminium and is abbreviated as A.C.S.R. (aluminium conductor steel reinforced). Steel-cored
aluminium conductor consists of central core of galvanised steel wires surrounded by a number of aluminium strands.
Usually, diameter of both steel and aluminium wires is the same. The X-section of the two metals are generally in the ratio
of 1 : 6 but can be modified to 1 : 4 in order to get more tensile strength for the conductor. Fig. 8.1 shows steel cored
aluminium conductor having one steel wire surrounded by six wires of aluminium. The result of this composite conductor
is that steel core takes greater percentage of mechanical strength while aluminium strands carry the bulk of current. The
steel cored aluminium conductors have the following advantages :
(i) The reinforcement with steel increases the tensile strength but at the same time keeps the composite conductor light.
Therefore, steel cored aluminium conductors will produce smaller sag and hence longer spans can be used.
(ii) Due to smaller sag with steel cored aluminium conductors, towers of smaller heights can be used.

Q. 11.
Corona
When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing is large as compared to their
diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is
low. However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical disruptive voltage, the conductors are
surrounded by a faint violet glow called corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone, power loss and radio interference.
The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope becomes, and greater are the sound, the
power loss and the radio noise. If the applied voltage is increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will occur between the
conductors due to the breakdown of air insulation.
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead transmission line is known as
corona.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage overhead line, a balance should be
struck between the advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages
(i) Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual diameter of the
conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electrostatic stresses between the conductors.
(ii) Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.

Disadvantages
(i) Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the line.
(ii) Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical action.
(iii) The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal voltage drop occurs in the
line. This may cause inductive interference with neighbouring communication lines.

Q. 12.
Methods of Reducing Corona Effect
It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a working voltage of 33 kV or above. Therefore, careful design
should be made to avoid corona on the sub-stations or bus-bars rated for 33 kV and higher voltages otherwise highly
ionised air may cause flash-over in the insulators or between the phases, causing considerable damage to the equipment.
The corona effects can be reduced by the following methods :
(i) By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona
occurs is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced. This is one of the
reasons that ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in transmission
lines.
(ii) By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the spacing between conductors, the voltage
at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be eliminated. However,
spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g., bigger
cross arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.

Q. 13.
Sag in Overhead Lines
While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe tension. If the conductors are too much
stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor material, the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe value and in
certain cases the conductor may break due to excessive tension. In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are
not fully stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag.
The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on the conductor is called sag.
Fig. 8.23. (i) shows a conductor suspended between two equilevel supports A and B. The conductor is not fully stretched
but is allowed to have a dip. The lowest point on the conductor is O and the sag is S.

Conductor sag and tension. This is an important consideration in the mechanical design of overhead lines. The
conductor sag should be kept to a minimum in order to reduce the conductor material required and to avoid extra pole
height for sufficient clearance above ground level. It is also desirable that tension in the conductor should be low to avoid
the mechanical failure of conductor and to permit the use of less strong supports. However, low conductor tension and
minimum sag are not possible. It is because low sag means a tight wire and high tension, whereas a low tension means a
loose wire and increased sag. Therefore, in actual practice, a compromise in made between the two.

Q. 14.
Q. 15.

Q. 16.
Q. 17.

Q. 18.
Q. 19.
Q. 20. A single phase distributor one km long has resistance and reactance per conductor of 0·1 Ω and 0·15 Ω
respectively. At the far end, the voltage VB = 200 V and the current is 100A at a p.f. of 0·8 lagging. At the mid-point M
of the distributor, a current of 100 A is tapped at a p.f. of 0·6 lagging with reference to the voltage VM at the mid-point.
Calculate :
(i) voltage at mid-point
(ii) sending end voltage VA
(iii) phase angle between VA and VB
Q. 21. A 3-phase, 4-wire system supplies power at 400 V and lighting at 230 V. If the lamps in use require 70A, 84A and
33A current in each of the three lines, calculate:
i. the current in the neutral wire.
If a 3-phase motor is now started, taking 200 A from the lines at a p.f. of 0·2 lagging, calculate:
ii. the total current in each line and the neutral wire.
iii. the total power supplied to the lamps and the motor.
Q. 22. A lamp giving out 1200 lm in all directions is suspended 8 m above the working plane. Determine the
illumination at a point on the working plane 6 m away from the foot of the lamp.

Q. 23. A factory has a maximum load of 240 kW at 0·8 p.f. lagging with an annual consumption of 50,000 units. The
tariff is Rs 50 per kVA of maximum demand plus Rs 0.10 per unit.
i. Determine the flat rate of energy consumption.
ii. Determine the annual saving if p. f. is raised to unity.

Q. 24. Air at 300°C flows over a flat plate of dimensions 0.50m by 0.25m. If the convection heat transfer coefficient is
250W/m2K. Determine the heat transfer rate from the air to one side of the plate when the plate is maintained at 40°C.